Turkey

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This article is about the country. For the bird, see Turkey (bird). For other uses,
see Turkey (disambiguation).
"Türkiye" and "Turkiye" redirect here. For other uses, see Turkiye
(disambiguation).
A request that this article title be changed to Türkiye is under
discussion. Please do not move this article until the discussion is
closed.

Republic of Türkiye
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (Turkish)

Flag

Anthem: 
İstiklal Marşı (Turkish)
"The Independence March"

1:17

Ankara
Capital
39°N 35°ECoordinates:  39°
N 35°E

Largest city Istanbul

 41°1′N 28°57′E

Official languages Turkish[1][2]

Spoken languages[3]  Predominantly Turkish

Other languages show

List

Ethnic groups   70–75% Turks
(2016) [4]
 19% Kurds
 6–11% Others

Religion See religion in Turkey

Demonym(s)
 Turkish
 Turk

Government Unitary presidential republic

• President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan

• Vice President Fuat Oktay
• Assembly Speaker Mustafa Şentop

Legislature Grand National Assembly

Establishment
• Ottoman Empire c. 1299
• War of Independence 19 May 1919
• Government of the Grand 23 April 1920
National Assembly
• Treaty of Lausanne 24 July 1923
• Republic declared 29 October 1923
• Current constitution 9 November 1982[5]

Area
• Total 783,356 km2 (302,455 sq mi) (36th)
• Water (%) 2.03 (as of 2015)[6]

Population
• 2022 estimate 84,680,273[7] (18th)
• Density 110[8]/km2 (284.9/sq mi) (107th)

GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
• Total  $3.32 trillion[9] (11th)

• Per capita  $38,759[9] (46th)

GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
 • Total  $853 billion[9] (20th)

• Per capita  $9,961[9] (79th)

Gini (2019)  41.9[10]
medium

HDI (2021)  0.838[11]
very high · 48th

Currency Turkish lira (₺) (TRY)

Time zone UTC+3 (TRT)

Date format dd.mm.yyyy (CE)

Driving side right

Calling code +90

ISO 3166 code TR

Internet TLD .tr

Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye [ˈtyɾcije]), officially the Republic of

Türkiye (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti [ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti] ( listen)), is
a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western
Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in Southeast Europe. It
shares borders with the Black Sea to the north; Georgia to the
northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east; Iraq to the
southeast; Syria and the Mediterranean Sea to the south; the Aegean Sea to
the west; and Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest. Cyprus is located off the
south coast. Turks form the vast majority of the nation's population
and Kurds are the largest minority.[4] Ankara is Turkey's capital, while Istanbul is
its largest city and financial centre.
One of the world's earliest permanently settled regions, present-day Turkey was
home to important Neolithic sites like Göbekli Tepe, and was inhabited
by ancient civilisations including the Hattians, Hittites, Anatolian
peoples, Mycenaean Greeks, Persians and others.[12][13][14][15] Following the
conquests of Alexander the Great which started the Hellenistic period, most of
the ancient regions in modern Turkey were culturally Hellenised, which
continued during the Byzantine era.[13][16] The Seljuk Turks began migrating in the
11th century, and the Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the Mongol
invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into small Turkish principalities.
[17]
 Beginning in the late 13th century, the Ottomans united the principalities and
conquered the Balkans, and the Turkification of Anatolia increased during
the Ottoman period. After Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (Istanbul) in
1453, Ottoman expansion continued under Selim I. During the reign
of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire became a global power.[12][18]
[19]
 From the late 18th century onwards, the empire's power declined with a
gradual loss of territories.[20] Mahmud II started a period of modernisation in the
early 19th century.[21] The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 restricted the authority
of the Sultan and restored the Ottoman Parliament after a 30-year suspension,
ushering the empire into a multi-party period.[22][23] The 1913 coup d'état put the
country under the control of the Three Pashas, who facilitated the
Empire's entry into World War I as part of the Central Powers in 1914. During
the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against
its Armenian, Greek and Assyrian subjects.[a][26] After its defeat in the war, the
Ottoman Empire was partitioned.[27]
The Turkish War of Independence against the occupying Allied Powers resulted
in the abolition of the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, the signing of the Treaty
of Lausanne (which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres) on 24 July 1923 and the
proclamation of the Republic on 29 October 1923. With the reforms initiated by
the country's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey became
a secular, unitary and parliamentary republic. Turkey played a prominent role in
the Korean War and joined NATO in 1952. The country endured several
military coups in the latter half of the 20th century. The economy was liberalised
in the 1980s, leading to stronger economic growth and political stability. The
parliamentary republic was replaced with a presidential system by referendum
in 2017.
Turkey is a regional power and a newly industrialized country,[28] with a
geopolitically strategic location.[29] Its economy, which is classified among
the emerging and growth-leading economies, is the twentieth-largest in the
world by nominal GDP, and the eleventh-largest by PPP. In addition to being an
early member of NATO, Turkey is a charter member of the United Nations,
the IMF, and the World Bank, and a founding member of
the OECD, OSCE, BSEC, OIC, OTS and G20. After becoming one of the early
members of the Council of Europe in 1950, Turkey became an associate
member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995, and
started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005. Turkey has a
rich cultural legacy shaped by centuries of history and the influence of the
various peoples that have inhabited its territory over several millennia; it is
home to 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and is among the most
visited countries in the world.

Contents

 1Name
o 1.1Official name change
 2History
o 2.1Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern
Thrace
o 2.2Antiquity
o 2.3Early Christian and Roman period
o 2.4Byzantine period
o 2.5Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire
o 2.6Republic of Turkey
 3Administrative divisions
 4Government and politics
o 4.1Parties and elections
 o 4.2Law
o 4.3Foreign relations
o 4.4Military
o 4.5Human rights
o 4.6LGBT rights
 5Geography
o 5.1Biodiversity
o 5.2Climate
 6Economy
o 6.1Tourism
o 6.2Infrastructure
o 6.3Science and technology
 7Demographics
o 7.1Immigration
o 7.2Languages
o 7.3Religion
o 7.4Education
o 7.5Health
 8Culture
o 8.1Visual arts
o 8.2Literature and theatre
o 8.3Music and dance
o 8.4Architecture
o 8.5Cuisine
o 8.6Sports
o 8.7Media and cinema
 9See also
 10Notes
 11References
 12Further reading
 13External links

Name
Main article: Name of Turkey
The English name of Turkey (from Medieval Latin Turchia/Turquia[30]) means
"land of the Turks". Middle English usage of Turkye is evidenced in an early
work by Chaucer called The Book of the Duchess (c. 1369). The phrase land of
Torke is used in the 15th-century Digby Mysteries. Later usages can be found in
the Dunbar poems, the 16th century Manipulus Vocabulorum (Turkie)
and Francis Bacon's Sylva Sylvarum (Turky). The modern spelling Turkey dates
back to at least 1719.[31]
The name of Turkey appeared in the Western sources after the crusades.[32] In
the 14th-century Arab sources, turkiyya is usually contrasted
with turkmaniyya (Turkomania), probably to be understood as Oghuz in a broad
sense.[33] Ibn Battuta, in the 1330s introduces the region as barr al-Turkiyya al-
ma'ruf bi-bilad al-Rum ("the Turkish land known as the lands of Rum"). [34] The
disintegration of the country after World War I revived Turkish nationalism, and
the Türkler için Türkiye ("Turkey for the Turks") sentiment rose up. With
the Treaty of Alexandropol signed by the Government of the Grand National
Assembly with Armenia, the name of Türkiye entered international documents
for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan, the expression Devlet-i
Aliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman
Empire's name.[32]
Official name change
In January 2020, the Turkish Exporters' Assembly (TİM) — the umbrella
organisation of Turkish exports — announced that it would use "Made in
Türkiye" on all its labels in a bid to standardise branding and the identity of
Turkish businesses on the international stage, using the term 'Türkiye' across all
languages around the world.[35]
In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan issued a circular calling
for exports to be labelled "Made in Türkiye". The circular also stated that in
relation to other governmental communications "necessary sensitivity will be
shown on the use of the phrase 'Türkiye' instead of phrases such as 'Turkey',
'Türkei', 'Turquie' etc."[36][37] The reason given in the circular for
preferring Türkiye was that it "represents and expresses the culture, civilisation,
and values of the Turkish nation in the best way". According to Turkish state
broadcaster TRT World, it was also to avoid a pejorative association
with turkey, the bird.[35] It was reported in January 2022 that the government
planned to register Türkiye with the United Nations.[38] Minister of Foreign
Affairs Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu sent letters to the UN and other international
organisations on 31 May 2022 requesting that they use Türkiye. The UN agreed
and implemented the request immediately.[39][40]

History
Main article: History of Turkey
See also: History of Anatolia and History of Thrace
Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace
Main articles: Prehistory of Anatolia and Prehistory of Southeastern Europe

Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those of Stonehenge,
England, by over seven millennia.[41]

The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the

oldest permanently settled regions in the world. Various ancient
Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic until
the Hellenistic period.[13] Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages,
a branch of the larger Indo-European language family:[42] and, given the antiquity
of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have
proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European
languages radiated.[43] The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has
also been inhabited since at least forty thousand years ago, and is known to
have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC. [14] The spread of
agriculture from the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with
the migration of early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago, and was not
just a cultural exchange.[44] Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived a significant
portion of their ancestry from the Anatolian hunter-gatherers.[45]

The Sphinx Gate of Hattusa, the capital of the Hittites.

Zeus Temple in ancient city of Aizanoi belongs to Phrygia.

Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a
temple dating to circa 10,000 BC,[41] while Çatalhöyük is a very large Neolithic
and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from
approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC. It is the largest and best-preserved
Neolithic site found to date and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[46] Nevalı
Çori was an early Neolithic settlement on the middle Euphrates,
in Şanlıurfa. Urfa Man statue is dated c. 9000 BC to the period of the Pre-
Pottery Neolithic, and is considered as "the oldest naturalistic life-sized
sculpture of a human".[47] It is considered as contemporaneous with the sites
of Göbekli Tepe. The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and
continued into the Iron Age.[48]
The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians,
non-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia,
respectively, as early as c. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia
and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians c. 2000–1700 BC. The first
major empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the
13th century BC. The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern
Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC, [49] although they have
remained a minority in the region, namely in Hakkari, Şırnak and Mardin.[50]
Urartu re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful
northern rival of Assyria.[51] Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180
BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia
until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC.
  Starting from 714 BC, Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC,
[52]

 when it was conquered by the Medes. The most powerful of Phrygia's

[53]

successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.

Sardis was an ancient city at the location of modern Sart in Western Turkey.
The city served as the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia. As one of
the seven churches of Asia, it was addressed in the Book of Revelation in
the New Testament,[54] The Lydian Lion coins were made of electrum, a naturally
occurring alloy of gold and silver but of variable precious metal value. During
the reign of King Croesus that the metallurgists of Sardis discovered the secret
of separating gold from silver, thereby producing both metals of a purity never
known before.[55]
Antiquity
Main articles: Classical Anatolia and Hellenistic period
Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled
by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded by
these colonists, such as Didyma, Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna (now İzmir)
and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by Greek colonists
from Megara in 657 BC.[56] Some of the most prominent pre-Socratic
philosophers lived in the city of Miletus. Thales of Miletus (c. 624 BC – c. 546
BC) considered as first philosopher in the Greek tradition. [57][58] and he is
otherwise historically recognized as the first individual known to have
entertained and engaged in scientific philosophy.[59][60] In Miletus, he is followed
by two other significant pre-Socratic philosophers Anaximander (c. 610 BC – c.
546 BC) and Anaximenes (c. 585 BC – c. 525 BC) (known collectively, to
modern scholars, as the Milesian school).
For several centuries prior to the great Persian invasion of Greece, perhaps the
very greatest and wealthiest city of the Greek world was Miletus, which founded
more colonies than any other Greek city,[61] particularly in the Black Sea
region. Diogenes the Cynic was one of the founders of Cynic philosophy born in
one of the Ionian colonies Sinope on the Black Sea coast of Anatolia in 412.[62]

The Sebasteion of the city Aphrodisias. The city was named after Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of
beauty. In 2017, it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list.[63]
The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.[64] The Temple of Artemis in
Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World.[65]

Trojan War took place in the ancient city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks)

after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The
war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been
narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably Homer's Iliad.
Whether there is any historical reality behind the Trojan War remains an open
question. Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War are derived from
a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th century BC, often
preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes, 1194–1184 BC, which roughly
correspond to archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VII,
[66]
 and the Late Bronze Age collapse.
The first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of
the Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of what is now eastern
Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC. In Northwest Turkey, the most
significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians, founded by Teres I.[67]
All of modern-day Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid
Empire during the 6th century BC.[68] The Greco-Persian Wars started when the
Greek city states on the coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499
BC.
Artemisia I of Caria was a queen of the ancient Greek city-state
of Halicarnassus and she fought as an ally of Xerxes I, King of Persia against
the independent Greek city states during the second Persian invasion of
Greece in 480 BC.[69][70]
The territory of Turkey later fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC,[71] which led to
increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area.[13] Following
Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number
of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman
Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[72] The process of Hellenization that began
with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early
centuries of the Christian Era, the local Anatolian languages and cultures had
become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture.
[16][73]
 From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century AD, large parts of modern-
day Turkey were contested between the Romans and
neighbouring Parthians through the frequent Roman-Parthian Wars.
Galatia was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia inhabited by
the Celts. The terms "Galatians" came to be used by the Greeks for the three
Celtic peoples of Anatolia: the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii.[74]
[75]
 By the 1st century BC the Celts had become so Hellenized that some Greek
writers called them Hellenogalatai (Ἑλληνογαλάται).[76] Galatia was named after
the Gauls from Thrace (cf. Tylis), who settled here and became a small
transient foreign tribe in the 3rd century BC, following the supposed Gallic
invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC.
Kingdom of Pontus was a Hellenistic kingdom, centered in the historical region
of Pontus and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin,[77][78][79][80] which
may have been directly related to Darius the Great and the Achaemenid
dynasty.[81][80] The kingdom was proclaimed by Mithridates I in 281 BC and lasted
until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63 BC. The Kingdom of Pontus
reached its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered
Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos.
After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic Wars, Pontus was defeated.
All territories corresponding to modern Turkey eventually fell into Roman
Empire’s control.
Early Christian and Roman period
Further information: Christianity in Turkey

The Byzantine Empire in 555 under Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent since the fall of the
Western Roman Empire.

Originally a church, then a mosque, later a museum, and now a mosque again, the Hagia
Sophia in Istanbul was built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in 532–537 AD.[82]

According to the Acts of Apostles,[83] Antioch (now Antakya), a city in southern

Turkey, is where followers of Jesus were first called "Christians" and became
very quickly an important center of Christianity.[84][85] Paul the Apostle traveled
to Ephesus and stayed there for almost three years, probably working there as
a tentmaker.[86] He is claimed to have performed numerous miracles, healing
people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary
activity in other regions.[87] Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local
silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city.[87]
In the year 123, Emperor Hadrian traveled to Anatolia. Numerous monuments
were erected for his arrival and he met his lover Antinous from Bithynia.
[88]
 Hadrian focused on the Greek revival and built several temples and improved
the cities. Cyzicus, Pergamon, Smyrna, Ephesus and Sardes were promoted as
regional centres for the Imperial cult (neocoros) during this period.[89]
Byzantine period
Main article: Byzantine Anatolia
Further information: Byzantine Empire
In 324 AD, Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman
Empire, renaming it New Rome. Under Constantine, Christianity did not become
the exclusive religion of the state, but enjoyed imperial preference since he
supported it with generous privileges. Following the death of Theodosius I in
395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons,
the city, which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople, became
the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This empire, which would later be
branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of
present-day Turkey until the Late Middle Ages;[90] although the eastern regions
remained firmly in Sasanian hands until the first half of the 7th century. The
frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, a continuation of the centuries-long Roman-
Persian Wars, took place in various parts of present-day Turkey between the
4th and 7th centuries. Several ecumenical councils of the early Church were
held in cities located in present-day Turkey, including the First Council of
Nicaea (Iznik) in 325, the First Council of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 381,
the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon (Kadıköy) in 451.
[91]
 During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most
powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe. [92]
Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Turkic migration, Seljuk Empire, Sultanate of Rum,
and Ottoman Empire
The House of Seljuk originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who
resided on the periphery of the Muslim world, in the Yabgu Khaganate of the
Oğuz confederacy, to the north of the Caspian and Aral Seas, in the 9th
century.[93] In the 10th century, the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral
homeland into Persia, which became the administrative core of the Great Seljuk
Empire, after its foundation by Tughril.[94]

The Great Seljuk Empire in 1092, upon the death of Malik Shah I[95]

In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating
into medieval Armenia and the eastern regions of Anatolia. In 1071, the Seljuks
defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, starting
the Turkification process in the area; the Turkish language and Islam were
introduced to Anatolia, gradually spreading throughout the region. The slow
transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking Anatolia to a
predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway. The Mevlevi
Order of dervishes, which was established in Konya during the 13th century
by Sufi poet Celaleddin Rumi, played a significant role in the Islamization of the
diverse people of Anatolia who had previously been Hellenized.[96][97] Thus,
alongside the Turkification of the territory, the culturally Persianized Seljuks set
the basis for a Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia,[98] which their eventual
successors, the Ottomans, would take over.[99][100] In 1243, the Seljuk armies were
defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ, causing the Seljuk Empire's
power to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish
principalities governed by Osman I would evolve over the next 200 years into
the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine
Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, in 1453: their commander
thenceforth being known as Mehmed the Conqueror.

Topkapı and Dolmabahçe palaces were the primary residences of

the Ottoman Sultans in Istanbul between 1465 to 1856[101] and 1856 to 1922,[102] respectively.

In 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the empire's

southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid
dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule
into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red Sea.
Subsequently, a contest started between the Ottoman and Portuguese empires
to become the dominant sea power in the Indian Ocean, with a number of naval
battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese
presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat to the Ottoman
monopoly over the ancient trade routes between East Asia and Western
Europe. Despite the increasingly prominent European presence, the Ottoman
Empire's trade with the east continued to flourish until the second half of the
18th century.[103]
The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th
centuries, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, who
personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education,
taxation and criminal law.
The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady
advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of
the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[104]
The second Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 (the first siege was in 1529) initiated the Great Turkish
War (1683–1699) between the Ottomans and the Holy League.

The Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues, such as those

in 1538, 1571, 1684 and 1717 (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain,
the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, the Knights of St. John,
the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy), for the
control of the Mediterranean Sea.
In the east, the Ottomans were often at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts
stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and
18th centuries.[105] The Ottoman wars with Persia continued as
the Zand, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties succeeded the Safavids in Iran, until
the first half of the 19th century.
Even further east, there was an extension of the Habsburg-Ottoman conflict, in
that the Ottomans also had to send soldiers to their farthest and easternmost
vassal and territory, the Aceh Sultanate[106][107] in Southeast Asia, to defend it from
European colonizers as well as the Latino invaders who had crossed from Latin
America and had Christianized the formerly Muslim-dominated Philippines.[108]
From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire also fought
twelve wars with the Russian Tsardom and Empire. These were initially about
Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and eastern
Europe; but starting from the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), they became
more about the survival of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun to lose its
strategic territories on the northern Black Sea coast to the advancing Russians.
From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began
to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II just before his death in
1839, aimed to modernise the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had
been made in Western Europe. The efforts of Midhat Pasha during the late
Tanzimat era led the Ottoman constitutional movement of 1876, which
introduced the First Constitutional Era, but these efforts proved to be
inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the dissolution of the empire.[109]
As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially
after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875[110] which led to uprisings
in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878);
many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia, [111][112] along
with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. According
to some estimates, 800,000 Muslim Circassians died during the Circassian
genocide in the territory of present-day Russia[undue weight?  –  discuss], the survivors seek
refugee in Ottoman Empire. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in
nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased
ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian
massacres of Armenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.[113]

 Central Power Monarchs on a WWI Postcard:

 Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany;
 Kaiser and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary;
 Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire;
 Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria

The loss of Rumelia (Ottoman territories in Europe) with the First Balkan

War (1912–1913) was followed by the arrival of millions of Muslim refugees
(muhacir) to Istanbul and Anatolia.[114] Historically, the Rumelia
Eyalet and Anatolia Eyalet had formed the administrative core of the Ottoman
Empire, with their governors titled Beylerbeyi participating in the Sultan's Divan,
so the loss of all Balkan provinces beyond the Midye-Enez border line
according to the London Conference of 1912–13 and the Treaty of London
(1913) was a major shock for the Ottoman society and led to the 1913 Ottoman
coup d'état. In the Second Balkan War (1913) the Ottomans managed to
recover their former capital Edirne (Adrianople) and its surrounding areas
in East Thrace, which was formalised with the Treaty of Constantinople (1913).
The 1913 coup d'état effectively put the country under the control of the Three
Pashas, making sultans Mehmed V and Mehmed VI largely symbolic
figureheads with no real political power.
Armenian civilians being deported during the Armenian genocide

The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central

Powers and was ultimately defeated. The Ottomans successfully defended
the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and achieved
initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the Mesopotamian
campaign, such as the Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the Arab Revolt (1916–
1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In the Caucasus
campaign, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning,
especially after the Battle of Sarikamish (1914–1915). Russian forces advanced
into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the major cities there until retreating
from World War I with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the Russian
Revolution (1917). During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects
were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian genocide. As a result, an
estimated 600,000[115] to more than 1 million,[115] or up to 1.5 million[116][117]
[118]
 Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to
acknowledge the events as genocide and states that Armenians were
only "relocated" from the eastern war zone.[119] Genocidal campaigns were also
committed against the empire's other minority groups such as
the Assyrians and Greeks.[120][121][122] The share of non-Muslims in area within
Turkey's current borders declined from 20-22% in 1914, or about 3.3.–3.6
million people, to around 3% in 1927. [123] Following the Armistice of Mudros on
30 October 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman
state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.[124]
Republic of Turkey
Main article: History of the Republic of Turkey

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and first President of the Turkish Republic, with the Liberal
Republican Party leader Fethi Okyar (right) and Okyar's daughter in Yalova, 13 August 1930.

The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by the Allies in the aftermath

of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish National Movement.
Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had
distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of
Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of
the Treaty of Sèvres (1920).[125]
By 18 September 1922 the Greek, Armenian and French armies had been
expelled,[126] and the Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had
declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920,
started to formalise the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new
Republican political system. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in
Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical
Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the
Treaty of Sèvres,[124][125] led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of
the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the Ottoman
Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in
Ankara, the country's new capital.[127] The Lausanne Convention stipulated
a population exchange between Greece and Turkey, whereby 1.1 million
Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred
from Greece to Turkey.[128]

Eighteen female deputies joined the Turkish Parliament with the 1935 general elections. Turkish

women gained the right to vote and to hold elected office as a mark of the far-reaching social
changes initiated by Atatürk.[129]

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President and subsequently

introduced many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the old religion-
based and multi-communal Ottoman constitutional monarchy into a
Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under
a secular constitution.[130] With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish
Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk"
(Father Turk).[125]
The Montreux Convention (1936) restored Turkey's control over the Turkish
Straits, including the right to militarise the coastlines of
the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits and the Sea of Marmara, and to block
maritime traffic in wartime.[131]
Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923,
some Kurdish and Zaza tribes, which were feudal (manorial) communities led
by chieftains (agha) during the Ottoman period, became discontent about
certain aspects of Atatürk's reforms aiming to modernise the country, such
as secularism (the Sheikh Said rebellion, 1925)[132] and land reform (the Dersim
rebellion, 1937–1938),[133] and staged armed revolts that were put down with
military operations.
İsmet İnönü became Turkey's second President following Atatürk's death on 10
November 1938. On 29 June 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favour of
joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained neutral during most of World
War II, but entered the closing stages of the war on the side of the Allies on 23
February 1945. On 26 June 1945, Turkey became a charter member of the
United Nations.[134] In the following year, the one-party period in Turkey came to
an end, with the first multi-party elections in 1946. In 1950 Turkey became a
member of the Council of Europe.

Roosevelt, İnönü and Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference, 1943.

The Democrat Party established by Celâl Bayar won

the 1950, 1954 and 1957 general elections and stayed in power for a decade,
with Adnan Menderes as the Prime Minister and Bayar as the President. After
fighting as part of the United Nations forces in the Korean War, Turkey
joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into
the Mediterranean. Turkey subsequently became a founding member of
the OECD in 1961, and an associate member of the EEC in 1963.[135]
The country's tumultuous transition to multi-party democracy was interrupted by
military coups d'état in 1960 and 1980, as well as by military memorandums
in 1971 and 1997.[136][137] Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the
prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories
were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal. Tansu Çiller became
the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993.
Following a decade of Cypriot intercommunal violence and the coup in Cyprus
on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary organisation, which
overthrew President Makarios and installed the pro-Enosis (union with
Greece) Nikos Sampson as dictator, Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974 by
unilaterally exercising Article IV in the Treaty of Guarantee (1960), but without
restoring the status quo ante at the end of the military operation.[138] In 1983
the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is recognised only by Turkey,
was established.[139] The Annan Plan for reunifying the island was supported by
the majority of Turkish Cypriots, but rejected by the majority of Greek Cypriots,
in separate referendums in 2004. However, negotiations for solving the Cyprus
dispute are still ongoing between Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot political
leaders.[140]
The conflict between Turkey and the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)
(designated a terrorist organisation by Turkey, the United States,[141] and
the European Union[142]) has been active since 1984, primarily in the southeast of
the country. More than 40,000 people have died as a result of the conflict. [143][144]
  In 1999 PKK's founder Abdullah Öcalan was arrested and sentenced
[145]

for terrorism[141][142] and treason charges.[146][147] In the past, various Kurdish groups

have unsuccessfully sought separation from Turkey to create an
independent Kurdish state, while others have more recently pursued
provincial autonomy and greater political and cultural rights for Kurds in Turkey.
In the 21st century some reforms have taken place to improve the cultural rights
of ethnic minorities in Turkey, such as the establishment of TRT Kurdî, TRT
Arabi and TRT Avaz by the TRT.

Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Ankara, is visited by large crowds every year
during national holidays, such as Republic Day on 29 October.

Since the liberalisation of the Turkish economy in the 1980s, the country has
enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability. [148] Turkey
applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the EU Customs Union in
1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[149]
[150]
 In a non-binding vote on 13 March 2019, the European Parliament called on
the EU governments to suspend EU accession talks with Turkey, citing
violations of human rights and the rule of law; but the negotiations, effectively
on hold since 2018, remain active as of 2020.[151]
In 2013, widespread protests erupted in many Turkish provinces, sparked by a
plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government
dissent.[152] In August 2014, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan won
Turkey's first direct presidential election.[153] On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful
coup attempt tried to oust the government.[154] As a reaction to the failed coup
d'état, the government carried out mass purges,[155][156] jailed journalists, and shut
down media outlets.[157] In April 2017, the constitutional amendments, which
significantly increased the powers of Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan,
were narrowly accepted in the constitutional referendum.[158] In June 2018,
President Erdogan was re-elected for a new five-year term in the first round of
the presidential election. His AK Party (AKP) secured a majority in the
separate parliamentary election.[159]

Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Turkey
Further information: Regions of Turkey and NUTS of Turkey
Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one
of the most important factors shaping the Turkish public administration. When
three powers (executive, legislative and judiciary) are taken into account as the
main functions of the state, local administrations have little power. Turkey does
not have a federal system, and the provinces are subordinate to the central
government in Ankara. Local administrations were established to provide
services in place and the government is represented by the province governors
(vali) and town governors (kaymakam). Other senior public officials are also
appointed by the central government instead of the mayors (belediye başkanı)
or elected by constituents.[160] Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies
(belediye meclisi) for decision-making on municipal issues.
Within this unitary framework, Turkey is subdivided into
81 provinces (il or vilayet) for administrative purposes. Each province is divided
into districts (ilçe), for a total of 973 districts.[161] Turkey is also subdivided into
7 regions (bölge) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and
economic purposes; this does not refer to an administrative division.

Ankara
Kırklareli
Edirne
Tekirdağ
Çanakkale
Balıkesir
Bursa
Yalova
Istanbul
Kocaeli
Sakarya
Düzce
Zonguldak
Bolu
Bilecik
Eskişehir
Kütahya
Manisa
İzmir
Aydın
Muğla
Denizli
Burdur
Uşak
Afyonkarahisar
Isparta
Antalya
Konya
Mersin
Karaman
Aksaray
Kırşehir
Kırıkkale
 Çankırı
Karabük
Bartın
Kastamonu
Sinop
Çorum
Yozgat
Nevşehir
Niğde
Adana
Hatay
Osmaniye
K. Maraş
Kayseri
Sivas
Tokat
Amasya
Samsun
Ordu
Giresun
Erzincan
Malatya
Gaziantep
Kilis
Şanlıurfa
Adıyaman
Gümüşhane
Trabzon
Rize
Bayburt
Erzurum
Artvin
Ardahan
Kars
Ağrı
Iğdır
Tunceli
Elazığ
Diyarbakır
Mardin
Batman
Siirt
Şırnak
Bitlis
Bingöl
Muş
Van
Hakkâri

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Turkey, Politics of Turkey, and Constitution of
Turkey

The Grand National Assembly,

the legislative chamber in Ankara
 The Presidential Complex, residence and workplace of the President of Turkey

The Court of Cassation is Turkey's supreme court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal

and civil justice.

Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system.[162] The current

constitution was approved by referendum in 1982, which determines the
government's structure, lays forth the ideals and standards of the state's
conduct, and sets out the state's responsibility to its citizens. Furthermore, the
constitution specifies the people's rights and obligations, as well as principles
for the delegation and exercise of sovereignty that belongs to the people of
Turkey.[163]
In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government:
national, provincial, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split
between municipal governments and districts, in which executive and legislative
officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. Turkey is
subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. Each province is
divided into districts, for a total of 973 districts.
The government, regulated by a system of separation of powers as defined by
the constitution of Turkey, comprises three branches:

 Legislative:
The unicameral Parliament makes law,
debates and adopts the budget
bills, declares war, approves treaties,
proclaims amnesty and pardon, and has the
power of impeachment, by which it can
remove sitting members of the government.
[164]

 Executive: The president is the commander-

in-chief of the military, can veto legislative
bills before they become law (subject to
parliamentary override), can
issue presidential decrees on matters
regarding executive power with exception of
fundamental rights, individual rights and
certain political rights (parliamentary laws
prevail presidential decrees), and appoints
 the members of the Cabinet and other
officers, who administer and enforce
national laws and policies.[165]
 Judicial: The Constitutional
Court (for constitutional adjudication and
review of individual applications concerning
human rights), the Court of Cassation (final
decision maker in ordinary judiciary),
the Council of State (final decision maker in
administrative judiciary) and the Court of
Jurisdictional Disputes (for resolving the
disputes between courts for constitutional
jurisdiction) are the four organizations that
are described by the Constitution as
supreme courts. The judges of the
Constitutional Court are appointed by the
president and the parliament.[5]
The Parliament has 600 voting members, each representing a constituency for
a five-year term. Parliamentary seats are distributed among the provinces by
population, conform with the census apportionment. The president
is elected by direct vote and serves a five-year term. The president can't run for
re-elections after two terms of five-years, unless parliament prematurely renews
the presidential elections during the second term of the President. Elections for
the Parliament and presidential elections are held on the same day. The
Constitutional Court is composed of fifteen members. A member is elected for a
term of twelve years and can't be reelected. The members of the Constitutional
Court are obliged to retire when they are over the age of sixty-five. [166]
Parties and elections
Main articles: Elections in Turkey, Political parties in Turkey, and Electoral
cycle of Turkey

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan

President

Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential

elections (national), parliamentary elections (national), municipality
mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council
members (local) and muhtars (local). Apart from elections, referendums are
also held occasionally.
Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a
candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied
throughout Turkey since 1934 and before most countries. In Turkey, turnout
rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other
countries, which usually stands higher than 80 percent. [167] There are
600 members of parliament who are elected for a five-year term by a party-list
proportional representation system from 88 electoral districts. The Constitutional
Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-
secular or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether.[168]
[169]
 The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent
of the votes.[170] Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming
an alliance with other parties, in which it is sufficient that the total votes of the
alliance passes 7%. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral
threshold.
After World War II, Turkey operated under a multi-party system. On the right
side of the Turkish political spectrum, parties like Democrat Party (DP), Justice
Party (AP), Motherland Party (ANAP) and Justice and Development
Party (AKP) once became the largest political party in Turkey. Turkish right-
wing parties are more likely to embrace principles of political ideologies such
as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism.[171] On the left side of the spectrum,
parties like Republican People's Party (CHP), Social Democratic Populist
Party (SHP) and Democratic Left Party (DSP) once enjoyed the largest electoral
success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace principles
of socialism, Kemalism or secularism.[172]
The 12th President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the winner of the 2018 presidential
election and former prime minister, is currently serving as the head of
state and head of government. Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu is the main opposition leader
of Turkey. Mustafa Şentop is the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly.
The 27th Parliament of Turkey was installed following the 2018 parliamentary
election, with the starting composition of 295 seats for the Justice and
Development Party (AKP), 146 seats for the Republican People's Party (CHP),
67 seats for the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP), 49 seats for the Nationalist
Movement Party (MHP) and 49 seats for the Good Party (İP).[173] The next
parliamentary election is scheduled to take place in 2023.
Law
Main articles: Judicial system of Turkey and Law enforcement in Turkey

Istanbul Anadolu Justice Palace in Kartal, Istanbul.

With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system,
replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Civil Code, adopted in 1926, was
based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of
1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of
the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on the Italian
Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to
the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based
on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of
the Swiss, German and French legal systems.[174] Islamic principles do not play a
part in the legal system.[175]
Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In line with this
principle, judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the
Turkish nation. The independence and organisation of the courts, the security of
the tenure of judges and public prosecutors, the profession of judges and
prosecutors, the supervision of judges and public prosecutors, the military
courts and their organisation, and the powers and duties of the high courts are
regulated by the Turkish Constitution.[176]
According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organisation, duties and
jurisdiction of the courts, their functions and the trial procedures are regulated
by law. In line with the aforementioned article of the Turkish Constitution and
related laws, the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main
categories; which are the Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts, and Military
Courts. Each category includes first instance courts and high courts. In addition,
the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that cannot be classified
readily as falling within the purview of one court system. [176]
Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General
Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast
Guard Command. Furthermore, there are other law enforcement agencies with
specific (National Intelligence Organization, General Directorate of Customs
Protection, etc.) or local (Village guards, Municipal Police, etc.) assignments
that are under the jurisdiction of the president or different ministries. [citation needed]
In the years of government by the AKP and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013,
the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been
said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within
and outside of Turkey; due to political interference in the promotion of judges
and prosecutors, and in their pursuit of public duty. [177][178][179][180] The Turkey 2015
report of the European Commission stated that "the independence of the
judiciary and respect of the principle of separation of powers have been
undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under strong political
pressure."[177]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Turkey
After becoming one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, Turkey became
an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started full
membership negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[149][150]

Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations (1945),[181] the OECD (1961),

[182]
 the OIC (1969),[183] the OSCE (1973),[184] the ECO (1985),[185] the BSEC (1992),
[186]
 the D-8 (1997)[187] and the G20 (1999).[188] Turkey was a member of the United
Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955, 1961 and 2009–2010. [189] In
2012 Turkey became a dialogue partner of the SCO, and in 2013 became a
member of the ACD.[190][191]
In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always
been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the early
members of the Council of Europe in 1950, applied for associate membership of
the EEC (predecessor of the European Union) in 1959 and became an
associate member in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey
applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member
of the Western European Union in 1992, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995
and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since 2005. [149]
[150]
 Turkey's support for Northern Cyprus in the Cyprus dispute complicates
Turkey's relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to the
country's EU accession bid.[192]
The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy was the country's long-
standing strategic alliance with the United States. [193][194] The Truman Doctrine in
1947 enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and
Greece during the Cold War, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and
economic support. In 1948 both countries were included in the Marshall
Plan and the OEEC for rebuilding European economies. [195] The common threat
posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of
NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with the US. Subsequently,
Turkey benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic
support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European
Union.[196] In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance
shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.
[197]
The Turkish Armed Forces collectively rank as the second-largest standing military force in NATO,
after the US Armed Forces. Turkey joined the alliance in 1952.[198]

The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which
Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to
extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia,[199] thus
enabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural
gas pipeline from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey.
The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy
to become an energy conduit from the Caspian Sea basin to Europe. However,
in 1993, Turkey sealed its land border with Armenia in a gesture of support to
Azerbaijan (a Turkic state in the Caucasus region) during the First Nagorno-
Karabakh War, and it remains closed.[200] Armenia and Turkey started diplomatic
talks in order to normalise the relationship between the two countries. The
discussions include opening the closed borders and starting trade. Turkey and
Armenia have also restarted commercial flights between the two countries. [201]
Under the AKP government, Turkey's influence has grown in the formerly
Ottoman territories of the Middle East and the Balkans, based on the "strategic
depth" doctrine (a terminology that was coined by Ahmet Davutoğlu for defining
Turkey's increased engagement in regional foreign policy issues), also
called Neo-Ottomanism.[202][203] Following the Arab Spring in December 2010, the
choices made by the AKP government for supporting certain political opposition
groups in the affected countries have led to tensions with some Arab states,
such as Turkey's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war,
and Egypt after the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi.[204][205]

The 2015 G20 Summit held in Antalya, Turkey, a founding member of the OECD (1961)

and G20 (1999).

As of 2021, Turkey does not have an ambassador in either Syria or Egypt.

[206]
 Diplomatic relations with Israel were also severed after the Gaza flotilla
raid in 2010, but were normalised following a deal in June 2016. [207] These
political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the East Mediterranean, where
rich natural gas fields have recently been discovered;[208][209] in sharp contrast with
the original goals that were set by the former Foreign Minister (later Prime
Minister) Ahmet Davutoğlu in his "zero problems with neighbours" [210][211] foreign
policy doctrine.[212] In 2015, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar formed a "strategic
alliance" against Syrian President Bashar al-Assad.[213] However, following
the rapprochement with Russia in 2016, Turkey revised its stance regarding the
solution of the conflict in Syria.[214][215][216] In January 2018, the Turkish military and
the Turkish-backed forces, including the Free Syrian Army and Ahrar al-Sham,
[217]
 began an intervention in Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed YPG from the
enclave of Afrin.[218][219] There is a dispute over Turkey's maritime boundaries with
Greece and Cyprus and drilling rights in the eastern Mediterranean. [220][221]
Military
Main articles: Turkish Armed Forces and Defense industry of Turkey

Turkish Military's indigenous equipment. Clockwise from top left: An amphibious armoured combat
vehicle FNSS Pars, an unmanned aerial vehicle TAI Anka, an air defense system Hisar, an
amphibious assault ship/aircraft carrier TCG Anadolu

The Turkish Armed Forces consist of the General Staff, the Land Forces,

the Naval Forces and the Air Force. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed
by the President. President is responsible to the Parliament for matters of
national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend
the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish
Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be
stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament. [222]
The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are law
enforcement agencies with military organization (ranks, structure, etc.) and
under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. In wartime, the president can
order certain units of the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard
Command to operate under the Land Forces Command and Naval Forces
Commands respectively. The remaining parts of the Gendarmerie and the
Coast Guard continue to carry out their law enforcement missions under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior.
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the
military for a period ranging from three weeks to a year, dependent on
education and job location.[223] Turkey does not recognise conscientious
objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.[224]
Turkey has the second-largest standing military force in NATO, after the United
States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military as of February 2022.
[225]
 Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear
sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and
the Netherlands.[226] A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air
Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a
nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO. [227]
Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and
NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions
in Somalia, Yugoslavia and the Horn of Africa. It supported coalition forces in
the First Gulf War, contributed military personnel to the International Security
Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active in Kosovo
Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups.[228][229] In recent years, Turkey has
assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the Somali Armed Forces with
security and training.[230][231] Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial
military presence abroad,[232] with military bases in Albania,[233] Iraq,[234] Qatar,
[235]
 and Somalia.[236] The country also maintains a force of 36,000 troops in
Northern Cyprus since 1974.[237]
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Turkey
See also: 2016–present purges in Turkey

Feminist demonstration in Kadıköy, Istanbul on 29 July 2017

The human rights record of Turkey has been the subject of much controversy

and international condemnation. Between 1959 and 2011 the European Court
of Human Rights made more than 2400 judgements against Turkey for human
rights violations on issues such as Kurdish rights, women's rights, LGBT rights,
and media freedom.[238][239] Turkey's human rights record continues to be a
significant obstacle to the country's membership of the EU.[240]
In the latter half of the 1970s, Turkey suffered from political
violence between far-left and far-right militant groups, which culminated in
the military coup of 1980.[241] The Kurdistan Workers' Party - a.k.a. PKK -
(designated a terrorist organisation by Turkey, the United States,[141] and
the European Union[142]) was founded in 1978 by a group of Kurdish militants led
by Abdullah Öcalan, seeking the foundation of an independent Kurdish state
based on Marxist-Leninist ideology.[242] The initial reason given by the PKK for
this was the oppression of Kurds in Turkey.[243][244] A full-scale insurgency began in
1984, when the PKK announced a Kurdish uprising. With time the PKK modified
its demands into equal rights for ethnic Kurds and provincial autonomy within
Turkey.[245][246][247][248] Since 1980, the Turkish parliament stripped its members
of immunity from prosecution, including 44 deputies most of which from the pro-
Kurdish parties.[249]
On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its
members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-
Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party.[250][251] By 2020, under the
pretext of responding to a failed coup attempt in 2016, [252][253] authorities had
arrested or imprisoned more than 90,000 Turkish citizens. [254] According to
the Committee to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged
crackdowns on media freedom.[255][256] Many journalists have been arrested using
charges of "terrorism" and "anti-state activities". [257][258] In 2020, the CPJ identified
18 jailed journalists in Turkey (including the editorial staff of Cumhuriyet,
Turkey's oldest newspaper still in circulation).[259]
LGBT rights
Main article: LGBT rights in Turkey

Istanbul Pride organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul were denied
permission by the government.[260]

Homosexual activity is legal in Turkey since 1858.[261] LGBT people have had the

right to seek asylum in Turkey under the Geneva Convention since 1951.
[262]
 However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even
violence from their relatives, neighbors, etc. [263] The Turkish authorities have
carried out many discriminatory practices.[264][265][266] Despite these, LGBT
acceptance in Turkey is growing. In a survey conducted by Kadir Has
University in Istanbul in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people
should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey by
Kadir Has University in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not
want a homosexual neighbour decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019. [267]
[268]
 A poll by Ipsos in 2015 found that 27% of the Turkish public was in favour of
legalizing same-sex marriage and 19% supported civil unions instead.[269]
Istanbul Pride was held for the first time in 2003. Turkey became the first
Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.[270] Since 2015, parades
in Istanbul were denied permission by the government. The denials were based
on security concerns, but critics claimed the bans were ideological. Despite the
refusal hundreds of people defied the ban each year. [260]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Turkey
See also: List of national parks of Turkey
Topographic map of Turkey

Turkey is a transcontinental country bridging Southeastern Europe and Western

Asia. Asian Turkey, which includes 97 percent of the country's territory, is
separated from European Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and
the Dardanelles. European Turkey comprises only 3 percent of the country's
territory.[271] Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535
square miles),[272] of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 square miles) is
in Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,175 square miles) is in Europe. [273] The
country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the
Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey also
contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest. [274]
Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black
Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and
the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black
Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-
sixth of Turkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian
plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.
[274]
 Pamukkale terraces are made of travertine, a sedimentary rock deposited by
mineral water from the hot springs. The area is famous for a carbonate mineral
left by the flowing of thermal spring water.[275][276] It is located in Turkey's Inner
Aegean region, in the River Menderes valley, which has a temperate climate for
most of the year. It was added as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988
with Hierapolis.

Pamukkale

Cappadocia
East Thrace; the European portion of Turkey, is located at the easternmost
edge the Balkans. It forms the border between Turkey and its neighbours
Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country mostly consists of the
peninsula of Anatolia, which consists of a high central plateau with narrow
coastal plains, between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north
and the Taurus Mountains to the south.
The Eastern Anatolia Region mostly corresponds to the western part of
the Armenian Highlands (the plateau situated between the Anatolian Plateau in
the west and the Lesser Caucasus in the north)[277] and contains Mount Ararat,
Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet), [278] and Lake Van, the
largest lake in the country.[279] Eastern Turkey has a mountainous landscape and
is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras.
The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains of Upper
Mesopotamia.
Far from the coast the climate of Turkey tends to be continental but
elsewhere temperate, and has become hotter, and drier in parts. There
are many species of plants and animals.
Biodiversity
Main articles: Wildlife of Turkey, Fauna of Turkey, and Flora and vegetation of
Turkey
See also: Environmental issues in Turkey

Sumela Monastery in the Pontic Mountains, which form an ecoregion with diverse temperate

rainforest types, flora and fauna in northern Anatolia.

Turkey's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced

considerable species diversity.[280] Anatolia is the homeland of many plants that
have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture, and the wild
ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for humankind still grow in
Turkey. The diversity of Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of its flora. The
number of animal species in the whole of Europe is around 60,000, while in
Turkey there are over 80,000 (over 100,000 counting the subspecies). [281]
The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which
covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus
mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home
to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern
imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin,
and wallcreeper.[282] The narrow coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and
the Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain
some of the world's few temperate rainforests.[283] The Turkish pine (Pinus
brutia) is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries; the
other commonly found species of the genus Pinus (pine) in Turkey include
the nigra, sylvestris, pinea and halepensis. The Turkey oak (Quercus
cerris) and numerous other species of the genus Quercus (oak) exist in Turkey.
The most commonly found species of the genus Platanus (plane) is
the orientalis. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower
was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman
Empire in the 16th century.[284][285]

A white Turkish Angora cat with odd eyes (heterochromia), which is common among the Angoras.

There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80
wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli
Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troy
National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park.[286] In the 21st
century, threats to biodiversity include desertification due to climate change in
Turkey.[287]
The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern
and southeastern regions of Turkey.[288][289] The Eurasian lynx and the European
wildcat are other felid species which are currently found in the forests of Turkey.
The Caspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until
the latter half of the 20th century.[288][290]
Renowned domestic animals from Ankara, the capital of Turkey, include
the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the Van
cat. The national dog breeds are the Kangal (Anatolian
Shepherd), Malaklı and Akbaş.[291]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Turkey
See also: Climate change in Turkey
Köppen climate classification of Turkey

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas
have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to
cool, wet winters.[292] The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a
temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold,
wet winters.[292] The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and
is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.
[292]
 The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in)
annually which is the highest precipitation in the country. [292] The coastal areas
bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black
Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate
and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately
dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[292] Snow falls on the coastal areas of
the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in
no more than a few days.[292] However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the
Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.
[292]
 Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of
−30 °C to −40 °C (−22 °F to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and
snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the
entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the
temperatures can drop below −20 °C ( -4 °F) with the mountains being even
colder.
Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending
inland, giving the central Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental
climate with sharply contrasting seasons.[292]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Turkey

Istanbul is the largest city and financial centre of Turkey.

Turkey is a newly industrialized country, with an upper-middle income economy,

which is the twentieth-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and the eleventh-
largest by PPP. Turkey is one of the Emerging 7 countries. According to World
Bank estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $38,759 in 2022 [9] and
approximately 11.7% of Turks are at risk of poverty or social exclusion as of
2019.[293] Unemployment in Turkey was 13.6% in 2019, [294] and the middle class
population in Turkey rose from 18% to 41% of the population between 1993 and
2010 according to the World Bank.[295][needs update] As of September 2021, the foreign
currency reserves of the Turkish Central Bank were $74.9 billion (an 8.1%
increase compared to the previous month), its gold reserves were $38.5 billion
(a 5.1% decrease compared to the previous month), while its official reserve
assets stood at $121.3 billion.[296] As of October 2021, the foreign currency
deposits of the citizens and residents in Turkish banks stood at $234 billion,
equivalent to around half of all deposits. [297][298] The EU–Turkey Customs Union in
1995 led to an extensive liberalisation of tariff rates, and forms one of the most
important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade policy.[299]
The automotive industry in Turkey is sizeable, and produced over 1.3 million
motor vehicles in 2021, ranking as the 13th largest producer in the world.
[300]
 Turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the
world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers. Togg, or Turkey's Automobile
Joint Venture Group Inc. is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey.
Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical
and oil tankers up to 10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts.[301] Turkish
brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer
electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a substantial amount of
funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields.
[302][303][304]

A proportional representation of Turkey's exports, 2019

Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home

appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining, petrochemical products, food,
mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. In 2004, it was estimated that 46
percent of total disposable income was received by the top 20 percent of
income earners, while the lowest 20 percent received only 6 percent. [305][needs update]
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Turkey reached 22.05 billion USD in 2007
and 19.26 billion USD in 2015, but has declined in recent years. [306] In 2020,
according to Carbon Tracker, money was being wasted constructing more coal-
fired power stations in Turkey.[307] International Energy Agency said that fossil
fuel subsidies should be redirected, for example to the health system.[308] Fossil
fuel subsidies were around 0.2% of GDP for the first two decades of the 21st
century,[309][310] and are higher than clean energy subsidies.[311] The external
costs of fossil fuel consumption in 2018 has been estimated as 1.5% of GDP.
[312]
 In 2020 the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development offered to
support a just transition away from coal.[313]
Turkey has seen a growth in video gaming industry during the recent years.
Many game developing companies founded and gained investment from
venture capitalists.[314] TaleWorlds Entertainment, Peak Games, Bigger
Games and Dream Games are the current leaders in this sector. [315][316]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Turkey
See also: List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey and Tentative list of World
Heritage Sites in Turkey

Marmaris in the Turkish Riviera

Tourism in Turkey has increased almost every year in the 21st century, [317] and is
an important part of the economy. The Turkish Ministry of Culture and
Tourism currently promotes Turkish tourism under the project Turkey Home.
Turkey is one of the world's top ten destination countries, with the highest
percentage of foreign visitors arriving from Europe; specially Germany and
Russia in recent years.[317] In 2019, Turkey ranked sixth in the world in terms of
the number of international tourist arrivals behind Italy, with 51.2 million foreign
tourists visiting the country.[318] Turkey has 19 UNESCO World Heritage Sites,
and 84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag
beaches, which makes it in the third place in the world. [319] Istanbul is the tenth
most visited city in the world with 13,433,000 annual visitors as of 2018.
[320]
 Antalya is the second most visited city in Turkey, with over 9 million tourists
in 2021.[321]
Infrastructure
Main articles: Transport in Turkey, Communications in Turkey, Energy in
Turkey, and Water supply and sanitation in Turkey

Istanbul Airport main terminal building has an annual passenger capacity of 90 million and making it
the world's largest airport terminal building under a single roof.[322]

In 2013 there were 98 airports in Turkey,[323] including 22 international airports.

[324]
 Istanbul Airport is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a
capacity to serve 150 million passengers a year.[325][326] As well as Turkish
Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey since 1933, several other airlines operate in the
country. It operates scheduled services to 315 destinations
in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, making it the largest mainline
carrier in the world by number of passenger destinations. [327][328][329] Turkish
Airlines uses Istanbul Airport of 90 million capacity as its main hub.
As of 2014, the country has a roadway network of over 65,000 kilometres
(40,400 miles).[330] Motorways are controlled-access highways that are officially
named Otoyol. The network spans 3,523 kilometres (2,189 mi) as of 2020. The
network is expected to expand to 4,773 kilometres (2,966 mi) by 2023 and to
9,312 kilometres (5,786 mi) by 2035.[331]
Turkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains on
12,532 kilometres rail length. The government-owned national railway company
started building high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line became
operational in 2011, while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in 2014.
[332]
 Konya-Karaman line started its operations in 2022 and 406 km (252 mi)
long Ankara-Sivas line is to open in 2022.
Opened in 2013, the Marmaray tunnel under the Bosphorus connects the
railway and metro lines of Istanbul's European and Asian sides; while the
nearby Eurasia Tunnel (2016) provides an undersea road connection for motor
vehicles.[333]
Istanbul Metro is the largest metro network in the country with 495 million
annual ridership.[334] There are 9 metro lines under service and 6 more under
construction.[335]

A Turquoise (from the French turquois, meaning 'Turkish') coloured TCDD HT80000 high-speed

train of the Turkish State Railways[336]

The Bosphorus Bridge (1973), Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (1988) and Yavuz

Sultan Selim Bridge (2016) are the three suspension bridges connecting the
European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus strait. The Osman Gazi
Bridge (2016) connects the northern and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit.
The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and
Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.[337]
Many natural gas pipelines span the country's territory.[162] The Blue Stream, a
major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline, delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey.
The undersea pipeline, Turkish Stream, with an annual capacity around
63 billion cubic metres (2,200 billion cubic feet), allows Turkey to resell Russian
gas to the rest of Europe.[338] The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second
longest oil pipeline in the world, was inaugurated in 2005.[339] As of 2018 Turkey
consumes 1700 terawatt hours (TW/h) of primary energy per year, a little over
20 megawatt hours (MW/h) per person, mostly from imported fossil fuels.
[340]
 Although the energy policy of Turkey includes reducing fossil-fuel
imports, coal in Turkey is the largest single reason why greenhouse gas
emissions by Turkey amount to 1% of the global total. Renewable energy in
Turkey is being increased and Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being built on
the Mediterranean coast: but despite national electricity
generation overcapacity fossil fuels are still subsidized.[341] Turkey has the fifth-
highest direct utilisation and capacity of geothermal power in the world.[342]
As of 2019, Turkey produces 45.6% of its electricity from renewable sources. [343]
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Turkey
TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and
innovation policies in Turkey.[344] TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting
to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[345] TAEK is the country's official nuclear
energy institution, focused on academic research and the development and
implementation of peaceful nuclear technology. [346] It is supervising the
construction of Turkey's first nuclear facility, Akkuyu Nuclear Power
Plant in Mersin, at the cost of $20 billion; the plant is expected to be operational
in May 2023,[347] and is projected to meet around 10% of the country's electricity
demand.

Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are the Earth observation satellites of the Turkish Ministry of

National Defense, while state-owned Türksat operates the Türksat series of communications
satellites.

The Turkish government invests heavily in research and development of military

technologies, including Turkish Aerospace
Industries, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, and MKE. Turkey is a global
leader in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV); the Bayraktar TB2, manufactured by
private defence company Baykar, has been exported to over a dozen countries
and played a decisive role in several conflicts, including the 2020 Nagorno-
Karabakh war and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[348][349]
Turkey has made significant inroads in aerospace technology into the 21st
century. In 2013, it initiated the Turkish Space Launch System (UFS) to develop
an independent satellite launch capability, including the construction of
a spaceport, the development of satellite launch vehicles, and the establishment
of remote earth stations.[350][351][352] Türksat, the country's sole communications
satellite operator, has launched a series of satellites into orbit; likewise,
the Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center (UMET)—a
spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National
Defence and operated by the TAI—has launched the Göktürk series of Earth
observation satellites for reconnaissance; BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the
scientific Earth observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space
Technologies Research Institute.
In 2015, Aziz Sancar, a Turkish professor at the University of North Carolina,
won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on how cells repair damaged
DNA;[353] he is one of two Turkish Nobel laureates, and the first in the sciences.
Other prominent Turkish scientists include physician Hulusi Behçet, who
discovered Behçet's disease; mathematician Cahit Arf, who defined the Arf
invariant; and immunologists Uğur Şahin and Özlem Türeci, whose
German biotechnology company, BioNTech, developed one of the first
efficacious vaccines against COVID-19.
Turkey is among the top fifty most innovative countries in the world, ranking
41st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021; this represents a considerable
increase since 2011, where it was ranked 65th. [354]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Turkey
See also: Turkish people

Total fertility rate in Turkey by province (2021)[355]

  3–4
  2–3
  1.5-2
  1-1.5

CIA map of areas with a Kurdish majority[356]

According to the Address-Based Population Recording System of Turkey, the

country's population was 74.7 million people in 2011,[357] nearly three-quarters of
whom lived in towns and cities. According to the 2011 estimate, the population
is increasing by 1.35 percent each year. Turkey has an average population
density of 97 people per km². People within the 15–64 age group constitute 67.4
percent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 25.3 percent;
while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7.3 percent. [358]
Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyone who is bound
to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship"; therefore, the legal use of
the term "Turkish" as a citizen of Turkey is different from the ethnic definition.
[359]
 However approximately 70 to 80 percent of the country's citizens are ethnic
Turks.[360][4] It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in
Turkey.[361] Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available,
because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity. [362]
Kurds are the largest non-Turkish ethnicity at anywhere from 12–25 per cent of
the population.[363][364] The exact figure remains a subject of dispute; according to
Servet Mutlu, "more often than not, these estimates reflect pro-Kurdish or pro-
Turkish sympathies and attitudes rather than scientific facts or erudition".
[361]
 Mutlu's 1990 study estimated Kurds made up around 12 per cent of the
population.[365] The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces
of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırn
ak, Tunceli and Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa Province (47%); and a large
minority in Kars Province (20%).[366] In addition, due to internal migration, Kurdish
diaspora communities exist in all of the major cities in central and western
Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city
with the largest Kurdish population in the world. [367] Non-Kurdish minorities are
believed to make up an estimated 7–12 percent of the population. [4]
The three "Non-Muslim" minority groups recognised in the Treaty of
Lausanne were Armenians, Greeks and Jews. Other ethnic groups
include Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Po
maks, and Roma.[4][368][369][370][371] Turkey is also home to a Muslim community
of Megleno-Romanians.[372]
Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in
Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.[373] As of April 2020, there are
3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey, who are mostly Arabs but also
include Syrian Kurds, Syrian Turkmen, and other ethnic groups of Syria. The
vast majority of these are living in Turkey with temporary residence permits. The
Turkish government has granted Turkish citizenship to refugees who have
joined the Syrian National Army.[374][375][376]
 
 v
 t
 e
Largest cities or towns in Turkey
TÜİK's address-based calculation from December 20
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name
1 Istanbul Istanbul 14,744,519 11 Mersin
2 Ankara Ankara 4,871,884 12 Urfa
3 İzmir İzmir 2,938,546 13 Eskişehir
4 Bursa Bursa 2,074,799 14 Denizli
5 Adana Adana 1,753,337 15 Kahramanmaraş
Istanbul 6 Gaziantep Gaziantep 1,663,273 16 Samsun
7 Antalya Antalya 1,311,471 17 Malatya
8 Konya Konya 1,130,222 18 İzmit
9 Kayseri Kayseri 1,123,611 19 Adapazarı

10 Diyarbakır Diyarbakır 1,047,286 20 Erzurum

Ankara

Immigration
Main article: Immigration to Turkey
Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran
during the Gulf War in 1991. Immigration to Turkey is the process by which
people migrate to Turkey to reside in the country. Turkey's migrant
crisis created after an estimated 2.5 percent of the population are international
migrants.[377] Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world, including
3.6 million Syrian refugees, as of April 2020.[374] As part of Turkey's migrant
crisis, according to UNHCR, in 2018 Turkey was hosting 63.4% of all the
refugees in the world, that is 3,564,919 registered refugees from Africa and the
Middle East in total.[378]
Languages

Turkic languages speaking areas in the world.

Main article: Languages of Turkey

The official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic
language in the world.[379][380] It is spoken by 85.54 percent of the population as
a first language.[381] 11.97 percent of the population speaks the Kurmanji dialect
of Kurdish as their mother tongue.[381] Arabic and Zaza are the mother tongues of
2.39 percent of the population, and several other languages are the mother
tongues of smaller parts of the population. [381] Endangered languages in
Turkey include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Cappadocian
Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Ladino
(Judesmo), Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek, Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh,
and Western Armenian.[382] Megleno-Romanian is also spoken.[372]
Turkey is a founding member of the Organization of Turkic
States and International Organization of Turkic Culture, comprising other
independent Turkic states, such as Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey
and Uzbekistan. It is an intergovernmental organization whose overarching aim
is promoting comprehensive cultural cooperation among Turkic-speaking states.
Religion
Main article: Religion in Turkey

Selimiye Mosque was built by the imperial architect Mimar Sinan.[383] The mosque was included
on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 2011.[384]

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the Turkish

Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.[385][386] A 2016 survey
by Ipsos, interviewing 17,180 adults across 22 countries, found that Islam was
the dominant religion in Turkey, adhered to by 82% of the total population;
religiously unaffiliated people comprised 13% of the population, while 2%
were Christians.[387] The level of religiosity study by Konda found that 9.7% of the
population who are 'fully devoted', 52% who 'strives to fulfill religious
obligations', 34.3% who 'does not fulfill religious obligations' and 3.2%
'Nonbeliever/Irreligious'.[388][389] Another poll conducted by Gezici Araştırma in
2020 interviewed 1,062 people in 12 provinces and found that 28.5% of
the Generation Z in Turkey identify as irreligious.[390][391] According to a survey
by World Values Survey In 2017 98.0% Identified as Muslims, while 1.2%
Identified with no Religion and 0.8 as other. [392]
According to a survey by the pollster KONDA, the percentage of atheists in
Turkey has tripled in 10 years and rose from 1% in 2008 to 3% in 2018, the
percentage of non-believers or agnostics rose from 1% to 2%, and that 90% of
irreligious Turks were under 35 years old. The survey was conducted in Turkey
through face-to-face interviews with 5,793 people in their households, in April,
2018 while in 2008 6,482 people were interviewed in face-to-face in Turkey. [393][394]
[395]

The CIA World Factbook reports that Islam is the religion of 99.8% of the

population, with Sunni Muslims as the largest sect, while 0.2% are Christians
and Jews.[396] However, there are no official governmental statistics specifying
the religious beliefs of the Turkish people, nor is religious data recorded in the
country's census.[397] Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to
20 million, while the Alevi-Bektaşi Federation states that there are around
25 million.[398][399] According to Aksiyon magazine, the number
of Twelver Shias (excluding Alevis) is three million (4.2%).[400]

The Church of St. Anthony of Padua on İstiklal Avenue, in the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul. There are

158 active churches in the city.

Christianity has a long history in present-day Turkey, which is the birthplace of

numerous Christian apostles and saints. Antioch (Antakya) is regarded by
tradition as the spot where the Gospels were written, and where the followers
of Jesus were called Christians for the first time. Constantinople is generally
considered to be the center and the "cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization".[401]
[402]
 The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from 17.5% (three million
followers) in a population of 16 million to 2.5% percent in the early 20th century.
[403]
 mainly as a result of the Armenian genocide, the population exchange
between Greece and Turkey and the emigration of Christians that began in the
late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century. [404]
[405]
 Today, there are more than 120,000–320,000 people of various Christian
denominations,[406] representing less than 0.2% of Turkey's population,
[407]
 including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics,
[408]
 18,000 Antiochian Greeks,[409] 5,000 Greek Orthodox, smaller numbers
of Protestants,[410] and 512 Mormons.[411] Currently, there are 398 churches open
for worship in Turkey.[412]
Modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population; [413] with around
26,000 Jews, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.[414] Turkey has the biggest
Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.[415][416]
In a mid-2010s poll, 2.9% of Turkish respondents identified as atheists.
[417]
 The Association of Atheism, the first official atheist organisation in the
Balkans and the Middle East, was founded in 2014. [418][419] Some religious and
secular officials have claimed that atheism and deism are growing among
Turkish people.[420][421][422][423]
Education
Main article: Education in Turkey

Istanbul Technical University is the world's third-oldest technical university.[424]

The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.

[425]
 This is compulsory and lasts twelve years: four years each of primary school,
middle school and high school.[426] All 12 years compulsory education is free of
charge in public schools.[427]
Basic education in Turkey is said to lag behind other OECD countries, with
significant differences between high and low performers. [428] Access to high-
quality school heavily depends on the performance in the secondary school
entrance exams, to the point that some students begin taking private tutoring
classes when they are ten years old.[428]
As of 2022, there are 209 universities in Turkey.[429] Except for the Open
Education Faculties (AÖF) at Anadolu, Istanbul and Atatürk University; entrance
is regulated by the national Student Selection and Placement
System (Turkish: Öğrenci Seçme ve Yerleştirme Sistemi, ÖSYS) examination,
after which high school graduates are assigned to universities according to their
performance.[430] According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education World
University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical
University, followed by Bilkent University and Koç University, Istanbul Technical
University and Boğaziçi University.[431] All state and private universities are under
the control of the Higher Education Board (Turkish: Yükseköğretim Kurulu,
YÖK), whose head is appointed by the President of Turkey; and since 2016 the
President directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities. [432]

Istanbul University was founded in 1453 as a Darülfünûn. On 1 August 1933 it was reorganised and
became the Republic's first university.[433]

Turkey is a member of Socrates programme, Erasmus

Programme and Erasmus+ Programmes. These student exchange programmes
are organised by the European Union.[434] Also it is a member of Erasmus
Student Network which is a Europe-wide student organisation which has more
than 15.000 volunteers across the Europe.[435]
Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years. The number of
foreign students in Turkey was 795.962 in 2016.[436] The government has
announced a vision to draw around 500,000 foreign students at its universities
by offering attractive scholarships.[437] Türkiye Scholarships is international
scholarship programme funded by Government of Turkey. In 2021, in response
to Türkiye Scholarships, that was advertised in January 2021, Turkish
Government received 165,000 applications from 178 countries of the World. [438][439]
[440]

Health
Main article: Health care in Turkey

Acıbadem Hospital in Altunizade neighborhood of Üsküdar, İstanbul

The Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.

[441]
 Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded
by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.[441] Public-sector funding
covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures. [441] Despite the universal
health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the
lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD
average of 9.3%.[441] The lower health care expenditure is due to lower median
age in Turkey which is 32.4, compared to Italy which is 47.3. [442] Aging population
is the prime reason for higher healthcare expenditure in the developed world. [443]
Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females),
compared with the EU average of 81 years.[441] Turkey has high rates of obesity,
with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value that is
30 or above.[444] Air pollution in Turkey is a major cause of early death.[445]
There are many private hospitals in the country. Turkey benefits from medical
tourism in the recent years. Health tourism earns above $1 billion to Turkey in
2019. Some 60% of the income is obtained from plastic surgery and a total of
662,087 patients received service in the country last year within the scope of
health tourism.[446]

Culture
Main article: Culture of Turkey
See also: Arts in Turkey, Turkish folklore, and Festivals in Turkey
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Ortaköy Mosque is an example of the Westernisation of Islamic-Ottoman architecture.

Many Baroque architecture elements can be seen in it.

Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of

the Turkic, Anatolian, Byzantine, Ottoman (which was itself a continuation of
both Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture and traditions,
which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues
today.[447][448] This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and
their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during their
migration from Central Asia to the West.[447][449] Turkish culture is a product of
efforts to be a "modern" Western state, while maintaining traditional religious
and historical values.[447]
Turkish culture also influenced the European art and fashion particularly during
the period of 16th to 18th centuries at the peak of Ottoman power. This
phenomenan is also called Turquerie.
Visual arts
Further information: Turkish painting, İznik pottery, Turkish carpet, Turkish
miniature, and Turkish illumination
Ottoman miniature is linked to the Persian miniature tradition, as well as
strong Chinese artistic influences. The words tasvir or nakış were used to define
the art of miniature painting in Ottoman Turkish. The studios the artists worked
in were called nakkaşhane.[450] The miniatures were usually not signed, perhaps
because of the rejection of individualism, but also because the works were not
created entirely by one person; the head painter designed the composition of
the scene, and his apprentices drew the contours (which were called tahrir) with
black or coloured ink and then painted the miniature without creating an illusion
of depth. The head painter, and much more often the scribe of the text, were
indeed named and depicted in some of the manuscripts. The understanding of
perspective was different from that of the nearby European Renaissance
painting tradition, and the scene depicted often included different time periods
and spaces in one picture. They followed closely the context of the book they
were included in, more illustrations than standalone works of art. [451]Nakkaş
Osman and Matrakçı Nasuh (1480–1564) is one of the most prominent artists of
this era.
Turkish painting, in the Western sense, developed actively starting from the mid
19th century. The first painting lessons were scheduled at what is now
the Istanbul Technical University (then the Imperial Military Engineering School)
in 1793, mostly for technical purposes.[452] In the late 19th century, human figure
in the Western sense was being established in Turkish painting, especially
with Osman Hamdi Bey (1842–1910). Impressionism, among the contemporary
trends, appeared later on with Halil Pasha (c.1857–1939). Other important
Turkish painters in the 19th century were Ferik İbrahim Paşa (1815–
1891), Osman Nuri Paşa (c.1839–1906), Şeker Ahmet Paşa (1841–1907),
and Hoca Ali Riza (1864–1939).[citation needed]
16th century map of Matrakçı Nasuh (left) and Two Musician Girls of Osman Hamdi Bey (right).

The young Turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by
contemporary trends such as Fauvism, Cubism and Expressionism, still very
influential in Europe. The later "Group D" of artists led by Abidin Dino, Cemal
Tollu, Fikret Mualla, Fahrünnisa Zeid, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Adnan
Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the
West for more than three decades.[citation needed]
Other important movements in Turkish painting were the "Yeniler Grubu" (The
Newcomers Group) of the late 1930s; the "On'lar Grubu" (Group of Ten) of the
1940s; the "Yeni Dal Grubu" (New Branch Group) of the 1950s; and the "Siyah
Kalem Grubu" (Black Pen Group) of the 1960s.[453]
Internationally acclaimed Turkish sculptors in the 20th century include Ali Hadi
Bara, Zühtü Müridoğlu, İlhan Koman, Kuzgun Acar and Ali Teoman Germaner.
[citation needed]

Carpet (halı) and tapestry (kilim) weaving is a traditional Turkish art form with

roots in pre-Islamic times. During its long history, the art and craft of weaving
carpets and tapestries in Turkey has integrated numerous cultural traditions.
Apart from the Turkic design patterns that are prevalent, traces
of Persian and Byzantine patterns can also be detected. There are also
similarities with the patterns used in Armenian, Caucasian and Kurdish carpet
designs. The arrival of Islam in Central Asia and the development of Islamic
art also influenced Turkic patterns in the medieval period. The history of the
designs, motifs and ornaments used in Turkish carpets and tapestries thus
reflects the political and ethnic history of the Turks and the cultural diversity
of Anatolia. However, scientific attempts were unsuccessful, as yet, to attribute
a particular design to a specific ethnic, regional, or even nomadic versus village
tradition.[454]
Ottoman miniature which can be linked to the Persian miniature tradition, [455] as well as strong
Chinese artistic influences.

The earliest examples of Turkish paper marbling, called ebru in Turkish, are

said to be a copy of the Hâlnâme by the poet Arifî. The text of this manuscript
was rendered in a delicate cut paper découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin
Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many marbled and decorative
paper borders. One early master by the pseudonym of Şebek is mentioned
posthumously in the earliest Ottoman text on the art known as the Tertib-i
Risâle-i Ebrî, which is dated based on internal evidence to after 1615. The
instructions for several ebru techniques in the text are accredited to this master.
Another famous 18th-century master by the name of Hatip Mehmed Efendi
(died 1773) is accredited with developing motifs and perhaps early floral
designs, although evidence from India appears to contradict some of these
reports. Despite this, marbled motifs are commonly referred to as hatip designs
in Turkey today.[456]
Literature and theatre
Main articles: Turkish literature and Theatre of Turkey

Namık Kemal's works had a profound influence on Atatürk and other Turkish statesmen who
established the Turkish Republic.[457][458]

Turkish literature is a mix of cultural influences. Interaction between the

Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend
of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and
literary arts.[459] Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic
literature during most of the Ottoman era.[citation needed]
The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century introduced previously unknown
Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in
the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the
poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening),
while the journalist Şinasi has written, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play,
the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots
of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923.
Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period:
the Edebiyat-ı Cedîde (New Literature) movement; the Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn of the
Future) movement; and the Millî Edebiyat (National Literature) movement.[citation
needed]
Nobel-laureate Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk and his Turkish Angora cat at his personal writing
space

The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken
by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style. Another revolution in
Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip movement led by Orhan
Veli, Oktay Rıfat and Melih Cevdet. The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is
dramatised, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and
interlacing of cultures" enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the
2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[460]
The origin of Turkish theatre dates back to ancient pagan rituals and oral
legends. The dances, music and songs performed during the rituals of the
inhabitants of Anatolia millennia ago are the elements from which the first
shows originated. In time, the ancient rituals, myths, legends and stories
evolved into theatrical shows. Starting from the 11th-century, the traditions of
the Seljuk Turks blended with those of the indigenous peoples of Anatolia and
the interaction between diverse cultures paved the way for new plays. [citation needed]

Süreyya Opera House is situated in the Asian side of Istanbul and Atatürk Cultural Center is the main
Opera House in the European side of the city.

After the Tanzimat (Reformation) period in the 19th century, characters in

Turkish theatre were modernised and plays were performed on European-style
stages, with actors wearing European costumes. Following the restoration of
constitutional monarchy with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, theatrical
activities increased and social problems began to be reflected at the theatre as
well as in historical plays. A theatrical conservatoire, Darülbedayi-i
Osmani (which became the nucleus of the Istanbul City Theatres) was
established in 1914. During the years of chaos and war, the Darülbedayi-i
Osmani continued its activities and attracted the younger generation. Numerous
Turkish playwrights emerged in this era; some of them wrote on romantic
subjects, while others were interested in social problems, and still others dealt
with nationalistic themes. The first Turkish musicals were also written in this
period. In time, Turkish women began to appear on stage, which was an
important development in the late Ottoman society. Until then, female roles had
only been played by actresses who were members of Turkey's ethnic minorities.
Today there are numerous private theatres in the country, together with those
which are subsidised by the government, such as the Turkish State Theatres.[461]
Music and dance
Main articles: Turkish dance and Music of Turkey
See also: Turkish classical music, Turkish folk music, and Turkish music (style)

Referred to as Süperstar by the Turkish media, Ajda Pekkan is a prominent figure of Turkish pop
music, with a career spanning decades and a repertoire of diverse musical styles. [462]

Music of Turkey includes mainly Turkic elements as well as partial influences

ranging from Central Asian folk music, Arabic music, Greek music, Ottoman
music, Persian music and Balkan music, as well as references to more modern
European and American popular music. The roots of traditional music in Turkey
span across centuries to a time when the Seljuk Turks migrated
to Anatolia and Persia in the 11th century and contains elements of both Turkic
and pre-Turkic influences. Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots
to the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization.[463]
With the assimilation of immigrants from various regions the diversity of musical
genres and musical instrumentation also expanded. Turkey has also seen
documented folk music and recorded popular music produced in the ethnic
styles of Greek, Armenian, Albanian, Polish and Jewish communities, among
others.[464]
Many Turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn,
support a number of regional musical styles. Despite this however, western
music styles like pop music and kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late
1970s and 1980s. It became popular again by the beginning of the 1990s, as a
result of an opening economy and society. With the support of Sezen Aksu, the
resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop
stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Tarkan, Levent Yüksel, Sertab Erener and Hande
Yener. Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and
composers include Ahmet Ertegun (founder and president of Atlantic
Records), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev.
Barış Manço was a Turkish rock musician and one of the founders of the Anatolian rock genre.

The Turkish Five is a name used by some authors to identify the five pioneers
of Western classical music in Turkey, namely Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Ulvi
Cemal Erkin, Cemal Reşit Rey, Hasan Ferit Alnar and Necil Kazım Akses.
[465]
 Internationally acclaimed Turkish musicians of Western classical music
include pianists İdil Biret, Verda Erman, Gülsin Onay, the Pekinel sisters (Güher
and Süher Pekinel), Ayşegül Sarıca and Fazıl Say; violinists Ayla
Erduran and Suna Kan; opera singers Semiha Berksoy, Leyla
Gencer and Güneş Gürle; and conductors Emre Aracı, Gürer Aykal, Erol
Erdinç, Rengim Gökmen and Hikmet Şimşek.
Turkish folk dance is diverse. Hora is performed in East Thrace; Zeybek in
the Aegean Region, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia
Region; Teke in the Western Mediterranean Region; Kaşık
Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western Black Sea
Region, Southern Marmara Region and Eastern Mediterranean
Region; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; Halay in Eastern
Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region; and Bar and Lezginka in
the Northeastern Anatolia Region.[466]
Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Turkey
Further information: Byzantine architecture, Seljuk architecture, and Ottoman
architecture

Blue Mosque (1616) in Istanbul

Çırağan Palace (1867) in Istanbul

Grand Post Office (1909) in Istanbul

Şakirin Mosque (2009), the first mosque designed by a woman.

The Byzantine era is usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great
moved the Roman capital to Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the
fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Its architecture dramatically influenced the
later medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and became
the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions
that followed its collapse.[467] When the Roman Empire went Christian (as well as
Eastwards) with its new capital at Constantinople, its architecture became more
sensuous and more ambitious. This new style would come to be known as
Byzantine with increasingly exotic domes and ever-richer mosaics, traveled
west to Ravenna and Venice and as far north as Moscow. [468] This influence can
be seen particularly in the Venetian Gothic architecture.
The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics
of the Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those
of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. The transition from
Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was
the capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Following
the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman
architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı
Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples of classical Ottoman
architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for
approximately 400 years.[469] Mimar Sinan (c.1489–1588) was the most important
architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. He was the chief
architect of at least 374 buildings that were constructed in various provinces of
the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.[470] Sedefkar Mehmed Agha also known
as the architect of the Blue Mosque was an Albanian origin Devshirme. He
became a pupil of architect Mimar Sinan, becoming his first assistant in charge
of the office in the absence of Sinan. His work heavily influenced by his
teacher Mimar Sinan
Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by
European styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings
of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Taksim Military
Barracks (demolished), Feriye, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces
, which were all designed by members of the Balyan family of Ottoman
Armenian court architects.[471] The Ottoman era waterfront houses (yalı) on
the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and European
architectural styles during the aforementioned period. Italian
architect, Raimondo D'Aronco served as the chief palace architect to the
Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in Istanbul for 16 years. D'Aronco designed and
built a large number of buildings of various types in Istanbul. The stylistic
features of his works can be classified in three groups: Revivalism,
reinterpretation of the Ottoman forms, Art Nouveau and Vienna Secession. Art
Nouveau was first introduced to Istanbul by D'Aronco, and his designs reveal
that he drew freely on Byzantine and Ottoman decorations. He also mixed
Western and Oriental styles in his work.
The First National Architectural Movement in the early 20th century sought to
create a new architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman
architecture. The leading architects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–
1942), Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–
1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953).[472] Buildings from this era are the Grand
Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922),
[473]
 Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926),[474] State Art and Sculpture
Museum (1927–1930),[475] Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928),[476] the
first Ziraat Bank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929),[477] the first Türkiye İş
Bankası headquarters in Ankara (1926–1929),[478] Bebek Mosque,[479] and Kamer
Hatun Mosque.[480][481]
Some of the notable contemporary architects of Turkey are Behruz Çinici, Emre
Arolat, Murat Tabanlıoğlu, Melkan Tabanlıoğlu, Melike Altınışık, Zeynep
Fadıllıoğlu and Mehmet Kütükçüoğlu
Cuisine
Main article: Turkish cuisine
Further information: Ottoman cuisine

Turkish coffee with Turkish delight. Turkish coffee is a UNESCO-listed intangible cultural

heritage of Turks.[482][483]

Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which can be described as a fusion and
refinement of Mediterranean, Balkan, Middle Eastern, Central Asian, Eastern European, Armenian,
and Georgian cuisines.[484][485]
Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine. In the early years of
the Republic, a few studies were published about regional Anatolian dishes but
cuisine did not feature heavily in Turkish folkloric studies until the 1980s, when
the fledgling tourism industry encouraged the Turkish state to sponsor two food
symposia. The papers submitted at the symposia presented the history of
Turkish cuisine on a "historical continuum" that dated back to Turkic origins in
Central Asia and continued through the Seljuk and Ottoman periods. [486]
Many of the papers presented at these first two symposia were unreferenced.
Prior to the symposia, the study of Turkish culinary culture was first popularised
by the publication of Süheyl Ünver's Fifty Dishes in Turkish History in 1948. This
book was based on recipes found in an 18th century Ottoman manuscript. His
second book was about palace cuisine during the reign of Mehmet II. Following
the publication of Ünver's book subsequent studies were published, including a
1978 study by a historian named Bahaettin Ögel about the Central Asian origins
of Turkish cuisine.[486]
Ottoman cuisine contains elements
of Turkish, Byzantine, Balkan, Armenian, Kurdish, Arab and Persian cuisines.[487] 
The country's position between Europe, Asia, and the Mediterranean Sea
helped the Turks in gaining complete control of the major trade routes, and an
ideal landscape and climate allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkish
cuisine was well established by the mid-1400s, the beginning of the Ottoman
Empire's 600-year reign. Yogurt salads, fish in olive oil, sherbet and stuffed and
wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples. The empire, eventually spanning
from Austria and Ukraine to Arabia and North Africa, used its land and water
routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the
16th century, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed
laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the fall of the empire in World War I
(1914–1918) and the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, foreign
food such as French hollandaise sauce and Western fast food have made their
way into the modern Turkish diet.[488]
Sports
Main article: Sports in Turkey
See also: Football in Turkey
The most popular sport in Turkey is association football.[489] Galatasaray won
the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000.[490] The Turkish national football
team won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA
Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.[491]

Turkey won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship.

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.[citation
needed]
 The men's national basketball team won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA
World Championship and at EuroBasket 2001, which were both hosted by
Turkey; and is one of the most successful at the Mediterranean Games. Turkish
basketball club Fenerbahçe reached the final of the EuroLeague in three
consecutive seasons (2016, 2017 and 2018), becoming the European
champions in 2017 and runners-up in 2016 and 2018. Another Turkish
basketball club, Anadolu Efes S.K. won the 2020–21 EuroLeague and
the 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup, were the runners-up of the 2018–19
EuroLeague and the 1992–93 FIBA Saporta Cup, and finished third at
the 1999–2000 EuroLeague and the 2000–01 SuproLeague.[492][493] Beşiktaş won
the 2011–12 FIBA EuroChallenge,[494] and Galatasaray won the 2015–16
Eurocup. The Final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball
championship was played between two Turkish
teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.[495] The women's
national basketball team won the silver medal at the EuroBasket Women
2011 and the bronze medal at the EuroBasket Women 2013. Like the men's
team, the women's basketball team is one of the most successful at
the Mediterranean Games.

VakıfBank S.K. has won the FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship in 2017 and 2018,

 and the 2017–18 CEV Women's Champions League for the fourth time in their history.[499]
[496][497][498]

The women's national volleyball team won the gold medal at the 2015

European Games, the silver medal at the 2003 European Championship, the
bronze medal at the 2011 European Championship, and the bronze medal at
the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix. They also won multiple medals over multiple
decades at the Mediterranean Games.[500] Women's volleyball clubs,
namely Fenerbahçe, Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank, have won numerous European
championship titles and medals. Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women's Club
World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women's Champions League.
Representing Europe as the winner of the 2012–13 CEV Women's Champions
League, Vakıfbank also became the world champion by winning the 2013 FIVB
Volleyball Women's Club World Championship. Recently Vakıfbank has won
the FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship in 2017 and 2018,[496][497]
[498]
 and the 2017–18 CEV Women's Champions League for the fourth time in
their history.[499]
The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling)
since Ottoman times.[501] Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil
wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting
competition in the world.[502][503] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Ottoman
Turkish oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah
Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North
America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles.
International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle
wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European,
World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both
individually and as a national team.[504]
Media and cinema
Main articles: Media in Turkey and Cinema of Turkey

TRT World is the international news platform of the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation.[505]

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations,

several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a
rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in
Turkey.[506] The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public
broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show
TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration
as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.[507] The Radio and
Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the
broadcast media.[507][508] By circulation, the most popular
newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.[509] TRT 2 is the
public service channel dedicated to culture and art.
Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's
borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit
and public relations.[510] After sweeping the Middle East's television market over
the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a
dozen South and Central American countries in 2016.[511] Turkey is today the
world's second largest exporter of television series. [512]

The closing ceremony of the annual International Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival takes place at
the virtually intact Roman theater in Aspendos.[513]

Yeşilçam is the sobriquet that refers to the Turkish film art and industry. The first
movie exhibited in the Ottoman Empire was the Lumiere Brothers' 1895
film, L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, which was shown in Istanbul in
1896. The first Turkish-made film was a documentary entitled Ayastefanos'taki
Rus Abidesinin Yıkılışı (Demolition of the Russian Monument at San Stefano),
directed by Fuat Uzkınay and completed in 1914. The first narrative film, Sedat
Simavi's The Spy, was released in 1917. Turkey's first sound film was shown in
1931. Turkish directors like Metin Erksan, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz
Güney, Zeki Demirkubuz and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international
awards such as the Palme d'Or and Golden Bear.[514][515]
Despite legal provisions, media freedom in Turkey has steadily deteriorated
from 2010 onwards, with a precipitous decline following the failed coup
attempt on 15 July 2016.[516] As of December 2016, at least 81 journalists were
imprisoned in Turkey and more than 100 news outlets were closed. [256] Freedom
House lists Turkey's media as not free.[517] The media crackdowns also extend
to Internet censorship with Wikipedia getting blocked between 29 April 2017
and 15 January 2020.[518][519]

See also
 Turkey portal

 Index of Turkey-related articles

 Outline of Turkey

Notes
1. ^ Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has
said "Our attitude on the Armenian issue has been
clear from the beginning. We will never accept the
accusations of genocide".[24] Scholars give several
reasons for Turkey's position including the
preservation of national identity, the demand for
reparations and territorial concerns.[25]

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Further reading
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to
reflect recent events or newly available information. (September
2020)

 Mango, Andrew (2004). The Turks Today.

Overlook.  ISBN  978-1-58567-615-6.
 Pope, Hugh; Pope, Nicole (2004).  Turkey Unveiled.
Overlook.  ISBN  978-1-58567-581-4.
 Reed, Fred A. (1999). Anatolia Junction: a Journey into
Hidden Turkey. Burnaby, BC: Talonbooks [sic]. 320 p.,
ill. with b&w photos. ISBN 0-88922-426-9
 Revolinski, Kevin (2006). The Yogurt Man Cometh:
Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey.
Çitlembik. ISBN 978-9944-424-01-1.
 Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). Turks: A Journey of a
Thousand Years, 600–1600. Royal Academy of
Arts. ISBN 1-903973-56-2.
 Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007).  The
Byzantine Economy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.  ISBN  978-0-521-84978-4..
 Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979).  An Historical
Geography of Europe, 1500–1840. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
22379-9..

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 This page was last edited on 28 November 2022, at 06:01 (UTC).
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