2.

ECOSYSTEMS AND ECOLOGY

2.1 SPECIES AND POPULATION
- Species: group of organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed
and produce fertile offspring. Each species is given a scientific name
composed of 2 parts (genus name and specie name, homo sapiens) Different
breeds have fertile offspring. However, animals from different species don't
have fertile offspring.
- Population: group of organisms of the same species living in the same area
at the same time, and which are capable of interbreeding.
- Habitat: environment in which a species normally lives.
- Community: group of populations living and interacting in a common habitat.
- Ecosystem: a community and the physical environment it interacts with.

ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC FACTORS

Abiotic factors: the non-living physical factors that influence the organisms
(temperature, sunlight, salinity, …)
Biotic factors: the living components of an ecosystem-organisms, their interactions
or their waste - that directly or indirectly affect another organism.

NICHE
Niche: The particular set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources to which an
organism or population responds.
- Fundamental niche: the full range of conditions and resources in which a
species could survive and reproduce.
- Realized niche: the actual conditions and resources in which a species exists
due to biotic interactions.

Niches in the connell experiment: The fundamental niche describes the full range of
conditions and resources in which a species could survive and reproduce. The
realised niche describes the actual conditions and resources in which a species
exists due to biotic interactions.

LIMITING FACTORS AND CARRYING CAPACITY

Limiting factors: factors which slow down growth of a population when it reaches its
carrying capacity.
Carrying capacity: maximum number of a species or load that can be sustainably
supported by a given area.
POPULATION DYNAMICS
Interaction between organisms are biotic factors
- Competition
- Interspecific competition: individuals of different species competing for
the same resource.
- Intraspecific competition: individuals of the same species competing for
resources.
- Predation: an animal eats another animal.
- Herbivory: an animal eats a producer.
- Parasitism: relationship between 2 species in which one species (parasite)
lives on another (the host).
- Mutualism: relationship between 2 or more species all benefit and none
suffer.

POPULATION CHANGES
If there are no limiting factors a population will show exponential growth. In reality a
population growth curve looks like a combination
of S- and J- curves.
- S-curves: start with exponential growth,
but at a certain point the growth rate
slows down gradually, eventually resulting
in a population of constant size. The area
between the exponential curve and
S-curve is called environmental
resistance.

- J-curve: the population grows exponentially at

first and then collapses suddenly (diebacks).
When the population first exceeds the carrying
capacity and a long term is called overshoot.

2.2 COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS

Community: group of populations living and interacting in a common habitat.
Ecosystem: a community and the physical environment it interacts with.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Photosynthesis: it’s important in an ecosystem because it provides plants with
“food”/energy to respir and it also recycle the CO2 into new oxygen.

Respiration: in this process chemical energy is transformed into kinetic and heat
energy.

FOOD CHAINS AND TROPHIC LEVELS

Food chain: flow of energy from one organism to the next. Energy from sunlight is at
the start of every food chain.
Trophic levels: organisms in a food chain are grouped in trophic levels. A trophic
level is the position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or a group of
organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains.
Feeding relationships:
- Producers (autotrophs): organisms that use sunlight to produce their
own food.
- Consumers: (heterotrophs): organisms that eat other organisms to
obtain energy and matter.
- Primary consumer → herbivores
- Secondary consumers → carnivores or omnivores
- Decomposers: organisms that obtain their food and nutrients for the
breakdown of dead organic matter.

Trophic efficiency is about 10%. Major part of energy is used in respiration and
eventually lost as heat.
Food webs: in reality in an ecosystem there is a complex network of interrelated
food chains which create a food web. One species may occupy different trophic
levels depending on which food chain it is present in.
Ecological pyramid: graphical model of the quantitative differences between each
trophic level of a food chain. Types of ecological pyramids:
- Pyramids of numbers: shows number of organisms at each trophic level in a
food chain at one time.
- Pyramid of biomass: it contains the biomass at each trophic level. Biomass is
the quantity of (dry) organic material.
 - Pyramid of productivity: shows the rate of flow of energy or biomass through
each trophic level.

BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOMAGNIFICATION

Bioaccumulation: build-up of persistent/non-biodegradable pollutants within an
organism or trophic level.
Biomagnification: increase in concentration of pollutants along a food chain.

2.3 FLOWS OF ENERGY AND MATTER

Ecosystems are liked by energy and matter. The energy of the sun drives these
flows and humans are impacting the flows of energy and matter both locally and
globally.

PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity is the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time. It’s
the rate of growth of biomass increase in plants and animals. It’s measured per unit
area per unit time.

Primary Productivity: the gain by producers (autotrophs) in energy or biomass per

unit area per unit time. You can then divide primary productivity into gross and net
profits.
- Gross primary productivity (GPP): total gain in energy or biomass per unit
area per unit time by green plants. It is the energy fixed (or converted from
light to chemical energy) by green plants by photosynthesis (income)
- Net primary productivity (NPP): total gain in energy of biomass per unit area
per unit time by green plants after allowing for losses to respiration. This is the
increase in biomass of the plant, how much it grows, and is the biomass that
is potentially available to consumers (animals) to eat the plant. ( incomes
minus costs)
NPP = GPP - R (energy that the organism need to function)
Secondary Productivity: the biomass gained by heterotrophic organisms, through
feeding and absorption, measured in units of mass or energy per unit area per unit
time.
- Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP): total energy/biomass assimilated by
consumers and is calculated by subtracting the mass of fecal loss from the
mass of food eaten.
GSP = food eaten - fecal loss

- Net Secondary Productivity (NSP): net secondary productivity is the total gain
in energy or biomass by consumers after allowing for losses to respiration.
Net secondary productivity (NSP) is calculated by subtracting respiratory
losses (R) from GSP.
NSP = GSP - R

To calculate the net primary productivity with quadrats:

NPP=GPP - R
R=A-B
NPP= C-A
GPP=NPP+R=C (-A +A)-B
 1) b-c → because b is the energy of the sun in the producers and c is the
energy that is not used
2) b-c-d → because b-c is the GPP and d is the energy used for respiration
3) e-g-j → The consumer community is carnivores and herbivores, e is the
energy that herbivores receive, g is the energy that they use for respiration
and j is the energy that the carnivores use for respiration.

CYCLES
Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction, starting as solar radiation and
finally leaving as heat released through the respiration. On the other hand, chemical
nutrients in the biosphere cycle: nutrients are absorbed by organisms from the soil
and atmosphere and circulate through the trophic levels and are finally released
back to the ecosystem, usually via the detritus food chain.

Nutrient cycles: all biochemical cycles have biotic and abiotic components. They
are represented by the Gersmehl’s nutrient flow model, it represents storages as
circles and flows as arrows

VOCABULARY:
Weathering: breaking a rock down into
smaller pieces
Erosion: movement of the sediments
created by weathering
Leaching: dissolution of minerals in water
when it goes into the earth
Run-off: when water moves into the
surface to a bigger accumulation of water
CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle involves the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. Carbon
dioxide plays an important role in photosynthesis (major source of oxygen in the
atmosphere). Plants use the sun’s energy to split water molecules; they then use
CO2 to synthesise carbohydrates. One of the products of this reaction is oxygen.

Storages in the carbon cycle: examples include organisms and forests (both
organic), or the atmosphere, soil, fossil fuels and oceans (all inorganic). Places
where carbon is stored are called Carbon Sinks. The oceans are the largest carbon
sinks, holding many times more carbon than all the forests on earth combined.
Climate change is affecting how much carbon the ocean can hold.

Flows in the carbon cycle: examples include consumption (feeding), death and
decomposition, photosynthesis, respiration, dissolving and fossilisation. The carbon
cycle is required for the building of all organic compounds and involves the
participation of many of the earth's key forces. The carbon cycle has affected the
earth throughout its history; it has contributed to major climatic changes, and it has
helped facilitate the evolution of life.

Flows in the carbon cycle are divided into:

● Transfers:
○ Herbivores feeding on producers, carnivores feeding on herbivores
○ Decomposes feeding on dead organic matter
○ Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves in rainwater.

● Transformation
○ Photosynthesis converts inorganic material into organic matter
○ Photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide and water into glucose
○ Respiration converts organic storage into inorganic matter
○ Combustion transforms biomass into carbon dioxide and water
○ Fossilisation transforms organic matter in dead organisms into fossil
fuels
NITROGEN CYCLE

The nitrogen cycle cycles nitrogen from storage pools into directly usable forms and
back again. The atmosphere acts as a reservoir for nitrogen because 78% of the
atmosphere is nitrogen.
Storages in the nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen is stored in organisms, soil, fossil fuels,
atmosphere, bodies of water, watersheds in soil, groundwater, ocean water,
sediment, and plant matter (dead and living). Places, where nitrogen is stored, are
called Nitrogen Sinks.

Nitrogen is contained in inorganic and organic molecules/reservoirs. Each of these

molecules is vital to an organism's survival which emphasises the importance of the
nitrogen cycle. Examples of inorganic molecules that contain nitrogen include
man-made fertilisers and ammonia. These molecules are less important to both the
survival of organisms and the nitrogen cycle itself.

Flows in the nitrogen cycle: examples include nitrogen fixation by bacteria and
lightning, absorption, assimilation, consumption (feeding), excretion, death and
decomposition, and denitrification by bacteria in waterlogged soils. The nitrogen
cycle represents one of the most important nutrient cycles found in terrestrial
ecosystems because nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of
complex organic molecules like amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Flows in nitrogen cycle are:

● Transfers
○ herbivores feeding on producers, carnivores feeding on herbivores
○ decomposers feeding on dead organic matter
○ plants absorbing nitrates through their roots
○ removal of metabolic waste
 ● Transformations
○ lightening transforms nitrogen in the atmosphere into NO3
○ nitrogen-fixing bacteria transform nitrogen gas in the atmosphere into
ammonium
○ denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates into nitrogen
○ decomposers break down organic nitrogen into ammonia
○ nitrogen from nitrates is use by plants to make proteins

HOW DO HUMANS IMPACT THE NITROGEN AND CARBON CYCLE?

Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, urbanisation and
agriculture impact energy flows as well as the carbon and nitrogen cycles. These
human activities increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and nitrogen
levels in the biosphere.

HOW HUMANS IMPACT ON ENERGY FLOWS, AND ON THE CARBON AND

NITROGEN CYCLES.
Fertilisers: Use of synthetic fertilisers has affected the phosphorus and nitrogen
cycles. Plants may not be able to utilise all of the phosphate fertiliser applied; as a
consequence, much of it is lost from the land through the water run-off. The
phosphate in the water is eventually precipitated as sediments at the bottom of the
water body. In certain lakes and ponds this may be redissolved and recycled as a
problem nutrient.

Mining of Fossil fuels: Humans have interfered with the carbon cycle where fossil
fuels have been mined from the earth crust. Carbon dioxide is the number one
greenhouse gas contributing to global warming and climate change. Additionally,
clearing of vegetation that serves as carbon sinks has increased the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Livestock ranching: Livestock release large amounts of ammonia into the

environment from their wastes. This nitrogen enters the soil system and then the
hydrologic system through leaching, groundwater flow, and runoff.

2.4 BIOMES, ZONATION AND SUCCESSION

CLIMATE: average weather pattern over many years (usually 30) at a certain
location. Climate determines the type of biome in a given area, although individual
ecosystems may vary due to many local abiotic and biotic factors

BIOMES
A biome is a group of ecosystems that share similar climate conditions. There are 5
major types: aquatic, desert, forest, grassland, tundra
Tricellular model: The tricellular model of atmospheric circulation explains the
distribution of precipitation and temperature and how they influence the structure and
relative productivity of different terrestrial biomes. The tricellular model is made up of
three different air masses, these control atmospheric movements and the
redistribution of heat energy.

ZONATION AND SUCCESSION

Zonation and succession deal with spatial and temporal changes in communities.
- ZONATION: change in a community along an environmental gradient due to
factors such as changes in altitude, latitude, tidal level or distance from
shore/coverage by water.
- SUCCESSION: the process of change over time in an ecosystem involving
pioneer, intermediate and climax communities. Spatial changes in an
ecosystem along an environmental gradient, succession refers to change in
time.

Primary Succession Secondary Succession

- Begins with no life - Follows removal of existing biota

- No soil present - Soil already present
- New area (eg: volcanic area) - Old area (following a bush fire)
- Lichen and moss come first - Seeds and roots already present
- Biomass is low - Biomass is higher

SURVIVAL STRATEGIES
R- and K-strategist species have reproductive strategies that are better adapted to
pioneer and climax communities, respectively. In general, communities in early
succession will be dominated by fast-growing, well-dispersed species (opportunist,
fugitive, or r-selected life-histories).

As succession proceeds, these species will tend to be replaced by more competitive

(k-selected) species. They tend to inhabit relatively stable biological communities,
such as late-successional or climax forests

r - selected K - Selected

- Short life - Long life

- Rapid growth - Slower growth
- Early maturity - Late maturity
- Little parental care or protection - High parental care and protection
- Little investment in individual offspring - High investment in individual offspring
- Adapted to an unstable environment. - Adapted to stable environment
- Prey - Predators
- Lower trophic level - Higher trophic level
2.5 INVESTIGATING ECOSYSTEMS
ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of living organisms in relation to their environment

DICHOTOMOUS KEY
Handy tool for identification of organisms that you are not familiar with
There are limitations to the use of keys, keys tend to examine physical
characteristics rather than behaviour, some keys use technical terms that only an
expert would understand

MEASURING ABIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

Investigations in ecosystems are very complicated because there are so many
different factors. We can group factors influencing ecosystems into: biotic factors and
abiotic factors.
If we want to know what kind of plants and animals are in a particular habitat, since
there can be a big amount of organisms and plants, we take samples. With a
sample, we make the assumption that these samples are representative of the
habitat in general.

EVALUATING MEASURES FOR DESCRIBING ABIOTIC FACTORS

Abiotic factors that can be measured within an ecosystem are:
Marine environment → salinity, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, wave action
Freshwater environment → turbidity, flow velocity, pH, temperature, dissolved
oxygen
Terrestrial environment → temperature, light intensity, wind speed, particle size,
slope, soil moisture, drainage, mineral content.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF TAKING SAMPLES

Random Sampling → usually carried out when the area under study is fairly
uniform, very large, and or there is limited time available
Systematic Sampling → samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually along a line.
Stratified Sampling → used to take into account different areas (or strata) which
are identified within the main body of a habitat. These strata are sampled separately
from the main part of the habitat

3. BIODIVERSITY
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity: the term biodiversity refers to the variety of life on earth at all its levels.
It includes the diversity of species, habitat diversity and genetic diversity.

TYPES OF DIVERSITY
Species diversity: number of different species in and abundance of each species
that live in a particular location. This number is a product of two variables:
 - Species richness: number of species that live in a certain location. More
species means richer environment
- Evenness: looks at the relative abundance of the species. It takes into
account the abundance or scarcity of each species
-
Habitat diversity: it is associated with the variety of ecological niches. Conservation
of habitat diversity usually leads to the conservation species and genetic diversity

Genetic diversity: it refers to the range of genetic material present in a population of

species. Genes are sections of DNA that contain “instructions”. Gene pool refers to
all the different types of gene found within every individual of a species.

DIVERSITY INDEX
A diversity index is a mathematical measure of species diversity in a community.
Diversity indices provide more information about community composition than simply
species richness because they also take the relative abundances of different species
into account.

MEASURING SPECIES DIVERSITY:

Diversity: term used to describe the
relationship between the number of
individuals and the number of species in a
community.
The Simpson’s Diversity Index takes into
account both the number of abundance of
species and is a useful means of comparing
similar habitats in different areas.

3.2 ORIGINS OF BIODIVERSITY

EVOLUTION
Evolution is a gradual change in the genetic character of populations over many
generations, achieved largely through the mechanism of natural selection.
Environmental change gives new challenges to species, which drives the evolution
of biodiversity.

GENETIC VARIATION
Genetic variation is an important force in evolution as it allows natural selection to
increase or decrease frequency of alleles already in the population.
The genetic change can have beneficial and non-beneficial effects and based on
these genetic changes nature will select the individuals possessing what it takes to
survive. This means successful genes are selected and passed on to the next
generation. Over time, a change in the species’ gene pool takes place, and such
changes ultimately lead to new species.
NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection: is the theory of evolution developed by Charles Darwin. This
explained how the Earth’s biodiversity has arisen:
- Populations show variation and not all individuals are the same
- Populations always over-reproduce to produce excess offspring and because
of this the resources such as space and food are not enough for all off-spring
so there is a competition for these resources
- Due to variation within the species, some individuals will fit better than others.
Fitter individuals have an advantage and will reproduce more successfully
than the other individuals that are less fit.
- This individuals that survive contain genes that give them an adaptive
advantage
- This genes are inherited by offspring and passed on to the next generation
- Over time there is a change in the gene pool which leads to the formation of
new species
SPECIATION
Process by which new species form. Natural selection works with isolating
mechanisms to produce new species

THE ROLE OF ISOLATION IN FORMING NEW SPECIES

Isolation: the process by which two populations become separated . If gene flow is
prevented, new species may evolve

GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION
Geographical isolation is caused by a physical barrier that leads to populations
becoming separated and eventually leading to speciation. Causes of geographical
isolation include plate activity and the formation of mountains, seas, lakes…

REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
Reproductive isolation is caused by processes that prevent the members of two
different species from producing offspring together. It includes:
- Environmental isolation: the geographical ranges of two species overlap but
their niches differ enough to cause reproductive isolation
- Temporal isolation: two species whose ranges overlap have different times
of activity
- Behavioral isolation: courtship rituals between two species vary
- Mechanical isolation: physical differences in, for example, reproductive
organs, prevent mating or pollination
- Gametic isolation: sperm and ova are incompatible, and will or will not allow
fertilization to take place
PLATE ACTIVITY
Plate tectonics: the movement of the eight major and several minor internally rigid
plates of the earth’s lithosphere in relation to each other and to the partially mobile
asthenosphere below

The outer crust and upper mantle (the lithosphere) of the earth are divided into many
plates that mover over the molten part of the mantle (magma)
- Plates move apart, slide against each other and collide
- Plates move apart at a constructive plate margins
- Plates move together at a deconstructive plate margins
- Plates collide at collision plate margins

- The separation of continental plates leads to isolation of populations. This

separates organisms with a common ancestor. This separation of gene pools
results in divergent evolution
- Collision of plates can lead to uplift and mountain formation. The mountains
form a physical barrier which isolates populations. The uplift also creates new
habitats, promoting biodiversity. Adaptation to new habitats then occur
through natural selection
- Collision of plates can also cause the spread of species through the creation
of land bridges. This leads to a mixing of gene pool and possible hybridisation
- Plate activity can create new islands, usually through volcanic activity. This
can lead to adaptation to fill new habitats
- The movement of plates to new climate regions leads to evolutionary change
to adapt to new conditions

PAST AND PRESENT RATES OF SPECIES EXTINCTION

The fossil record shows that there’s been five periods of mass extinction in the past

Mass extinction: include events in which 75% of the species on Earth disappear
within a geologically short time period. Usually between a few hundred thousand to a
few million years
Past mass extinctions have been caused by natural , physical causes. Scientists
consider that the Earth is currently undergoing a sixth mass extinction caused by
human activities.

3.3 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

THE NUMBER OF SPECIES ON EARTH
Scientists currently don’t know how many species exist on earth. There are around
1.8 million described species, but scientists can only estimate how many other
organisms remain undiscovered. The number of species is poorly known for many
reasons:
- Some habitats are difficult to reach and may contain undescribed species
- Lack of finance for scientific research
- There are difficulties with classification. Description of new species in the past
has been based on physical characteristics which may be less accurate than
modern DNA techniques
- Bias in the past led to the discovery of large-sized popular and appealing
groups such as mammals and birds, which represent af very small proportion
of total species number and so smaller species requiring microscopic
investigation are less well known
- Only a relatively small number of taxonomists are involved in identifying new
species

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO LOSS OF DIVERSITY

Natural events can cause a loss of diversity. Examples include:
- Volcanic activity
- drought /floods
- Ice ages
- Meteor impacts
Human actions can cause a loss of diversity:
- Agricultural practices such as monoculture (a crop for only one specie), use of
pesticides and use of genetically modified species
- Habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss
- Introduction of non-native invasive species
- Pollution
- Population growth, leading to disturbance of habitats, pollution…
- Overhunting, collecting and harvesting

The rate of biodiversity loss will vary from country to country depending on:
- The ecosystem present
- The protection policies and monitoring systems in place
- EVSs of the local residents
- The stage of economic development

TROPICAL BIOMES AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Tropical biomes such as a tropical rainforest and mangrove contain some of the
most globally biodiverse areas. The unsustainable exploitation of tropical biomes
results in massive losses in biodiversity and their ability to perform globally important
ecological services such as water and carbon cycling.

Most tropical biomes occur in less economically developed countries and therefore
there is conflict between exploitation, sust<inable development and conservation:
- Clearance of ecosystems provides land for cash-crops such as oil palm
- Plantations provide financial income for local communities
- Clearance leads to biodiversity loss

For sustainable development in LEDCs, there needs to be a balance between

conserving tropical biomes and using the land to provide income for the local
economy

Diversification of the local economy into areas such as ecotourism can provide
alternative sources of income and allows conservation areas to be established,
protecting biodiversity

FACTORS THAT MAKE SPECIES PRONE TO EXTINCTION

Not all species are equally vulnerable to extinction. Certain animals and plants,
through their ecology or behavior are more at risk. Factors include:
- Small populations size which leads to a reduce gene pool and therefore the
species is more prone to disease and inbreeding
- Limited distribution
- High degree of specialization
- Slow reproductive rate
- Low reproductive potential
- Non-competitive behavior
 - Long or complex migration routes
- High trophic level and can accumulate toxins
- Habitat under threat
- Human pressure from hunting, collecting, trade…

DETERMINING A SPECIES’ RED LIST CONSERVATION STATUS

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assesses the
conservation status of species on a global scale. The IUCN presents this information
in the Red List. This is done to:
- Highlight species threatened with extinction
- Promote conservation of threatened species

Different factors are used to determine a species’ conservation status. A sliding

scale operates, from least concern to extinct. Factors include:
- Population size
- Reduction in population size
- Distribution
- Degree of specialization
- Quality of habitat
- Trophic level
- Probability of extinction

3.4 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

ARGUMENTS FOR PRESERVING SPECIES AND HABITATS
- Ethical reasons: every specie has a right to survive
- Aesthetic reasons: provides beauty and inspiration
- Economic reasons: value of genetic resources for humans (ex. Improved
crops), commercial considerations of the natural capital (ex. new medicines),
value of ecotourism (benefits from higher levels of biodiversity)
- Social reasons: loss of natural ecosystems can lead to loss of peoples’
homes, sources of livelihood and culture. Areas of high biodiversity provide
income for local people through for example tourism

Ecosystems provide a variety of different goods and services:

- Goods: food, fiber, fuel and water
- Support services: essentials for life including primary productivity, soil
formation and the cycling of nutrients
- Regulatory services: pollination, regulation of pests and diseases, climate
regulation, flood regulation, water quality regulation and erosion control
- Cultural services: providing opportunities for outdoor recreation, education,
spiritual wellbeing and improvements to human health
THE ROLE OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS
- Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs): are established through
international agreements. They bring governments together to work to protect
the Earth’s natural resources. An example is the UNEP (United Nations
Environment Programme)
- Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): are not run by, funded by, or
influenced by any government from any country. Examples include
Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
Both governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations are involved
in preserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity. They have contrasting roles
and activities

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON BIODIVERSITY

International conventions have shaped attitudes towards sustainability. The UN
Conference on the Human Environment was the first time that the international
community met to consider global environment and development needs together. It
led to the Stockholm Declaration , which played an essential role in setting targets
and triggering action at both local and international level

THE WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY

`The WCS was established in 1980 by the International Union for Nature
Conservation (IUCN). The IUCN is concerned with the conservation of resources for
economic development. The WCS consisted of 3 aims:
- Maintaining essential life-support systems and ecological processes
- Preserving genetic diversity
- Using species and ecosystems in a sustainable way

DESIGNING A PROTECTED AREA

Protected areas should aim to preserve the greatest amount of natural habitat
within an ecosystem, and therefore maintain the complex ecological interactions that
maintain equilibrium and biodiversity. In most countries protected areas are islands
surrounded by areas of disturbance.
Island biogeography theory predicts that smallest islands of habitat will contain
fewer species than larger islands. It is therefore inevitable that protected areas will
have lost some of the diversity seen in the original undisturbed ecosystem. The
principles of island biogeography can be applied to the design of reserves.

The shape, size and connectivity of reserves is important in designing a protected

area. Protected areas that are better for conservation have the following features:
- Larger and so support a greater range of habitats, and therefore greater
species diversity
- High population number of each species
- Greater productivity at each trophic level, leading to longer food chains and
greater stability
- Maintain a low perimeter to reduce edge effects so the area is less
undisturbed
- Maintain top carnivores and large mammals by having a large area
- If areas are divided, then they should be in close proximity to allow animals
and plants to move between them
- Maintain gene flow between fragmented reserves by allowing movement
along corridors
- Allow movements of large mammals and top carnivores between fragments
by maintaining corridors

BUFFER ZONES
Buffer zones help to protect conservation areas and
maintain equilibrium and biodiversity. They contain
habitats that are either managed or undisturbed, and
minimize disturbance in the protected area from
outside influences such as people, agriculture, pests
and diseases

EVALUATING THE SUCCESS OF A PROTECTED AREA

Successful protected areas have the following characteristics:
- Provide vital habitat for indigenous species
- Create community support for the area
- Receive adequate funding and resources
- Carry out relevant ecological research and monitoring
- Play an important role in education
- Protected by legislation
- Have policing and guarding policies
- Give the site economic value
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE SPECIES-BASED APPROACH TO
CONSERVATION
The species-based approach to conservation focuses on vulnerable species and in
raising their profile. It attracts attention and therefore funding for conservation, and
can successfully preserve species in zoos and botanic gardens. There is a tendency
to focus on the conservation of high-profile, charismatic species that catch public
attention.
Species-based conservation involves:
- Keystone species
- Flagship species
- The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
- Captive breeding and reintroduction programmes
- Zoos

KEYSTONE SPECIES
Keystone species are essential for the functioning of the ecosystems and in
protecting the integrity of a food web (Ex. sea otters)

FLAGSHIP SPECIES
The selection of “charismatic” species can help to protect others in an area. This
species are flagship species

CITES
CITES is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (of Wild
Fauna and Flora) and it’s an international agreement aimed at preventing trade in
endangered species of plants and animals. Therefore it reduces demand for trade
and contributes to species conservation.
Under the convention, countries agree to monitor trade in threatened species. For
example, CITES has helped to protect elephants and rhinos by reducing trade in
ivory and rhino horn.
CAPTIVE BREEDING AND REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMMES
Captive breeding and reintroduction programmes are part of a species-based
approach to conservation.
- They are usually done by zoos
- A small population is obtained from the wild or other zoos
- Enclosures for animals are made as similar to the natural habitat as possible
- Breeding can be assisted through artificial insemination

ZOOS
Zoos protect species in carefully controlled environments. They are and example of
ex situ conservation.

COMPARING DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CONSERVATION

A MIXED APPROACH TO CONSERVATION
A mixed approach to conservation means combining both in situ and ex situ
methods.
Species based approach (In situ) - focuses on conserving the species in their
natural habitat.
- CITI (Conservation on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora
- Flagship species
- Keystone species

Habitat based approach (Ex situ) - improve the probability of survival of the
species by taking them out of their habitat and breeding them in captivity; with the
intention of re-introducing them back into the wild in the future.
- Captive breeding and zoos
- Botanical gardens and seed banks