Reinforced Earth and

Geotextiles

Lecture - 2

Dr. Dooradarshi Chatterjee

Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Sikkim
Email: dooradarshi@nitsikkim.ac.in
 Introduction
➢ Geosynthetics are designed to perform a function, or a
combination of functions, within the soil–geosynthetic system.

➢ Such functions are expected to be performed over the

design life of the soil–geosynthetic system, which is typically
less than 5 years for short term use, around 25 years for
temporary use and 50 to 100 years or more for permanent
use.

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 Design Methodologies
The primary responsibility of a designer is to design a facility that
fulfils the operational requirements of the owner throughout its
design life.

Design by experience

Design by cost and availability

Design by specification

Design by function
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 The design of a structure incorporating geosynthetics
aims to ensure its strength, stability and serviceability
over its intended life span.

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 Design by Experience

❖ Based on one’s past experience or that of other’s.

❖ This is recommended if the application is not

driven by a basic function or has a nonrealistic test
method

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 Design by Cost and Availability

❖ The maximum unit price of the geosynthetic is

calculated by dividing the funds available by the area to
be covered by the geosynthetic.
❖ The geosynthetic with the best quality is then selected
within this unit price limit according to its availability.

✓ Technically weak – not recommended

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 Design by Specification

❖ Consists of a property matrix where common

application areas are listed along with minimum (or
sometimes maximum) property values.

❖ A property matrix is usually prepared on the basis of

local experiences and field conditions for routine
applications by most of the governmental agencies
and other large users of geosynthetics.
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 Design by Function
Preferred design approach for geosynthetics - Working
stress design approach.
Steps:
o Define the primary function of the geosynthetic,
which can be reinforcement, separation, filtration,
drainage, fluid barrier or protection.
o Inventory of loads and constraints imposed by the
application.
o Define the design life of the geosynthetic.
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o Determine the required functional property of the geosynthetic (e.g.
strength, permittivity, transmissivity, etc.) for the primary function.
o Obtain the allowable property (available property at the end of the
design life) of the geosynthetic.
o Calculate the factor of safety, FS
Allowable (or test) functional property
𝐹𝑆 =
Required (or design) functional property
o If this factor of safety is not acceptable, check into geosynthetics with
more appropriate properties.
o If acceptable, check if any other function of the geosynthetic is also
critical, and repeat the above steps.
o If several geosynthetics are found to meet the required factor of safety,
select the geosynthetic on the basis of cost–benefit ratio.
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 Geosynthetic Failure Mechanisms

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 Typical allowable (or test) value and required (design) value
of a functional property as a function of time

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 Limit state design approach, rather than the working
stress design

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For the purpose of geosynthetic-reinforced soil
design, a limit state is deemed to be reached when
one of the following occurs:

❖ Collapse, major damage or other similar forms of structural

failure – ultimate limit state
❖ Deformations in excess of acceptable limits – serviceability
limit state
❖ Other forms of distress or minor damage, which would
render the structure unsightly, require unforeseen maintenance
or shorten the expected life of the structure.

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 Limit State Design
➢ The practice in reinforced soil is to design against the ultimate limit state and
check for the serviceability limit state
➢ Margins of safety, against attaining the ultimate limit state, are provided by
the use of partial material factors and partial load factors

• External dead load, ff

Dead Loads
• Soil unit weight, ffs

Principal • Geosynthetic reinforcement parameters, fm

material
factors • Soil parameters, fms

Economic • fn

Live loads • fq
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 Construction Sequence of a Reinforced
Earth Wall

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o Construction takes place from bottom upwards.
o Reinforcement is placed sequentially as layers of soil
are compacted one after the other.

✓ During construction – ensure that reinforcement is not

damaged.
✓ Facing panels are not displaced or tilted.

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 Construction Techniques
❖ Soil - deposited in layers to form the structure.
❖ Settlements within the soil mass caused by gravitational forces.
❖ Reinforcing elements (positioned on discrete planes) move
together as the layers of soil separating the planes of
reinforcement are compressed.
❖ Construction techniques capable of accommodating this internal
compaction within the soil fill are required.

✓ Failure to accommodate the differential movement may result in

loss of serviceability .
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 Construction
Techniques

Concertina Method Telescope Method Sliding Method

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 Concertina Method

(a) Reinforced soil with metallic face units; (b) method of construction, fabric wall;
(c) method of construction, fabric wall; (d) method of construction of sloping
traverse; (e) method of construction, fabric or geogrid or cutting
 Concertina Method
❖ Differential settlement within the mass (d1—d4) is
achieved by the front or face of the structure concertinaing.
❖ The largest modern reinforced soil structures have been
built using this approach.
❖ Used with fabrics and geogrid reinforcing materials in both
embankments and cuttings.
❖ A flexible hoop-shaped unit made from steel or aluminium
is normally used.

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 Telescope Method
❖ The settlement within the soil mass (d5, d6)
is achieved by the facing panels closing up
an equivalent amount to the internal
settlement.
❖ The facing panels are supported by the
reinforcing elements.
❖ A discrete horizontal gap - between facing
panel.
❖ Horizontal gap - compressible gaskets Telescope method

✓ Failure to provide a large enough gap between facing elements

can result in crushing of the facing.
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 Telescope Method –
Construction Sequence

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 Sliding Method

(a) Sliding method of construction, (b) perspective illustrating assembly of

component
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 Sliding Method
❖ Differential settlement within the fill - accommodated by
permitting the reinforcing members to slide relative to the
facing.
❖ Slideable attachments - grooves, slots, vertical poles, lugs or
bolts.
❖ Vertical poles - form the structural elements of the facing
❖ The facing may become non-structural - protect the completed
structure from the elements and prevent erosion.

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Sliding Method –
Erection Sequence

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 Advantages of Reinforced Earth
Techniques

Economic Benefits
o Reduced earthwork quantities – result of steeper slopes and less
land acquisition costs.
o Increased construction speed – reinforcements and facing are
made available at site.
o Occupies less space – reinforced soil structure stays stable.
o Poor fill materials can be used due to strength improvement.

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Technical Benefits
o Efficient use of material combinations: Shearing resistance of
soil + Tensile capacity of reinforcing materials.
o Inherent flexibility and tolerance to deformation
✓Reinforced soil structure can withstand severe earthquakes
o Overall improvement of performance.
o Offer totally different and new solutions – otherwise impossible

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 References
➢ Koerner, R. M. (2005). Designing with Geosynthetics, 5th Edition, Pearson Education,
Pearson Prentice Hall.
➢ Saran, S. (2013). Reinforced Soil and its Engineering Applications, I.K. International
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

➢ Ingold, T. S. (1982). Reinforced Earth, Thomas Telford Ltd., London.

➢ Mandal, J.N. Geosynthetics Engineering: In Theory and Practice, IIT Bombay, NPTEL
lectures.
➢ Narain, J. (1984). Reinforced Earth, 7th IGS Annual lecture, 26th Annual General
Session held at Calcutta, India.

➢ Shukla, S.K. and Yin, J.H. (2006). Fundamentals of Geosynthetic Engineering, Taylor &
Francis Group, London, UK.
➢ Colin J. F. P. Jones. (1996). Earth reinforcement and soil structures, Thomas Telford,
ASCE Press.
Reinforced Earth and Geotextiles
Thanks for Hearing