NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA
NEOBEHAVIORISM – has aspects of behaviorism but it
also reaches out to the cognitive perspective.
THEORIES REFLECTING NEO-BEHAVIORISM
• Purposive Behaviorism – Edward Tolman
• Social Learning Theory – Albert Bandura
-influenced by behaviorism (focused on external elements
in learning), but principles are also reflective of the
cognitive perspective (focused in internal elements in
learning)
EDWARD TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
✓ Referred to as Sign Learning Theory
✓ Link between behaviorism (John Watson) and
cognitive theory (Gestalt)
✓ Learning is a cognitive process.
• Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining
knowledge about the environment and then revealing the
knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed
behavior.
SIGN THEORY – an organism learns by pursuing signs
to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful
behavior.
• The stimuli which are allowed in are not
connected by just simple one-to-one switches to
the outgoing responses rather the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated
in the central control room into a tentative
cognitive-like map of the environment.
• TENTATIVE MAP- indicates routes and paths
and environmental relationships, which finally
determines what responses, if any, the animal will
finally make
TOLMAN - Stressed the relationships of stimuli rather
than stimulus-response
• New stimulus (the sign) becomes associated
with already meaningful stimulus (the
significate) through a series of pairings there is
no need for reinforcement in order to establish
learning.
TOLMAN’S KEY CONCEPTS
1. Learning is always purposive and goal-
directed.
• An organism acted or responded for some
adoptive purpose.
• Individuals do more than merely respond to
stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive toward goals.
• Behavior is holistic, purposive and cognitive.
2. Cognitive maps in rats.
• One group of rats was placed at random starting
locations in a maze but the food was always in
the same location.
• Another group of rats had the food placed in
different locations which always required exactly
the same pattern of turns from their starting
location.
• The group that had the food in the same location
performed much better than the other group.
• They had learned the location rather than a
specific sequence of turns.
• LEARN LOCATION – signified that rats formed
cognitive maps that help them perform well on the
maze.
• Also found out that organisms will select the
shortest or easier path to achieve a goal.
3. Latent Learning.
• A kind of learning that remains or stay with the
individual until needed.
• Learning that is not outwardly manifested at once.
• According to Tolman – it can exist even without
reinforcement.
• In Tolman’s rat experiments – rat apparently
learned the maze by forming cognitive maps of
the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the
maze only when they needed to.
4. The Concept of Intervening Variable.
• Intervening variables - are variables that are not
readily seen but serve as determinants of
behavior.
• Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is
influenced by expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and other internal or
environmental variables.
• Example, in his experiments with rats – he found
out that hunger- was an intervening variable.
5. Reinforcement not essential for learning.
• Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not
essential for learning, although it provides an
incentive for performance.
• In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to
acquire knowledge of the way through a maze,
i.e. to develop a cognitive map, even in the
absence of reinforcement.
ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• Social Learning Theory focuses on the learning
that occurs within a social context.
• People learn from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning, imitation and
modeling.
• Albert Bandura – the leading proponent of this
theory.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY
• People can learn by observing the behavior of
others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
• Learning can occur without a change in
behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be
represented by a permanent change in behavior,
in contrast, social learning theorists say that
because people can learn through observation
alone, their learning may not necessarily be
shown in their performance.
• Learning may or may not result in a change in
behavior.
• Cognition plays a role in learning.
• Over the last 30 years Social Learning theory has
increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of
human learning.
• Social Learning Theory can be considered a
bridge or a transition between behaviorist
learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
HOW THE ENVIRONMENT REINFORCES AND
PUNISHES MODELING.
Banduras suggested that the environment also reinforces
modeling.
1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
• For example, a student who change dress to fit in
with a certain group of students has a strong
likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced
by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
• The observer might be modeling the actions of
someone else, for example, an outstanding class
leader or student. The teacher notices this and
compliments and praises the observer for
modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that
behavior.
Banduras suggested that the environment also reinforces
modeling. (continuation)
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing
consequences. Many behaviors that we learn from
others produce satisfying or reinforcing results.
• For example, as student in a multimedia class
could observe how the extra work a classmate
does is fun. This student in turn will do the same
extra work and also experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the
observer’s behavior vicariously. – vicarious
reinforcement.
• This is where the model is reinforced for a
response and then the observer shows an
increase in that same response.
• Bandura illustrated this by having students watch
a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One
group of children saw the model being praised for
such action. Without being reinforced, the group
of children began to hit the doll.
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL LEARNING
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as
behaviorist factors.
1. Learning without performances: Bandura makes a
distinction between learning through observation and the
actual imitation of what has learned.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social
learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor
in learning.
3. Expectations: as a result of being reinforced, people
form expectations about the consequences that future
behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain
behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring
punishment.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that
behavior can influence both the environment and the
person. In fact of these three variables : the person, the
behavior, and the environment can have an influence on
each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models.
• Live model – an actual person demonstrating the
behavior.
• Symbolic model – which can be a person or
action portrayed in some other medium, such as
television, videotape, computer programs.
CONDITION NECESSARY FOR EFFECTIVE
MODELING TO OCCUR
Bandura mention four conditions that are necessary
before an individual can successfully model the behavior
of someone else.
1. Attention – the person must pay attention to the
model.
 2. Retention – the observer must be able to
remember the behavior that has been observed.
– technique-rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction - the ability to replicate the
behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
4. Motivation – learners must want to demonstrate
what they have learned.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL
LEARNING THEORY
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing
other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can
effectively increase appropriate behaviors and decrease
inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with
learners about he rewards and consequences of various
behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for
teaching new behaviors.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate
behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to variety of other
models.
GESTALT THEORY OF LEARNING
Learning Theories are categorized into three:
(1) Behavioral Learning Theories,
(2) Cognitive Theories, and
(3) Constructivist Theories.
Yilmaz, K. (2011) - described Behaviorism as a teacher
centered instructional framework which has dominated
educational settings for a long time and has shaped every
aspect of curriculum and instruction.
Cognitive Theories tend towards a learner-centered
instructional framework based on the learner’s capacity to
process and interpret information – a cognitive process.
SOME EXAMPLES OF METHODS AND
APPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY:
• Inquiry-learning
• Discovery Learning
• Problem Based Learning
EFFECTIVE COGNITIVE PROCESSES – learning is
easier and new information can be stored in memory for
a long time.
INEFFECTIVE COGNITIVE PROCESSES – result to
learning difficulties which can be seen anytime during the
lifetime of an individual.
GESTALT THEORY OF LEARNING
• Max Wertheimer - is considered as the Father of
Gestalt Psychology and together with other
pioneers in this field – Kohler, Koffka, and
Lewin, studied perception.
• The term gestalt is a German word which means
form, pattern or configuration
• The theory explains that in our perception of
objects in the environment, we do not simply see
objects as they are but they try to restructure
them, reorganize them to understand what they
sense.
• The theory suggests that learners do not simply
collect information as is but they actively process
and restructure data in order to understand them.
• That is the perceptual process.
Perception or interpretation of what we sense is
affected by factors such as past experiences, needs,
attitudes, and other factors in the present situation which
can intervene in our interpretation.
As Gestalt maxim states: The whole is more than the
sum of its parts”
Gestalt Theory proposes that “Learning is the
organization and re-organization of behaviour which
arises from the interaction of a maturing organism
and its environment.
It is the bringing about through this interaction of new
forms of perception, imagination, motor co-ordination and
other organic behavior.”
Such interaction between the perceiving organism and
the environment may result to learning for example
suddenly gaining insight on how to use available materials
in the environment to solve a problem.
Insight Learning - is the sudden appearance of a
solution by seeing coherent patterns at once.
The theory suggests that individuals do not perform
random activities but they perceive the situation as a
whole, and intentionally reach for the goal. Insight is the
perception of relationship between an agent, a goal,
and intervening conditions or obstacles.
Insight is often called as the ‘Aha’ experience, the flash
of understanding which comes to us all of a sudden.
Insight, when it occurs, is characteristically accompanied
by an ‘I have got it! (Ah alam ko na! Nakuha ko na! Ah
gets ko na!).
The Gestalt tends to place for more emphasis on the
intrinsic organizing capacity in the brain of the
individual, and they emphasize the dynamic interactions
of the elements in the entire perceptual field.
Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists in problem
solving by understanding the relative position of the
elements in the entire perspective or situation.
When a problem arises, it tends to disturb the equilibrium
of the organism who seeks a balance and so the organism
goes into processing available information in the
environment, see coherent patterns to bring his cognition
into a state of balance.
PRINCIPLES OF GESTALT THEORY
The Gestalt proposed laws involved in the learning
process.
1. Law of Similarity: Makes the individual to grasp
things which are similar. They are picked out as it
were from the total context. Similar ideas and
experiences get associated together. An object
revives another object which resembles it e.g.,
seeing a man and remembering an intimate friend
by some resemblance in his personal
appearance, though never saw them together in
the past. A photo reminds us of the person when
it represents.
2. Law of Proximity: Makes proximate or near
together things to be picked up first learned as to
how many these are among the more distant
things. In other words, perceptual groups are
favoured according to the nearness of their
respective parts. It tend to form groups if they are
spaced together.
3. Law of Closure: The law of closure means that
closed areas are more stable and satisfying than
the unclosed ones. Closed areas more readily
form in groups. This law also means that when
the perception of the situation is incomplete, the
individual is not able to solve the problem. The
problem is solved when he is able to bring the
separate parts of the situation together into a
closed perceptual figure, consisting of the goal,
and the means of achieving the goal.
4. Law of Continuity: Makes the individual to grasp
things which are joined together in a string or
along the line which constituting a whole are
grasped together than the disconnected, dis
joined or scattered. In other words, experiences
which occur together either simultaneously or in
close succession, tend towards reviving one
another.
5. Law of Contrast: A perception or an idea tends
to suggest its contrary opposite.
For instance, adversity reminds a person of his
days of prosperity; hot and cold; tall and short;
black and white; Behaviorism and Cognitive
Theory. In these laws of learning is brought out
the Gestalt point of view that the organizational
capacity of the brain makes to grasp the whole in
priority with the parts.
6. Law of Pragnanz: The word pragnanz is a
German term meaning "good figure." The law of
Pragnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of
good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds
that objects in the environment are seen in a way
that makes them appear as simple as possible.
7. Law of Figure and Ground: According to this
principle, we tend to segment our visual world into
figure and ground. Figure is the object or person
that is the focus of the visual field, while the
ground is the background.
GESTALT AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION
1. The importance of organization of stimuli and
insight.
• The classroom in which the child is living and learning is
not simply a body of discrete and unrelated set of stimuli
neither his responses to stimuli are trial-and-error
adaptations. In the mind of the child the classroom is
organized and has meaning.
• The child is capable of understanding through insight.
• Mathematics should not be taught as isolated facts but
a system of numbers. History must not be confined to
teaching names, dates and places but it must be taught
as a series of connected events through time, with one
event leading to another. Learning is supposed to be
meaningful for learning to occur.
• Teachers are encouraged to view teaching and learning
in a more comprehensive or wholistic approach.
• Teachers should organize the learning situations so that
significant relations and interconnections emerge so that
learning becomes meaningful and comprehensive as
well.
• The learning experiences should be so arranged that the
learner discovers and generalizes the relationship for
himself.
• The subject matter should be organized into larger units
or in meaningful wholes.

2. Presentation of materials, visual presentations,

outlines, maps, charts and graphs must be in such a
way as to permit a survey of the whole problem.

Devices must allow students to see relations and

interconnectedness between and among topics or
concepts.

“Learning is the discovery that something is

possible.” (Fritz Perls)