III.

Course Module

FACILITATING LEARNER – CENTERED TEACHING AND LEARNING

MODULE 4
OBJECTIVES - Explain Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
- Explain Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
- Explain David Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory
- Give specific applications of each theory in teaching
- Describe the different Gestalt Principles
- List ways of applying Gestalt psychology in the teaching-
learning process
- Demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of Gestalt
principles in the teaching-learning process
CONTENT Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory
Gestalt Principles
COURSE MATERIAL -PPTs
-Handouts

TIME FRAMES ---hours

LESSON PROPER (Module 4)

ENGAGE -Think of a time where you go to a certain place for the first time?
How where you able to locate the place? Did you have any
difficulty looking for that place? What have you noticed about the
time spent in going there and returning to your place of origin?
Which way is easier to navigate?
-Think back to your childhood years. Do you remember learning
to ride a bike, how to play checkers, or do simple addition
problems? How were you able to learn these?
-Observe different logos of brands or companies around you.
What can you say about it?

STUDY Discussion Questions:

1. What is purposive behaviorism?
2. What are the different laws of learning according to
Tolman?
3. What is Social Learning Theory?
4. What are the implications of Social Learning Theory on
teachers and student learning?
5. What are the conditions necessary for effective
modelling?
6. What is Gestalt Theory all about?
7. What are the different Gestalt principles? How are they
useful to us?
8. What is meaningful learning? What are its Types?
9. What are the educational implications of Meaningful
Learning?
10. What are the benefits and tips to promote Meaningful
Learning?
11. How does the environment reinforce or punish
modelling?
APPLY See sheets for Learners’ Tasks

ASSESS/EVALUATION Recitation, Assignment, Quiz

CONSULTATION HOURS 8:00-10:00 am every Friday
Mobile No: 09173021253
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1 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
Note: Please study in depth this module. Objectives and analyses test will be given on these
topics.

MODULE 4 - MED 1 HANDOUTS

PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
 a cognitive theory of learning postulating that behavioral acts have a goal or purpose that selects and
guides the behavioral sequence until the goal or purpose is attained.
 incorporates the Gestalt concepts of field theory and contrasts with behavioral learning theories, which
reduce behavior to smaller units of learned stimuli and responses.
Sign Learning (Edward Chance Tolman)
 Tolman’s theorizing has been called purposive behaviorism and is often considered the bridge between
behaviorism and cognitive theory.
 an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.
Tolman emphasized the organized aspect of learning: “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected
by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually
worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the
environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships,
which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.” (Tolman, 1948, p192)

Tolman (1932) proposed five types of learning: (1) approach learning, (2) escape learning, (3) avoidance
learning, (4) choice-point learning, and (5) latent learning. All forms of learning depend upon means-end readiness,
i.e., goal-oriented behavior, mediated by expectations, perceptions, representations, and other internal or
environmental variables.
According to Tolman, a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the
significate) through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. For this
reason, Tolman’s theory was closer to the connectionist framework of Thorndike than the drive reduction theory
of drive reduction theory of Hull or other behaviorists.

Application
Although Tolman intended his theory to apply to human learning, almost all of his research was done with
rats and mazes. Tolman (1942) examines motivation towards war, but this work is not directly related to his
learning theory.
Example
Much of Tolman’s research was done in the context of place learning. In the most famous experiments,
one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location.
Another group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of
turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than
the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of
turns.
Principles
1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
2. Learning often involves the use of environmental factors to achieve a goal (e.g., means-ends-analysis)
3. Organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
References
 Tolman, E.C. (1922). A new formula for behaviorism. Psychological Review, 29, 44-53. [available
at http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Tolman/formula.htm ]
 Tolman, E.C. (1932). Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
 Tolman, E.C. (1942). Drives Towards War. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
 Tolman, E.C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55, 189-208.

Tolman’s theory of learning is known by several names such as “sign significance theory”, “expectancy theory”,
“purposive behaviourism” or simple “sign theory”.
The main features of this theory are as follows:
1. It accepts behaviourism as basis:
Main characteristics of behaviour are:
(a) Behaviour is goal-directed i.e. it is purposive.
(b) Behaviour makes use of environmental factors as means for getting at the goal.
(c) Behaviour consists of the formation of cognitive maps.
(d) The organism has a selective preference for the “principle of least effort”, for arriving at the goal.
(e) Molar behaviour is docile.
2. According to Tolman, the behaviour depends upon:
(a) The need system,
(b) The belief value matrix, and

2 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
(c) The behaviour space.
3. This theory takes into consideration that learning is based upon some signs or clues leading to the goal. The
organism learns not the movement patterns, but the sign-significative relations.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Typical Learning Problems:

Capacity:
The learning of a task depends upon the capacity of the learner.
Practice:
Tolman believes that practice or exercise cannot help the learner in the initial selection of a right response. Mere
frequency without belongingness does not establish a connection.
Motivation:
Motivation does not help in learning something new. It simply encourages the performance as such.
Understanding:
Tolman believes in learning by creative inference, inventive ideation and so on. Insightful learning is emphasized.
Transfer:
Transfer of training depends upon applicability of the essential relationship perceived by the learner in one
situation to some other situation.
Forgetting:
Repression and ratio-active inhibition cause forgetting Tolman attributes forgetting to the resistance of cathexis
(relationship between a drive and object) also.

LAWS OF LEARNING

Tolman stated the following laws of learning:

1. Law of Capacity:
This relates to traits, characteristics and aptitudes of the learner which determine type of tasks and situations
which can be mastered successfully.
2. Law of Stimulus:
It deals with conditions inherent in the material itself such as belongingness of its parts and how successfully it
leads to insightful solution.
3. Law of Manner:
It is concerned with the manner of presentation of material such as frequency of presentation, distribution of
practice and use of rewards.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura’s “Social Learning Theory” and Its Impact on Teachers and Learning

Think back to your childhood. Do you remember learning to ride a bike, how to play checkers, and do
simple addition problems? I bet you learned these skills by watching someone else ride their bike, play a game of
checkers, and solve addition problems. That is what Albert Bandura, a social cognitive psychologist, believed.

Albert Bandura is known for his social learning theory. He is quite

different from other learning theorists who look at learning as a
direct result of conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment.
Bandura asserts that most human behavior is learned through
observation, imitation, and modeling.

Let’s look more closely at Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and the implications of this theory on
teaching and student learning.

Learning Through Observation: Live, Verbal, and Symbolic

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Instructor
 Bandura is famous for his studies of children observing adults who acted aggressively toward a doll. After
the children viewed this behavior, they were given dolls to play with. Can you guess how they interacted with the
dolls? You’re right. They imitated the aggressive actions that they observed earlier.

But Bandura took the meaning of “observation” even further. In addition to a “live” model, he explored a
“verbal” instructional model, whereby if certain explanations and descriptions were presented, then learning was
enhanced. I am sure you can think of an example of when someone patiently explained something to you in a way
that helped you to learn it. That’s the perfect example of a verbal instructional model.

He also studied “symbolic” models, where characters (fiction/non-fiction) in movies, television programs,
online media, and books could lead to learning. This means that students could learn from watching a movie or
television program, listening to any number of online media sources (e.g., podcasts), or from reading a book. They
envisioned how the characters reacted and how they felt, etc. This, in turn, taught them how to react and feel in
similar life situations.

The Importance of Motivation and Mental State

Bandura claims that observation alone may not be sufficient enough to incur maximal learning; a person’s
motivation and their mental state also influence learning. Bandura agreed with the behavioral theorists who noted
that external reinforcement shapes learning, but he also acknowledged that learning is not always a result of
external reinforcement. He claimed that learning is a result of intrinsic reinforcement as well. For example, a
student might learn something because of their pride, for a sense of satisfaction, or to fulfill a feeling of
accomplishment. This factor of learning intrinsically connects Bandura’s learning theory to those of other
cognitive-developmental theories.
Learning Doesn’t Always Lead to a Behavioral Change
Behaviorists argue that learning leads to a permanent change in behavior. However, Bandura showed that
observational learning can occur without the learner demonstrating any new behavior. In other words, you can
observe, imitate, or model something but you might not learn it. He explored the question of what needs to
happen for an observable behavior to be learned (in addition to observation) and cited four necessary steps:
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
Observation + 4 Necessary Steps = Learning
Attention: First off, the learner needs to pay attention. If they are distracted, this will influence the amount or
quality of learning that occurs. I don’t think anyone disagrees with this statement. We have all gotten distracted
and know that it affects our learning and quality of work. Additionally, the more interesting or unique the model or
situation is, the more fully the learner will attend to the learning. This explains why you might not be able to put
down a good book or give up on any one of your passions no matter the obstacles you encounter.
Retention: How you can to store the information learned (i.e., retention) is important. Let’s face it. We have all
learned so much content throughout our years of schooling, but how much do we retain? Maybe you can
remember the more significant learning in a certain way through any number of memory techniques (e.g.,
mnemonic devices, writing it down, repetition, etc.). Or maybe you applied the learning to a real-life situation
which aids in retention.
Reproduction: Reproduction relies on the first two steps: attention and retention. After completing these steps,
you move toward performing the observable behavior. Then with further practice, you will undoubtedly improve
and sharpen your skills. The adage “Practice Makes Perfect” applies here.
Motivation: The last step is motivation. To have the most success for any observational learning, you need to be
motivated enough to imitate the behavior that was modeled. In this step, both reinforcement and punishment
impact motivation. If a student sees someone being rewarded, they are more likely to continue the behavior.
Likewise, if they see someone punished or ignored, they may extinguish the behavior.

What are the implications for Social Learning Theory on teachers and student learning?

4 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
 Certainly, this theory can be used to teach positive behaviors to students. Teachers can use positive role
models to increase desired behaviors and thus change the culture of a school. Not only will individual students
benefit from positive role models in and out of the classroom, but the entire class and student body will do so.
Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are rooted in social
learning theory. For example, if a teacher is positive with their students and they encourage them, this positive
energy and verbal encouragement, in turn, helps build self-efficacy, the belief in one’s abilities to succeed in
various situations. Bandura found that a person’s self-efficacy impacts how their tasks, goals, and challenges are
approached. Those individuals with strong self-efficacy view challenges as tasks to master, develop deep interests
in the activities they participate in, form a strong sense of commitment to activities and interests, and bounce back
from disappointments and setbacks easily. However, those with a weaker sense of self-efficacy tend to avoid
challenges, think difficult tasks and situations are beyond their abilities, think negatively about their failures and
outcomes, and lose confidence easily in their abilities.
Furthermore, Bandura states that learning every single thing from personal experience is hard and could
be potentially dangerous. He claims that much of a person’s life is rooted in social experiences, thus observing
others is naturally advantageous to gaining knowledge and skills.
In conclusion, observation plays a very powerful role in learning. It not only helps teach students but helps
them to successfully understand, retain, and apply their learning to their lives so they can learn and achieve even
more. For this, we thank Albert Bandura for his Social Learning Theory contribution.

Cite this article as: Kurt, S. "Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura," in Educational Technology, December 26,
2019. Retrieved from https://educationaltechnology.net/social-learning-theory-albert-bandura/

Can’t comprehend yet? HERE’s more of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.

Learning is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by a wide variety of factors. As most parents
are probably very much aware, observation can play a critical role in determining how and what children learn. As
the saying goes, kids are very much like sponges, soaking up the experiences they have each and every day.
Because learning is so complex, there are many different psychological theories to explain how and why
people learn. A psychologist named Albert Bandura proposed a social learning theory which suggests that
observation and modelling play a primary role in this process.2
Bandura's theory moves beyond behavioral theories, which suggest that all behaviors are learned through
conditioning, and cognitive theories, which take into account psychological influences such as attention
and memory.

https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074 (You can open this link to watch a short video

about social learning theory example)

Basic Principles of Social Learning Theory

What Is Social Learning Theory?
During the first half of the 20th-century, the behavioral school of psychology became a dominant force.
The behaviorists proposed that all learning was a result of direct experience with the environment through the
processes of association and reinforcement.3 Bandura's theory believed that direct reinforcement could not
account for all types of learning.
For example, children and adults often exhibit learning for things with which they have no direct
experience. Even if you have never swung a baseball bat in your life, you would probably know what to do if
someone handed you a bat and told you to try to hit a baseball. This is because you have seen others perform this
action either in person or on television.
While the behavioral theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of associations formed
by conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's social learning theory proposed that learning can also
occur simply by observing the actions of others.1
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by
watching other people. Known as observational learning, this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety
of behaviors, including those that often cannot be accounted for by other learning theories.

What Is Observational Learning?

Core Concepts
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First, is the idea that people can learn
through observation. Next, is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally,
this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a
change in behavior.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the
effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977 book Social Learning
Theory.4
Bandura goes on to explain that "Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions,
this coded information serves as a guide for action."

5 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.
People Can Learn Through Observation
One of the best-known experiments in the history of psychology involved a doll named Bobo. Bandura
demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people.
The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the
children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they
had previously observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films,
television programs, or online media.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
As you can see, observational learning does not even necessarily require watching another person to engage
in an activity. Hearing verbal instructions, such as listening to a podcast, can lead to learning. We can also learn by
reading, hearing, or watching the actions of characters in books and films.6
It is this type of observational learning that has become a lightning rod for controversy as parents and
psychologists debate the impact that pop culture media has on kids. Many worry that kids can learn bad behaviors
such as aggression from violent video games, movies, television programs, and online videos.

Mental States Are Important to Learning

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning
and behavior. And he realized that reinforcement does not always come from outside sources. 1Your own mental
state and motivation play an important role in determining whether a behavior is learned or not.
He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of
accomplishment.7 This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive
developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura
himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

Learning Does Not Necessarily Lead to Change

So how do we determine when something has been learned? In many cases, learning can be seen
immediately when the new behavior is displayed. When you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can quickly
determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted.
But sometimes we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be immediately obvious.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.1
Key Factors for Success
It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Why not? Factors involving both the
model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must
also be followed.
The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modelling process:
 Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your attention is
going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or there is a novel
aspect of the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.
 Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can
be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to
observational learning.
 Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to
improvement and skill advancement.
 Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to
imitate the behavior that has been modelled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in
motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing others
experiencing some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student
rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each
day.
Real World Applications
Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For example, it can be used to help
researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through observational learning. By
studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding of the factors that might lead children to act
out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on television and in the movies.
But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers can use social
learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to encourage desirable
behaviors and to facilitate social change.
In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important
implications in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important it is to model

6 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also
rooted in social learning theory.
As Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn everything
you know from personal experience. Observing others plays a vital role in acquiring new knowledge and skills. By
understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain a greater appreciation for the powerful role that
observation plays in shaping the things we know and the things we do.

Instructional Design Models and Theories: Gestalt Theory

Who is Who
Max Wertheimer. He was born in Prague in 1880. After obtaining his Ph.D. in Psychology from the
University of Würzburg in 1904, he taught at several universities in Germany. He eventually ended up teaching at
the New School for Social Research in New York, where he remained until his death in 1943. He is one of the 3
founders of Gestalt Psychology and was known for his work in Productive Thinking, as well as for his concept
of Phi Phenomenon.
Wolfgang Köhler. He was born in Estonia in 1887 and was an eminent psychologist and phenomenologist.
He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Berlin in 1909. He met Wertheimer and Koffka at the University of
Frankfurt. In the 1930s he emigrated to the United States and became a professor at Swarthmore College in
Pennsylvania until his death in 1967.
Kurt Koffka. He was born in Berlin in 1886. He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Berlin in 1908. In
1927, after emigrating to the US, he became a professor at Smith College in Massachusetts. He had a great interest
in the laws that govern the human perception of the environment, as well as in interpretation and developmental
psychology. He died in 1941.
The Gestalt Theory (Gestaltism)
According to the Gestalt Theory, which is commonly known as the Law of Simplicity, every stimulus is
perceived by humans in its “most simple form”. The main focus of the theory is “grouping” and the entire theory
emphasizes on the fact that the whole of anything is greater than the sum of its parts. Besides, “gestalt” in
German means the “shape of an entity’s complete form”. Thus, the operational principle of the brain is holistic and
has a self-organizing inclination.
8 Gestalt Design Principles with Examples

1 Gestalt Law of Simplicity

According to the first Gestalt design principle, also

commonly referred to as emergence, people perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images in their
simplest form.
Consider, for example, the Girl Scouts of America logo below. While the design consists of irregular shapes
with negative space in between, we see three silhouettes. Even more simply, those who have seen the image
before are most likely to perceive the whole as a single logo instead of even three faces. We don’t have to stop and
think about it first. It’s just what we see.

7 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
 According to psychologists, when we identify an
object, we first seek to identify its outline. We then compare it to known shapes and patterns. Without even
realizing we’re taking these steps, we finally combine the identified elements to recognize the whole.
Therefore, a simple and well-defined design will more quickly communicate the desired message than detailed
illustrations with ambiguous contours.

2 Gestalt Law of Similarity

According to this Gestalt design principle, objects with similar characteristics are perceived as more
closely related than objects that share no similar features. Our minds simply group the similar objects together
regardless of their proximity to one another.
Think about a group of shapes consisting of three squares, a triangle, a circle, a hexagon and a star. Most
will perceive the three squares as a group apart from the other shapes. The same effect occurs with a group of
squares that are either blue or green. Even though they are all the same shape, the blue shapes will be perceived
as related, as will the green shapes.
Design elements can be perceived as related by sharing any sort of characteristic, including color, shape,
size and texture.

3. Gestalt Law of Proximity

Also an essential element of visual hierarchy, proximity is a common way to group design elements. Simply
speaking, objects that are close together are generally perceived as more related than objects farther apart.
In the above example, the group of 16 circles on the left is perceived as a single group, while the same 16
circles on the right is instead seen as two separate groups of 8. The only difference is the space between.
Based on this Gestalt design principle of proximity, objects placed close to each other don’t even have to share
any characteristics to be perceived as a group. A design could include 16 different shapes of varying colors, but if
they are within close proximity to each other as compared to other elements, they will be perceived as a group.

4. Gestalt Law of Closure

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Instructor
 The closure principle dictates
that a complete outline isn’t necessary to convey the same message as a partial outline. Even if parts are missing,
the human psyche will make every attempt to match it to a known object just as long as the designer includes
enough information that viewers can fill in the gaps. If too much is missing, the design will instead appear as its
separate parts.

Consider the World Wildlife Fund logo,

for example. What would otherwise be a
group of irregular shapes combine to form a
recognizable design. Notice that some upper
portions of the outline are missing, and the
design is somewhat incomplete. We still
instantly recognize the shape as a panda.

5. Gestalt Law of Figure and Ground

In any design, elements are perceived as either the

focal point in the foreground or part of the background. The figure is generally described as the focal point, while
the ground is the element on which the figure rests. In most cases, designs with a definitive point of interest,
emphasis or contrast capture and hold viewers’ attention more effectively than designs without a focal point.
People tend to determine the figure and ground relationship before making any other resolutions about what
they see. We’ve evolved to prioritize this perception so we can better navigate our surroundings. Without it, we’d

Sometimes designers can use this

principle to draw attention to their
creations. Consider the above
9 MED 1 Module 4 Mary
bookAnn cover.
Nava Inodeo,
Do MAT
you see a
Instructor
silhouette of Batman or the
Penguin? Both are there. What we
see depends on whether we view
be running into objects and tripping over sidewalks.

6. Gestalt Law of Continuity

According to the principle of continuity, elements arranged in a line or curve are generally
assumed to continue beyond their defined end point. In other words, once our eyes begin to follow a line
or curve, we believe that line will continue in the same direction until it encounters another object.

Think about when you look at a

road. Many times, it will expand into the distance further than the eye can see. But that doesn’t mean you believe
the road stops at the horizon. Instead, you automatically assume it continues along the same line beyond what you
can see.

7. Gestalt Law of Symmetry

People tend to perceive objects as symmetrical shapes whenever possible. It’s simply human nature to
look for order among chaos. Therefore, designers should attempt to provide balance over disorder.
Symmetry doesn’t have to be taken literally to be effective, however. Balance can be created by use of a
harmonic color scheme or by a similar but inexact group of elements on each side of a page.

10 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
 Consider the above group
of eyes. Because our minds strive
to recognize symmetry whenever
possible, most will immediately
recognize three sets of eyes rather
than six separate items, even
though their proximity from one
another is equal.

8 Gestalt Law of Synchrony

Also commonly known as

common fate, the Gestalt design principle of synchrony dictates that elements moving in the same direction are
perceived as more related than the same elements moving in different directions. Regardless of their placement
or how dissimilar they may be, we perceive elements that move in the same direction as related.

Elements don’t have to be

moving literally for the principle to
apply. Consider the above design,
for example. Most will instantly
associate the circles with the
upward-pointing arrows as related
as opposed to the group with the
downward-pointing arrows, even
though they aren’t physically
grouped together.

Tips On How To Use The 6 Laws of Perception in eLearning

In this article, I'll highlight the 6 Laws of Perception, also known as the Principles of Grouping (or Gestalt Laws of
Grouping), and show you how to use each one of them in your eLearning course strategy. Regardless of the subject
matter, the target audience, or the eLearning objectives, these Laws of Perception can help you to design highly
effective eLearning courses.

11 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT

Instructor
How To Use The 6 Laws of Perception in eLearning
The Gestalt Theory is based upon the idea that our eyes perceive things as a whole, before recognizing individual
elements. In essence, learners will first look at the big picture, and then they will move onto the details that
collectively create this big picture. This allows our brains to see organization and logic in even the most complex
concepts, so that we can more effectively comprehend and retain important information. The Principles of
Grouping (or Gestalt Laws of Grouping) consists of 6 primary Laws of Perception that all eLearning professionals
can use to create powerful and memorable eLearning experiences.
1. Law of Similarity: Things that have a similar appearance will be grouped together.
There are two important considerations to bear in mind when applying this law in eLearning
settings. Firstly, eLearning professionals will want to ensure that concepts that belong in the same
group, such as those that are part of a sub-topic within the module, have a similar appearance. For
example, if you are creating a page that lists the attributes of three distinct groups, you can use blue
font for one list of attributes, red for another, and purple for the last. This will help learners to
differentiate between each group and link the appropriate attributes to their respective groups. This
brings us to the second consideration for the law of similarity, which is contrast. Since learners will
automatically group together items with a similar appearance, avoid using the same type of graphics,
fonts, or colors for items that aren't supposed to be related. For instance, if you create a series of
modules that cover different topics but all have the same aesthetic theme, then the learners may blur
the concepts of each module together, ultimately leading to confusion.

2. Law of Proximity: Elements close to each other are considered to be relevant or connected to one
another.
This is yet another law that ties into the fact that simplicity is key. Since learners tend to see
connections between items that are close in proximity to each other, you will want to be careful
about the placement of unrelated ideas or concepts. Leave plenty of white space between items that
you don't want to be grouped together, given that the learner's mind will automatically try to form
some kind of connection, which will typically lead to a misunderstanding of the core concepts. On the
other hand, if you want to strengthen the connection between ideas and want to emphasize them to
avoid any confusion, placing them close together is recommended. Also, if you want to test the
learners’ knowledge or understanding of the concept, you can place items in close proximity to one
another and examine which conclusions are drawn. For example, you can group four images together
on the page and then ask them how each of the items is related or what similarities they share. For
this law, there is yet another application. You can create a visual hierarchy by placing items close
together higher on the page, as the law also applies to the page layout itself. For example, if you are
trying to convey a sense of immediacy for a particular concept or idea, such as one that is a key part
of the learning goal or must be learned right away, then you can group these ideas near the top of
the screen and use a different font type or color to make it stand out from the others.
3. Law of Simplicity: Images that may be complex or vague are viewed in the simplest of terms.
The Law of Simplicity is also known as the Law of Pragnanz. To apply this law in your eLearning
course, you'll want to keep things simple and straightforward. Avoid adding images that are irrelevant
or creating pages that are chaotic and cluttered. It's important to remember that learners will be
viewing the entire page as a whole, rather than the sum of its parts. In essence, our minds crave
simplicity. They don't want to have to process more information than what is really necessary. This
also ties into cognitive overload, in that the brain can only accept certain amount of information
before it begins to forget the key ideas or concepts. When using graphics, keep things basic and
include only what is absolutely necessary. When creating text, make sentences concise and avoid
lengthy paragraphs.
4. Law of Closure: The mind will fill in missing pieces of information based upon past experiences and
already acquired knowledge.
This law also stipulates that items close together may be part of a larger entity, because our mind
craves completion. So, our brain, rather than leave an image or concept incomplete, will naturally fill
in the blanks in order to develop the whole picture. You'll want to exercise caution when using this
law, however, as there is always a chance that the mind may become confused or misconstrue by
incomplete images or concepts. For example, if you are utilizing an image that some may not be

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 familiar with, then he/she won't have the ability to tap into their already existing knowledge base in
order to fill in the gaps.
5. Law of Common Fate: When visual elements are all moving in the same direction at the same rate,
our minds automatically assume that they are part of the same origin or stimulus.
This law stipulates that when a learner sees a group of objects moving in one particular direction
together, they will perceive these objects as a collective group with similarities. To use this law in
your eLearning course strategy, you can draw attention to key ideas, tips, or lesson points by making
them moving objects, such as a pop up dialogue box, or create slide out menus on the page to
highlight the sub-topics of a particular subject. This creates an automatic association between ideas
or objects.
6. Law of Good Continuation: Even if two or more objects intersect, our minds will still see them as
uninterrupted and different objects that do not share a stimulus.
According to this law, learners will typically group together shapes or objects that appear to
moving in the same direction, but shapes or objects that appear to be establishing a change in
direction tend be seen as different items. To utilize this law in your eLearning course, it's important to
insure that objects are aligned in such a way that they communicate relatedness or highlight
differences. For example, if you want to stress the fact that several words or shapes share a common
bond, then you can place them in a linear arrangement on the page so that learners are able to see
that they are connected.

The primary goal of the Gestalt Theory is to encourage the brain to view not just the whole, but also the
parts that make up that whole. For example, when someone is looking at a tree, is he just staring at this tree, or
does he also see the leaves, the branches, and the trunk? The whole and the sum of its parts are two entirely
different things, and learning can be achieved if learners are able to cognitively process how parts can make up this
whole.
The main principles of the Gestalt Theory
The main principles of the Gestalt Theory in Learning are:
Teachers should encourage their students to discover the relationship of the elements that make up a problem
1. Incongruities, gaps, or disturbances are essential stimuli in the learning process
2. Educational instruction should be based on the Laws of Organization
In a learning environment, the Gestalt Theory applies to problem solving and perception. However, it can
be used in all aspects of education. A perfect example was provided by Wertheimer himself, when he asked
children to find the area of a parallelogram. He suggested that, as long as parallelograms had a normal shape, the
children could apply the standard procedure in order to determine the area. However, if the parallelogram had an
irregular shape, children could not apply the same logic or principles, but had to solve the problem by
understanding the actual structure of the shape.

SUBSUMPTION THEORY (DAVID AUSUBEL)

Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory
experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and
combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is
subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive,
non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs
because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:

“These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of
abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of
organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they
precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing
the organization strength of cognitive structure.” (1963 , p. 81).
Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply
emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material.
Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
Ausubel’s theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve schema (e.g., Bartlett< )
as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner’s “spiral learning” model , although Ausubel
emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new
structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive
development.

Application
Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He
distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn’t involve
subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through
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 problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning
(see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).
Example
Ausubel (1963, p. 80) cites Boyd’s textbook of pathology as an example of progressive differentiation because the
book presents information according to general processes (e.g., inflammation, degeneration) rather than by
describing organ systems in isolation. He also cites the Physical Science Study Committee curriculum which
organizes material according to the major ideas of physics instead of piece-meal discussion of principle or
phenomenon (p. 78).
Principles
 The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in
terms of detail and specificity.
 Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information
through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

References
 Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New York: Grune & Stratton.
 Ausubel, D. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research, 48,
251-257.
 Ausubel, D., Novak, J., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed.). New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston
Meaningful Learning and its Implications in the Classroom
Learning is a term that has been studied in the field of education and psychology over the years. Following
these studies, different theories related to human learning and the various ways in which the brain learns have
emerged.
Still, before continuing, we must define the meaning of the learning concept. We can define learning as
the lasting acquisition of knowledge, behaviors, skills, or abilities through practice, study, or experience. In the
same way, learning is a natural and continuous process that we carry out daily throughout our lives.
There are several types of learning, including meaningful learning based on the theory of meaningful
learning by American psychologist David Ausubel.

David Ausubel was a constructivist psychologist and pedagogue. He

was born in New York on October 25, 1918. Studied psychology at the University of Pennsylvania and medicine at
the University of Middlesex. He was the creator of the theory of meaningful learning, which is part of the
constructivist current as relational learning. In 1976 he was awarded the Edward Thorndike Prize by the American
Psychological Association (APA) for his contributions to educational psychology. Ausubel passed away on July 9,
2008, in New York.
WHAT IS MEANINGFUL LEARNING?
Meaningful learning was a term developed during the 1960s and is within the constructivist current. It
differs from rote learning in that a connection is obtained between the previous knowledge of the students and
the newly acquired knowledge, while rote learning consists of memorizing concepts without the need for
understanding.
Meaningful learning allows students to associate acquired material with previous knowledge or
experiences that serve as an anchor when obtaining new knowledge. This will enable the student to make
connections that will allow learning to be a comprehensive and lasting one throughout their life.
WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING?
There are three types of meaningful learning. All make up the process of obtaining lasting knowledge and connect
IT to prior knowledge. Next, we describe them.
Representation Learning
 It is the elementary learning on which other learning depends. It is based on learning symbols and words.
Concept learning
 It is produced as the vocabulary of the students expands. It is the learning of words or concepts. It can be acquired
through the discovery or instruction of the teacher.
Proposition Learning
 It is the union of previous learning. The image is associated with the word and its meaning so that an expressed
idea is generated.
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 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING
The teacher needs to have in mind the previous knowledge of the students before starting to impart new
material. In this way, you can make use of symbols, phrases, concepts, images, ideas, and propositions that
connect with new knowledge. Through these connections, students will have the opportunity to associate their
previous knowledge with the new concepts taught in the classroom. Through these connections, the acquired
knowledge will be stored in long-term memory, causing personalized and constant learning.
Student motivation is essential to obtain meaningful learning. This is why the teacher must use examples
during the instruction of new material, having in mind the students’ previous knowledge. The use of resources and
materials that facilitate this type of learning is also recommended.

BENEFITS OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING

1. Active learning by students.
2. Personalized learning based on students’ previous experiences.
3. Information stored in long-term memory.
4. More significant and lasting retention of knowledge.
5. Successful connection of new knowledge with prior knowledge.
TIPS TO PROMOTE MEANINGFUL LEARNING
1. Take into account the previous knowledge of the students.
2. Make use of activities that are of interest to students.
3. Create a motivational environment to learn.
4. Make use of debates, group work, games, analogies, illustrations, and previous organizers.
5. Use examples at all times.
6. Be a facilitator of the learning process, clarify doubts, and allow students to be an active entity during the
process.

https://www.learningbp.com/meaningful-learning-ausubel-theory/

What makes an effective design? Part of the answer can be found within the tenets of Gestalt psychology.
Also known as gestaltism, the philosophy dictates that the human mind perceives a whole composition as
something different than its individual elements. According to Kurt Koffka, one of the earliest Gestalt psychologists,
“The whole is other than the sum of the parts.”
Early 20th-century psychologist Max Wertheimer was one of the first to discuss the concept after he
observed flashing lights at a railroad crossing. He noticed that while it appeared a single light was moving, in reality
a series of bulbs were lighting up in succession.
The idea that a whole is perceived as different or more than the sum of its parts is commonly employed in
design, even if the artist is consciously unaware of its use. The following eight design principles are derived from
Gestalt theory:

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 Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology:
Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial
and error learning in which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without referring to any
unobservable internal states.

Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws:

(1) law of effect – responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be
strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation,
(2) law of readiness – a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result
in annoyance if blocked, and
(3) law of exercise – connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a
rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.

The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the
original and new learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory,
the concept of “belongingness” was introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives
that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was “polarity” which
specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the
opposite. Thorndike also introduced the “spread of effect” idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the connection that
produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well.

Application
Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike was
especially interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922),
spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning
(Thorndike at al., 1928).

Example
The classic example of Thorndike’s S-R theory was a cat learning to escape from a “puzzle box” by pressing
a lever inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) with
opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape
from the box). The law of exercise specifies that the connection was established because the S-R pairing occurred
many times (the law of effect) and was rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of
readiness).

Principles
1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
(law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
References:
Thorndike, E. (1913). Educational Psychology: The Psychology of Learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
Thorndike, E. (1921). The Teacher’s Word Book. New York: Teachers College.
Thorndike, E. (1922). The Psychology of Arithmetic. New York: Macmillan.
Thorndike, E. (1932). The Fundamentals of Learning. New York: Teachers College Press.
Thorndike, E. at al. (1927). The Measurement of Intelligence. New York: Teachers College Press.
Thorndike, E. et al. (1928). Adult Learning. New York: Macmillan

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Name:________________________________________Course & Year: __________________

Module 4 Learners’ Tasks

A. Define/Explain the following terms: 2 points each

1. Behaviourism
2. Cognitive maps
3. Latent Learning
4. Social Learning
5. Meaningful learning
6. Rote learning
7. Cognitive Constructivist
8. Social constructivist
9. Concept Learning
10. Representation Learning

B. Discuss the implications of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory in education. How can this
theory help in the child’s acquisition of learning? You may give example/s to illustrate
your point? (15 points)

C. REFLECTION

Given the lessons on Module 4, what is your greatest learning or realizations as a

learner or as an individual? (15 points)

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18 MED 1 Module 4 Mary Ann Nava Inodeo, MAT
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