1

Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico

San Juan, Puerto Rico
Department of Chemical Engineering

Orifice and free jet flow by measurement of the trajectory of a jet issuing from an orifice in the
side of a reservoir under steady flow conditions.

Andrea Nazario 89163

Eddie Soto 117222
Michael Colon 107133
ChE 3117-06
WI-21
Prof. Pablo Traverso
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Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico 

Department of Chemical Engineering 

  

Hato Rey, P.R, September 30, 2021 

Prof. Pablo Traverso 

Heat Transfer Lab Professor  

  

Dear Professor Pablo Traverso: 

Heat Lineal Conduction Laboratory 

The lab will determine the coefficient of velocity of two small orifices. By measurement of the trajectory of a
jet issuing from an orifice in the side of a reservoir under steady flow condition. We will be able to
corroborate the coefficient of velocity from jet trajectory. Also, to determine the coefficient of discharge under
constant head. And the coefficient of discharge under varying head. In this way we will be able to relate the
different coefficient of discharge under specific circumstances.

We count on your collaboration. 

  

Cordially, 

Andrea Nazario ____________________

Michael Colon _____________________

Eddie Soto Cuevas__________________

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Abstract
In this series of experiments, titled: Orifice and free jet flow by measurement of the trajectory of
a jet issuing from an orifice in the side of a reservoir under steady flow conditions there are three
objectives, each objective has an experiment dedicated to fulfilling its respective objective. The
experiments caried out are the following: the determination of velocity coefficient under steady
state conditions experiment, the determination of discharge coefficient under steady state
conditions experiment and the determination of discharge coefficient under unsteady state
conditions procedure. The objectives of these experiments are to determine the coefficient of
velocity in steady state, to determine the discharge coefficient under steady state and to
determine the coefficient of discharge under unsteady state (under varying head). The
methodology used for these experiments are measurement of the trajectory of a jet issuing from
an orifice in the side of a reservoir under steady flow conditions for the first two experiments.
However, in the last experiment the jet is not measured, instead an analysis is carried out to
determine the head value compared to time. By measuring the trajectory of a jet issuing from an
orifice and the flow rate in the side of a reservoir under steady flow conditions we can determine
the coefficient of discharge and the coefficient of velocity under constant head. The coefficient
of discharge under varying head is determined by graphing the square root of the head value
through time, this giving a slope which is later plugged into an equation which gives us the
discharge coefficient.
The first objective was accomplished, yielding a Cv of 0.8495 and of 0.8551 for 6mm and 3mm
respectively. The second objective was accomplished, yielding a Cd of 0.6387 and of 0.7977 for
3mm and 6mm respectively. As can be seen, the discharge coefficient increases as the diameter
increases, just as expected. During the third experiment the objective was achieved by yielding a
Cd of 0.2778 and 0.1156. This however does nor correlate to our understanding of de discharge
coefficient. Therefore, it was concluded that for this last experiment there were human errors
involved in the data reading for the varying head, thus giving us results that were not expected.
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Index

Objectives........................................................................................................................................7
Theory..............................................................................................................................................8
Equipment:.....................................................................................................................................11
Procedure.......................................................................................................................................13
I. Determination of velocity coefficient under steady state conditions procedure.................13
II. Determination of discharge coefficient under steady state conditions procedure..............13
III. Determination of discharge coefficient under unsteady state conditions procedure...........13
Data................................................................................................................................................14
Examples of calculations...............................................................................................................22
Discussion of Results.....................................................................................................................24
Nomenclature.................................................................................................................................26
References......................................................................................................................................28
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List of figures and tables

Name Figure Page number

Hydraulics bench 1 12

Orifice and free jet 2 12

apparatus
Vertical Distance vs
Horizontal Distance Graph 1 14
Reservoir Head 395mm,
6mm Orifice

Vertical Distance vs
Horizontal Distance Graph 2 14
Reservoir Head 350mm,
6mm Orifice

Vertical Distance vs
Horizontal Distance Graph 3 15
Reservoir Head 280mm,
6mm Orifice

Horizontal Distance vs
Reservoir Head 395mm, Graph 4 15
6mm Orifice

Horizontal Distance
vs √yh Reservoir Head Graph 5 16
350mm, 6mm Orifice

Horizontal Distance vs √yh

Reservoir Head 280mm in Graph 6 16
6mm Orifice

Vertical Distance vs
Horizontal Distance Graph 7 17
Reservoir 395mm, 3mm
Orifice

Vertical Distance vs
Horizontal Distance Graph 8 17
Reservoir 350mm, 3mm
Orifice
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Vertical Distance vs
Horizontal Distance Graph 9 18
Reservoir 280mm, 3mm
Orifice

Horizontal Distance vs √yh

Reservoir 395mm, 3mm Graph 10 18
Orifice

Horizontal Distance vs √yh

Reservoir 350mm, 3mm Graph 11 19
Orifice

Horizontal Distance vs √yh

Reservoir 280mm, 3mm Graph 12 19
Orifice

Data for the Determination

of the Flow Rate Table 1 20
Flow Rate vs √h
Orifice 6mm Graph 13 20

Flow Rate vs √h
Orifice 3mm Graph 14 20

(√h1−√h) vs Time Graph 15

Orifice 3mm 21

(√h1−√h) vs Time Graph 16

Orifice 6mm 21
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Objectives
The objectives are as follows: to determine the coefficient of velocity in steady state, to
determine the coefficient of discharge under steady state and to determine the coefficient of
discharge under unsteady state (under varying head). These objectives are to be carried out by
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Theory
The law of conservation of mass states that for the steady state tank we must conduct an energy
balance. The general balance equation is Acc=in-out+generationn-destruction, the generation and
destruction factors are not considered in an energy balance, therefore the energy balance is as
follows for a steady state incompressible liquid:

[( )] ( ) ( )
2 2 2
v P v P v
d m u+ gz + = u+ + gz + d m¿− u+ + gz + d m out + dq−dW . We know that
2 system ρ 2 ¿ ρ 2 out
due to this system being in steady state for the first two experiments (later discussed) that

( ) ( )
2 2
P v P v
accumulation is equal to 0; therefore, u+ + gz + d m¿ − u+ + gz + d mout =+dq−dW .
ρ 2 ¿ ρ 2 out
We now consider that there are no losses of energy due to friction (somethings that we will
dq
correct later); therefore, ∆ u− =0 (this is friction heating). There isn’t any work being done
dm
by or to the system (only potential and kinetic energy are acting upon it),

(P
ρ
+ gz +
v2
2 ¿ ρ) (P
− + gz +
v2
2 out )
=0. Now we can express the equation as follows

( Pρ + gz + v2 ) =( Pρ + gz + v2 ) ρ∆v 2
2 2
. The pressure of the system remains constant: ρg ∆ z + =0.
¿ out 2
Now we simply reorganize the terms, ∆ v=√ 2 g ∆ z, this is Torricielli’s law.

Due to Torricielli’s law being derived by not considering heat losses due to friction it makes the
equation not exact. We add a term called the velocity coefficient; this corrects for not
considering friction heating.
∆ v=C v √ 2 g ∆ z . ………………………………………………………………………Eq (1)
This equation is called the actual velocity. The velocity coefficient is determined by utilizing the
∆x
definition of velocity in the horizontal axis ∆ v= and the vertical distance equation
t
1 2
∆ y =v i , y − a t . In these experiments there is no initial vertical velocity, thus the latter equation
2
−1 2
turns into ∆ y = g t , the acceleration is the gravitational acceleration. We reorganize this
2
equation into t =
g√
2∆ y
.

Note that the negative sign is not included in the equation, this is due to the meaning of this
negative sign, which is to show that the height of the projectile (the jet) is falling. Combining the
∆x
equation with equation (1) we get =C v √ 2 g ∆ z . Substituting t in this equation with the
t
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∆x
=C v √ 2 g ∆ z
vertical distance equation

∆ x √∆ y ∆ z
√ 2∆ y
g
. By reorganizing it we’re able to see that

C v= . This shall be the equation used in the calculations, not the one presented in the
∆ y∆z
lab manual (which is incorrect). ∆ z=h, h being the height of the water in the tank.
By using the orifice and jet apparatus we graphed the position the jet took during steady state,
giving us x and y values. Values to be used to calculate the velocity coefficient and the discharge
coefficient. To be able to understand where the coefficient for discharge comes from, we must
V
understand how the actual flow rate equation comes from. The definition for flow rate is Q= ,
t
V being volume and t being time. We know that V = Ad , this comes from the equation of volume
for a cylinder. A is the area of the circle where the water will flow (the orifice), and d is the
width of the orifice.

Ad
Thus, we can rewrite the flow rate equation as follows Q= . Due to d being a distance, we can
t
d
write v= , this is the velocity of the fluid passing through the orifice. Finally, we conclude that
t
Q= Av . For the cross-sectional area for the vena contracta (the narrowest point in the orifice) is
defined as Ac =C c A o. The cross-sectional area of the outer orifice is multiplied by the coefficient
of contraction giving us the cross-sectional area of the narrowest point in the orifice. We know
that the true flow rate of the system is defines as Qt = Ac v .

This means that the most amount of water that can flow through the orifice is limited by the vena
contracta. Substituting the equation for the cross-sectional area of the vena contracta ( Ac =C c A o)
and actual velocity ( v=C v √ 2 g ∆ z , assuming initial velocity is 0) we get Qt =C c A o C v √ 2 g ∆ z.
The definition of the coefficient of discharge is C d=C c C v . If we substitute these equations into
the new flow rate equation, we get that Qt = Ao C d √2 g ∆ z . However, we must find a way to
calculate the height (h). To be able to do this we must do an energy balance.

The energy balance is as follows for a steady state incompressible liquid:

[( )] ( ) ( )
2 2 2
v P v P v
d m u+ gz + = u+ + gz + d m¿− u+ + gz + d m out + dq−dW . We know that
2 system ρ 2 ¿ ρ 2 out
due to this system being in steady state for the first two experiments that accumulation is equal to

( ) ( )
2 2
P v P v
0; therefore, u+ + gz + d m¿ − u+ + gz + d mout =+dq−dW . We now consider that
ρ 2 ¿ ρ 2 out
there are no losses of energy due to friction (somethings that we will correct later); therefore,
dq
∆ u− =0 (this is friction heating). There isn’t any work being done by or to the system,
dm
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( ) ( )
2 2
P v P v
+ gz + − + gz + =0. By dividing g on all sides, we can express the equation as
ρ 2 ¿ ρ 2 out

follows
P1
ρg ( v 2 P v 2
+ z+ 1 = 2 + z + 2
2 g ¿ ρg 2g ) ( )out
. The z is equal due to the potential energy being the

same for the in and out.

( ) ( )
2 2
P 1 v1 P 2 v2
Thus + = + . We can now regroup common variables to end up with
ρg 2 g ¿ ρg 2 g out
P 2−P1 v 22−v 21 P −P 1
= . We can now see that the term h= 2 , this being the manometer equation (
ρg 2g ρg
v 2−v 2
P2−P1= ρgh). Therefore h= 2 1 .
2g
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Equipment:
The equipment used in the experiments are as follows: F1-17 Orifice and Jet Apparatus. This
apparatus is the centerpiece of the experiment, it allows us to be able to construct the necessary
graphs so that we can determine the trajectory of the free flow jets. It is composed by the
following: an adjustable overflow pipe, a scale in millimeters, a head tank, a flexible hose, an
inlet pipe, a baffle, an orifice with screws and nuts, a back board with a paperclip and adjustable
needles. The adjustable overflow pipe is used to adjust the maximum head of the system. The
scale in millimeters is used to see the head of the system (in millimeters). The head tank is
where the water is stored. The flexible hose is used to extract the excess water from the head
tank. The inlet pipe is from where the water enters the head tank. The baffle is used so that the
inlet water momentum does not affect the outlet momentum. The orifice with screws and nuts is
used as a port for the 3mm and 6 mm orifices. The backboard and paper clip are used to set up
the paper where the graph is going to be drawn. The adjustable needles are used to map the
trajectory of the jet by placing the tips of the needles just above the top of the jet.

The F1-10 Hydraulics Bench is used to allow for the flow of the water into the inlet pipe in the
apparatus, it utilizes a pump and has a control valve which can be opened or closed, and the rate
of flow may also be controlled by this valve. We also use a stopwatch, this stopwatch allows us
to measure the time it takes for V volume to be filled, allowing us to calculate the volumetric
flow rate in the determination of velocity coefficient under steady state conditions experiment
and the determination of discharge coefficient under steady state conditions experiment. The
measuring cylinder is used to determine when V volume is filled, it is used to determine the
volumetric flow rate.
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Fig. 1 Hydraulics bench

Fig. 2 Orifice and free Jet apparatus

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Procedure
I. Determination of velocity coefficient under steady state conditions procedure
First, position the overflow tube to give a high head. Pay attention to the value of the head.
Release the securing screw for each needle in turn. Attach a sheet of paper to the backboard
between the needle and board and secure it in place with the clamp. Move the needle until its
point is just immediately above the jet and re-tighten the screw. Mark the location of the top of
each needle on the paper. Note the horizontal distance from the plane of the orifice to the co-
ordinate point marking the position of the first needle. Estimate the likely experimental errors in
each of the quantities measured. Repeat this test for a medium and low reservoir head. Repeat the
above procedure for the second orifice (6mm).
II. Determination of discharge coefficient under steady state conditions procedure
Position the overflow tube to give a high head. Pay attention to the value of the head. Release the
securing screw for each needle in turn. Attach a sheet of paper to the backboard between the
needle and board and secure it in place with the clamp. Move the needle until its point is just
immediately above the jet and re-tighten the screw. Mark the location of the top of each needle
on the paper. Note the horizontal distance from the plane of the orifice to the co-ordinate point
marking the position of the first needle. Measure the flow rate by timed collection, using the
measuring cylinder provided. Estimate the likely experimental errors in each of the quantities
measured. Repeat this test for a medium and low reservoir head. Repeat the above procedure for
the second orifice (6mm).
III. Determination of discharge coefficient under unsteady state conditions procedure
In this experiment there's no need to graph the trajectory of the jet since it varies under the
varying head. The overflow pipe is raised to obtain the maximum head. The header tank is filled
to just below the top and the bench flow control valve closed, and the pump stopped. Start a
stopwatch when the level reaches the first convenient scale mark (noted as h1). Take readings of
time every 10mm. At the end of this procedure, you can then read off the head position
corresponding to the known time. The above procedure should be repeated using the second
orifice (6mm).
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Data

Jet Trajectory
0.12
0.114
Vertical Distance y (m)

0.1 0.086
0.08
0.062
0.06
0.044
0.04 0.029
0.0165
0.02 0.006
0
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m)

Graph 1. Vertical Distance vs Horizontal Distance

Reservoir Head 395mm, 6mm Orifice

Jet Trajectory
0.14
0.125
0.12
Vertical Distance y (m)

0.095
0.1
0.08 0.069
0.06 0.048
0.04 0.031
0.016
0.02 0.005
0
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m)

Graph 2. Vertical Distance vs Horizontal Distance

Reservoir Head 350mm, 6mm Orifice
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Jet Trajectory
0.18 0.162
0.16
Vertical Distance y (m)

0.14 0.121
0.12
0.1 0.089
0.08 0.063
0.06 0.039
0.04 0.02
0.007
0.02 0
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m)

Graph 3. Horizontal Distance vs Vertical Distance

Reservoir Head 280mm, 6mm Orifice

Determination of Cv
0.4
0.352
0.35
f(x) = 1.71533457748257 x − 0.0195992431393702 0.302
Horizontal Distance x (m)

0.3
0.254
0.25
0.203
0.2
0.152
0.15
0.102
0.1
0.052
0.050.005
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

√𝑦ℎ (m)

Graph 4. Horizontal Distance vs √ yh

Reservoir Head 395mm, 6mm Orifice
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Determination of Cv
0.4
0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m)

0.35
f(x) = 1.70871721762445 x − 0.0153794821652606 0.3
0.3
0.252
0.25
0.201
0.2
0.151
0.15
0.102
0.1
0.051
0.05
0.002
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

√𝑦ℎ (m)
Grap
h 5. Horizontal Distance vs √ yh
Reservoir Head 350mm, 6mm Orifice

Determination of Cv
Horizontal Distance x (m)

0.4
0.35
0.35
0.301
f(x) = 1.67187342577241 x − 0.0137179847776549
0.3
0.251
0.25
0.201
0.2
0.151
0.15
0.102
0.1
0.0525
0.05 0.005
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

√𝑦ℎ (m)

Graph 6. Horizontal Distance vs √ yh

Reservoir Head 280mm in 6mm Orifice
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Jet Trajectory
0.14
0.115
Vertical Distance y (m) 0.12

0.1 0.087
0.08
0.063
0.06
0.043
0.04 0.027
0.016
0.02 0.006
0
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m)

Graph 7. Vertical Distance vs Horizontal Distance

Reservoir 395mm, 3mm Orifice

Jet Trajectory
0.14 0.127
0.12
Vertical Distance y (m)

0.1 0.094

0.08 0.069

0.06 0.047
0.04 0.028
0.0165
0.02
0 0.004
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m)

Graph 8. Vertical Distance vs Horizontal Distance

Reservoir 350mm, 3mm Orifice
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Jet Trajectory
0.18
0.156
0.16
0.14
Vertical Distance y (m)
0.118
0.12
0.1 0.086
0.08
0.059
0.06
0.037
0.04
0.019
0.02 0.008
0
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m)

Graph 9. Vertical Distance vs Horizontal Distance

Reservoir 280mm, 3mm Orifice

Determination of Cv
0.4
0.352
0.35
f(x) = 1.708537956899 x − 0.0178838767584706 0.303
Horizontal Distance x (m)

0.3
0.254
0.25
0.203
0.2
0.152
0.15
0.105
0.1
0.052
0.050.003
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
√𝑦ℎ (m)

Graph 10. Horizontal Distance vs √ yh

Reservoir 395mm, 3mm Orifice
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Determination of Cv
0.4
0.351
0.35
Horizontal Distance x (m) f(x) = 1.69980837336365 x − 0.0128637438153628 0.3
0.3
0.252
0.25
0.2
0.2
0.15
0.15
0.1015
0.1
0.051
0.05
0
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

√𝑦ℎ (m)

Graph 11. Horizontal Distance vs √ yh

Reservoir 350mm, 3mm Orifice

Determination of Cv
0.4
0.352
0.35
f(x) = 1.72233831105922 x − 0.0150977415852911 0.301
0.3
Horizontal Distance x (m)

0.254
0.25
0.204
0.2
0.153
0.15
0.103
0.1
0.054
0.050.0035

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
√𝑦ℎ (m)

Graph 12. Horizontal Distance vs √ yh

Reservoir 280mm, 3mm Orifice

6mm Time (s) Volume (mL) Flow Rate (mL/s) Flow Rate (m3/s)
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280mm 5.365 229.50 42.78 4.28 x 10−5

350mm 5.025 225.00 51.00 5.10 x 10
−5

395mm 5.015 265.00 52.90 5.29 x 10−5

3mm
280mm 5.080 62.00 12.20 1.409 x 10
−5

350mm 5.195 70.00 13.06 1.360 x 10−5

395mm 5.180 73.00 14.09 1.220 x 10
−5

Table 1. Data for the Determination of the Flow Rate

Determination of Cd, Steady State, 6mm

0.00006 0.0000529
0.000051
0.00005 0.00004278
f(x) = 0.000105412186379928 x − 1.25619713261649E-05
Flow Rate (m^3/s)

0.00004

0.00003

0.00002

0.00001

0
0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64

√ℎ

Graph 13. Flow Rate vs √ h

Orifice 6mm

Determination of Cd, Steady State, 3mm

0.0000145 0.00001409
0.000014 0.0000136
f(x) = 1.94444444444445E-05 x + 1.96055555555555E-06
Flow Rate (m^3/s)

0.0000135
0.000013
0.0000125 0.0000122
0.000012
0.0000115
0.000011
0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64

√ℎ

Graph 14. Flow Rate vs √ h

Orifice 3mm
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Determination of Cd, Unsteady State, 3mm

0.1
0.09 f(x) = 0.00236114153736728 x + 0.000234455775975223
0.08
0.07
0.06
(√ℎ 1−√ℎ )
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (s)

Graph 15. ( √ h 1−√ h) vs Time

Orifice 3mm

Determination of Cd, Unsteady State, 6mm

0.16
0.14
0.12 f(x) = 0.00396181429197402 x − 0.000795520941340236
0.1
(√ℎ1−√ℎ)

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (s)

Graph 16. ( √ h 1−√ h) vs Time

Orifice 6mm
 22

Examples of calculations
I. Square Root of the Product of h and y

√ yh= √ (0.006 m)(0.395m)=0.0487 m

II. Average of Slope

Σslope 1.7153+ 1.7087+1.6719

= =1.699
3 3

III. Coefficient of Velocity Utilizing 6mm Orifice

Average Slope 1.699

Cv= = =0.8495
2 2

IV. Coefficient of Velocity Utilizing 3 mm Orifice

Average Slope 1.710

Cv= = =0.8551
2 2

V. Square Root of Head (m)

√ 0.395=0.628
VI. Flow Rate (mL /s)
v 229.5 mL
Q= = =42.78 mL/s
t 5.365 s

VII. Conversion from mL/s to m3/s

−6 3
1 x 10 m
42.78 mL/s x ( ) = 4.278 x 10−5 m3/s
1 mL

VIII. Coefficient of Discharge Under Steady State Utilizing 3 mm Orifice

m
0.00002
Slope s
C d= = =0.6387
A o √ 2 g (7.069 x 10−6 m2) √ 2(9.81 m )
s2

IX. Coefficient of Discharge Under Steady State Utilizing 6 mm Orifice

 23

m
0.0001
Slope s
C d= = =0.7977

√(
Ao√ 2 g −5 m
(2.83 x 10 )( 2 9.81 2 )
s)
X. Coefficient of Discharge Under Unsteady State Utilizing 3 mm Orifice

√ √
AR 2 −3 2
1.812 x 10 m 2
C d= slope= 0.0024=0.2778
Ao g 7.069 x 10 m 9.81 m
−6 2

s2

XI. Coefficient of Discharge Under Unsteady State Utilizing 6 mm Orifice

√ √
AR 2 −3 2
1.812 x 10 m 2
C d= slope= 0.004=0.1156
Ao g 2.83 x 10 m 9.81 m
−5 2

2
s
 24

Discussion of Results
This experiment was done with the intention of, primarily, calculating the velocity coefficient in
steady state of two orifices with different diameters (6mm and 3mm). By marking the jet
trajectory in a sheet of paper it was possible to measure the horizontal distance (x) traveled by
the fluid, as well as the vertical distance (y). This process was repeated with three different
Reservoir Heads (395mm, 350mm, 280mm). To find the velocity coefficient of each orifice, a
graph of the horizontal distance (x) vs √ yh was made for each of the reservoir heads since the
average of the slopes that are calculated from the graphs are the numerator of the velocity
coefficient’s formula. For the 6mm orifice the slopes were as follow: for the 395mm reservoir
head the slope was 1.7153, for the 350mm reservoir head the slope was 1.7087 and for the
280mm reservoir head the slope was 1.6719. Resulting in an average slope of 1.699. Then, the
velocity coefficient is calculated by dividing the average slope (1.699) by 2 which results being
0.8495. Similarly, the slopes with the 3mm orifice for each reservoir heads were calculated. For
the 395mm reservoir head the slope was 1.7085, for the 350mm reservoir head the slope was
1.6998 and for the 280mm reservoir head the slope was 1.7223. The average slope was
calculated, and it was equal to 1.710. It was then divided by 2 to find the velocity coefficient
which was 0.8551. The first thing that can be noticed is that the values of the velocities
coefficients of each orifice are smaller than one. This is an indicator that it is in fact well
calculated because the value of a velocity coefficient can’t be greater than one. Stating that a Cv
is greater than one is also expressing that it ended up with more energy than it started with. It is
known that this is impossible and a violation of the First Law of Thermodynamics that
emphasizes on the conservation of energy and how it can’t be created nor destroyed, only
transferred. It can also be observed that changing the diameter of the orifice is going to have a
low impact in the velocity coefficient, since both are very close to each other.
The second objective of this experiment was to calculate the discharge coefficient in a steady
state. This part was also made with the same two orifices (6mm and 3mm) and with the different
reservoir heads (395mm, 350mm and 280mm). Since the discharge coefficient is used to
characterize the flow and pressure loss behavior of orifices in fluid systems, it was imperative
that the flow rate be calculated. The flow rate was calculated by utilizing the volumetric tank of
the hydraulics bench. For the 6mm orifice the flow rates were as follow: for the 395mm reservoir
m3
head the flow rate was 5.29x10−5 , for the 350mm reservoir head the flow rate was 5.10x
s
3 3
−5 m m
10 and for the 280mm reservoir head the flow rate was 4.28x10−5 . The slope of the flow
s s
rate vs time graph is the numerator of the Cd’s formula therefore these two parameters were
graphed. For the 6mm orifice the slope was 0.0001. Subsequently, the denominator of the Cd’s
formula is the product of Ao and √ 2 g . Ao is the area of the orifice and needed to be calculated.
The area of an orifice is the same as the area of a circle ( π r 2) so for the 6mm orifice Ao was
2.83x10−5 m2. Then the Cd for 6mm orifice was calculated in it was equal to 0.7977. The
same process was repeated with the 3mm orifice. The flow rates were as follow: for the
 25

3
m
395mm reservoir head the flow rate was 1.22x10−5 , for the 350mm reservoir head the flow
s
m3 m3
rate was 1.36x10−5 and for the 280mm reservoir head the flow rate was 1.41x10−5 . It can
s s
be observed that the flow rates between the 6mm and 3mm orifice are distinctive and this is
because of the proportional relationship of the diameter and the flow rate. If the diameter of the
orifice is increased, the flow rate will increase too and vice versa. The flow rate vs time was
graphed, and the slope was equal to 0.00002. The area of the 3mm orifice (Ao) was equivalent to
7.07x10−6 m2. Afterward, the Cd for the 3mm was calculated and it was equal to 0.6383. As it
can be noticed both Cd are less than one, this is because the actual discharge will always be less
than the theorical discharge because of the effect of friction and surface tension. It can also be
observed that the Cd of the 6mm orifice is greater than the Cd of the 3mm orifice. This suggests
that a proportional relationship between the discharge coefficient and the diameter of the orifice
exists.
Finally, the last objective of the experiment was to calculate the discharge coefficient in an
unsteady state scenario (varying the reservoir heads) utilizing both the 6mm and 3mm orifices.
Starting from 395mm reservoir head to 285mm for the 6mm orifice. Then the subtract from
√ h1− √h was calculated for each point and, subsequently, this was graphed against time. The
slope of the graph is 0.004. Using the discharge coefficient formula for an unsteady state, the Cd
was calculated, and it was equal to 0.1156. Similarly, the same process was done for the 3mm
orifice. The slope of the graph was equal to 0.0024. The Cd for the 3mm orifice is 0.2778. The
first thing that can be observed is that the Cd for an unsteady state is much lower than the Cd for
a steady state scenario. This is because the flow rate is going to decrease overtime because of the
decrease of pressure. Additionally, it can be noticed that the Cd of the 3mm is bigger than the Cd
of the 6mm. It is known that the Cd is directly proportional to the diameter. The result being
different can be because of human error. Possibly, the readings of the measuring device were
incorrectly. It also can be a math mistake when the seconds were added together. But
nevertheless, the results weren’t that far from the truth because of the decrease of the Cd between
the steady state and unsteady state scenario.
 26

Nomenclature

Symbol Description Units

Orifice diameter. m
d The diameter is entered in
mm. Convert to meters for
the calculations.
h Head. m
Head in reservoir for which
trajectory data has been
taken. The head is entered in
mm. Convert to meters for
the calculations.
x Horizontal Distance. m
Distance of the orifice of the
measuring needle. Entered in
cm, convert to m.
y Vertical Distance. m
Distance measured from the
fall of the jet from the level of
the orifice. Entered in cm,
convert to m.
n/a √ yh. m
The square root of the
product of y and h allows the
plotting of a straight-line
graph against the horizontal
distance (x). The slope will
be 2Cv.
S Slope. n/a
The slope of the graph x vs
√ yh.
Cv Velocity Coefficient. n/a
The Cv is the average slope
divided by 2.
V Volume. m
3

Taken from the scale on the

hydraulics bench. The
volume collected is measured
 27

in milliliters. Convert to cubic

meters for the calculations.
t Time. s
Time taken to collect the
known volume.
Qt Flow Rate. m
3

Amount of volume that flows s

through the orifice per time
passed.
n/a √h √m
The square root of h allows
the plotting of a straight-line
relationship between the
coefficient of velocity and the
flow rate of the jet.
S Slope. n/a
Slope of flowrate vs √ h.

Ao Orifice Area. m
2

Small aperture through which

the fluid is passing.
g Gravity Acceleration. m
The gravity acceleration is s
2

the acceleration of a body

undergoing a free fall.

Cd Discharge Coefficient. n/a

The Cd is calculated dividing
the slope by the product of
Ao√ 2 g
Ar Area of Reservoir. m
2

Surface area of the reservoir.

h1 Head at Start. m
Head in time=0. Entered in
mm, converted to m.
S Slope. n/a
Slope of time vs √ h1− √h
Cd Discharge Coefficient. n/a

Table 2. Nomenclature
 28

References
(1) Unknown. (2014, May 24 ). Torricelli’s law. Neutrium.
th

https://neutrium.net/fluid-flow/torricellis-law/
(2) Unknown. (2021). What are kinematic equations?
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/one-dimensional-motion/kinematic-formulas/a/
what-are-the-kinematic-formulas
(3) Unknown. (2001, Sep). Orifice and Free Jet Flow, F1-17, Issue 3. Armfield Limited.
(4) DeNevers, Noel. (1991, Unknown). Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, 2nd Edition.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
(5) Unknown. (Unknown). Experiment #6: Orifice and Free Jet Flow. Mavs Open Press.
https://uta.pressbooks.pub/appliedfluidmechanics/chapter/experiment-6/
(6) Unknow. (Unknown). Orifice. CodeCogs.
https://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/fluid_mechanics/orifice/index.php
(7) Unknown. (Unknown). Applied Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual. Mavs Open Press.
https://uta.pressbooks.pub/appliedfluidmechanics/