Table of Contents

1.0 Abstract.................................................................................................................................2

2.0 Objectives.............................................................................................................................3

3.0 Theory...................................................................................................................................3

3.1 Drag force.........................................................................................................................3

4.0 PROCEDURE.......................................................................................................................5

4.1 Assembly Set-up...............................................................................................................5

5.0 Experiment Procedure..........................................................................................................7

6.0 Observations.........................................................................................................................8

7.0 Calculations..........................................................................................................................9

7.1. Graph...............................................................................................................................10

8.0 Data Analysis and Discussion............................................................................................11

9.0 Error Analysis.....................................................................................................................12

10.0 Applications........................................................................................................................12

11.0 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................13

12.0 References...........................................................................................................................13

List of Figures
Figure 1 Drag force..........................................................................................................................3
Figure 2 Drag force formula............................................................................................................4
Figure 3 The Wake Traverse Experiment........................................................................................5
Figure 4 Experimnet Setup 1...........................................................................................................6
Figure 5 Experiment Measurement.................................................................................................6
Figure 6 Ideal Graph of Calculated Drag........................................................................................8
1.0 Abstract
In this lab drag force related concept are studied, it the force which is caused by the
resistance force during motion of the fluid, the direction of the drag force is opposite to the flow
of the fluid. It is intended to measure and calculate the different parameters related to the drag
force. Drag coefficient curve is plotted using these parameters. Then determine the value of CD
using the trapezoidal area method.
2.0 Objectives
Profile drag is calculated using results from the pressure distribution downstream of the 300 mm
airfoil.

3.0 Theory
3.1 Drag force
The force which is imposed on a rigid surface traveling with reference to a fluid due to
the fluid's motion is known as drag force. For instance, drag on a moving ship in the water or
drag on a rushing aircraft in the air. As a result, a drag force is the resistance group produced by
a moving fluid through a fluid such as water or air. This drag force opposes the oncoming flow
velocity. As a consequence, this is the body-to-fluid velocity. A fluid's velocity profile is its
resisting force. This force acts in the reverse direction of the motion of an object that is engulf in
a fluid. As a result, drag force is defined as the force that opposes a body's motion through a
fluid.

Aerodynamic drag is defined as a body motion that occurs in a fluid-like environment.

It's also known as a hydrodynamic drag when the fluid is water. Its purpose is to operate against
the passage of speed. The cruising height that a descending object can attain is often restricted by
air resistance. The drag force, which is the force that objects feel when moving through a fluid, is
exemplified here by air resistance. Drag force, like kinetic friction, is responsive in that it only
occurs when an air is detected and pushes in the reverse way of the object's position via the fluid.
 Figure 1 Drag force
This force is divided into two categories: form drag, and skin drag. The opposition of
fluids to just being moved out from the course by an entity passing through the flow generates
form drag. As a result, form drag is comparable to an usual force generated by materials'
resistance to degradation. Skin drag is essentially a kinetic frictional force created by the fluid
sliding over the moving object's surface. Fluid density, Square of velocity, drag coefficient, and
Cross-section region are all factors that determine its value. The profile drag was estimated using
the induced drag acquired from the stagnation point downwards of a blade in this study.
 Figure 2 Drag force formula.
The profile drag of the aerofoil is equal to the loss of momentum of the air due to the aerofoil.
Takingṁ as the mass flow rate:

ṁ ( V ∞−V ) = Drag (1)

Integrating across the wake,

W
Drag=∫ ρV ( V ∞ −V ) δy
0 (2)

The coefficient of drag,

Drag
CD=
1 2
ρV cb
2 (3)

Combining equations (2) and (3),

W /C
C D =2 ∫
0
V
V∞(1−
V
V∞ )()
δ
y
c (4)

where
 V
V∞
=
√
PT −P∞
PT ∞ −P∞ (5)

Figure 3 The Wake Traverse Experiment

4.0 PROCEDURE
4.1 Assembly Set-up
1. Create a blank table of results similar to Table 1.
2. Fit the pitot-static tube to the downstream position. Fit the basic pitot tube to the
upstream (free stream) position on the working section. Connect the pitot and pitot-static
tubes to manometers as shown in Figure 1.
3. From outside the Working Section, push the aerofoil support shaft into the model clamp
(so that the model is held outside the working section (see figure 2).
4.
 Figure 4 Experimnet Setup 1

Figure 5 Experiment Measurement

5. Inside the working section, measure the distance from the centre of the aerofoil shaft to
the bottom surface of the working section (see Figure 3). This is nominally 152.5 mm.
Remove the aerofoil.
6. From inside the working section, insert the aerofoil support shaft into the model clamp,
so that its leading edge faces into the airflow. Do not tighten the model clamp yet.
7. Adjust the trailing edge of the aerofoil to the same height as that measured in step 4 and
tighten the model clamp. The aerofoil is now perfectly straight (no incidence angle) and
at right angles to the airflow.
8. Fit the protractor (supplied with the Wind Tunnel) to the model support shaft and set it to
zero degrees.

5.0 Experiment Procedure

1. Adjust the angle of the aerofoil to 5 degrees and tighten the model holder.
2. Make a note of the ambient conditions and set the tunnel air speed to 25 m/s.
3. Position the basic pitot tube (upstream) in the free stream approximately 30 mm down
from the top of the working section. Use its connection with that of the wall static
tapping, connected to a manometer to measure and record the difference between
upstream static and total pressure, and to give wind tunnel velocity.
4. Connect both tappings of the pitot-static tube (downstream) to a second manometer. This
manometer will measure the difference between downstream total and static pressure in
the wake.
5. Make a note of the width of the wake. To do this:
a. Move the pitot tube slowly downwards until the manometer reading just begins to
change, this is one edge of the wake. Make a note of this position from the scale
of the pitot tube.
b. Move the pitot tube further down until its manometer readings return to their
original ‘out of the wake’ value. Make a note of this position from the scale of the
basic pitot tube.
c. Use your measurement to determine the width (height) of the wake
6. Now use the pitot tube to measure the pressures in the wake at suitable distance
increments, between 2 mm and 10 mm (depending on the width of the wake). Record
your results in your Results Table.
V
7. Create a plot for V ∞
(
1−
V
)
V ∞ vs y/c.

Figure 6 Ideal Graph of Calculated Drag

 8. Find the area under the chart and multiply by two to give the coefficient of drag for the
aerofoil.

6.0 Observations
Cell 1 Pitot Ambient
Average Calculated Atmospheric Atmospheric
Pressur Scale Air
Cell 2 Windspeed Temperature Pressure
e Reading Density
Pressure
(Pa) (Pa) mm (m.s-1) (°C) (mbar) (kg.m-3)
384.00 384.00 120 24.84 22 1013 1.2
383.00 383.00 123 24.87 22 1013 1.2
384.00 365.00 125 24.94 22 1013 1.2
382.00 353.00 130 24.8 22 1013 1.2
383.00 338.00 135 24.9 22 1013 1.2
383.00 348.00 140 24.87 22 1013 1.2
384.00 353.00 145 25.04 22 1013 1.2
383.00 356.00 150 25.07 22 1013 1.2
383.00 364.00 155 25 22 1013 1.2
383.00 384.00 157 25.07 22 1013 1.2
382.00 385.00 160 24.8 22 1013 1.2

Aerofoil Incidence Angle = 5 Degrees

Free Stream Total - Static Pressure = P T∞ – P∞ =
Pa
Ambient Pressure = 1013
o
Ambient Temperature = 22 C
Air Velocity = 24.9272 m/s
 √ ( )
Pitot Y/c IN/OUT Downstream PT −P ∞ V V Area
Scale of Wake Total –
1− Under the
PT ∞−P∞ V∞ V∞
Reading Static Curve
Y Pressure
(mm) PT – P∞
(Pa)
out -1.07096E-
120 384.00
0.8 1.001187 -0.00119 05
123 0.82 In 383.00 0.999883 0.000117 0.000156284
125 0.833333 In 365.00 0.976104 0.023325 0.001029914
130 0.866667 In 353.00 0.959924 0.03847 0.001591306
135 0.9 In 338.00 0.939308 0.057009 0.001695126
140 0.933333 In 348.00 0.953102 0.044699 0.001386144
145 0.966667 In 353.00 0.959924 0.03847 0.001219646
150 1 In 356.00 0.963995 0.034709 0.000988441
155 1.033333 In 364.00 0.974766 0.024597 0.00015606
157 1.046667 out 384.00 1.001187 -0.00119 -3.6844E-05
160 1.066667 In 385.00 1.00249 -0.0025 0.001331193

7.0 Calculations
For Pitot Scale Reading = 150mm

Average cell 1 Pressure = 383.09

Average cell 2 Pressure = 364.82

Downstream pressure = PT - P∞ = 356

Free Stream Total - Static Pressure = PT∞ - P∞ = 383.09

Cord length = 150 mm

x-axis = Y/c = 150/150 = 1

V
V∞
=
√
PT −P∞
356
√
PT ∞ −P∞ = 383.09 = 0.96399

y-axis = = 0.96399(1-0.96399) =0.0347

Are under the curve =

Y 2−Y 1 V 1
C
∗
V∞ (
1−
V1
)
+
V∞ V∞
V2
(1−
V2
V∞ ) = (1.0333-
2
1)*((0.034709+0.024597)/2) = 0.00098841

CD =2 ∑(area under the curve) = 2(0.00950656) = 0.019013119

D = ½ * C*A * p *V2 = ½ *0.019013119 * 0.150 *0.300 *1.23 * 24.92727273

D = 0.326 N

7.1. Graph
 0.07
Y/c vs V/V∞(1-V/V∞)
0.06

0.05

0.04
Axis Title

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0.8 0.82 0.833333 0.866666 0.9 0.933333 0.966666 1 1.033333 1.046666 1.066666
3333333 6666666 3333333 6666666 3333333 6666666 6666666
-0.01 33 67 33 67 3 7 7

Axis Title

8.0 Data Analysis and Discussion

 We computed the drag coefficient by glancing at the recirculation zone of an airfoil,
which would be generated by the separation of the boundary layer. A pitot-static tube was
implanted to monitor pressure variations in order to compute the wake region.
 The data suggest that the wake region began around 148-200 mm, when the pressure
differential is the greatest.
 The wind speed was set to 25 m/s to prevent influencing the pressure, as changes in speed
have a substantial impact on pressure.
 The measurements were collected every 2-5 mm, resulting in some inaccuracies.
Observations must still be taken per 1 mm for even more precise results.
 The determined value of CD equals 0.28028, which is quite minimal, as per the results.
This is due to the tiny angle of attack utilized in this experiment, which is equal to 5. As
 we saw in the previous experiment, the link between CD and α is exactly proportional,
implying that a high angle of attack results in a high drag coefficient.
 The outside wake region, velocity is unaltered, as demonstrated by the fact that the
proportion of V/V = 1 from outside wake region.
 The minimum V/V ratio was found at 204 mm, which is due to the fact that as we
approach back to the middle, the velocity reduces, then increases as we travel outside of
the wake region, reaching a number of 1.
 As the depth of a wake region deepens, the region underneath the parabola expands,
leading to increased drag coefficient and force.

9.0 Error Analysis

The research's shortcomings are as follows:

 Parallax error: because the angle change isn't happening yet in the experiment, it may
cause certain errors. The pitot tube should face the air flow: unless the flow of air is not
confronting, there'll be some inaccuracies in the observations.
 Systematic error: despite the calibration, the tapping pressure fluctuated and was not
constant during the experiment.
 Human error: the inclination might've been misinterpreted, and the value could have
been underestimated.

10.0 Applications
Automotive manufacturers evaluate the automobile drag coefficient, as well as other
performance parameters, while developing a new vehicle. Aerodynamic drag grows in direct
proportion to speed squared, hence it becomes increasingly relevant at greater speeds.

In a car, lowering the drag coefficient boosts the vehicle's efficiency and fuel efficiency.
A vehicle's drag can be reduced in a variety of ways. The drag area is a typical method of
determining the vehicle's drag.
11.0 Conclusion
It can be concluded from the lab experiment, drag force was thoroughly studied by performing
the wake region experiment through distribution of pressure. The experiment was performed
during the lab to calculate and measure the different parameters related to drag force. Using these
values Drag coefficient graph was plotted and C D was calculated from the graph. Small deviation
was observed in the graph while overall it look similar to ideal drag coefficient graph. Errors
during the lab experiment can be reduced by taking the several reading at 25 m/s. C D calculated
from lab experiment is 0.019013119.

12.0 References
[1] lab manual

[2] Gubser SS. Drag force in AdS/CFT. Physical Review D. 2006 Dec 11;74(12):126005.