Theory of semiconductor

Dept. of Phys: 5th Sem. 2022

Syllabus ”Reference Books”

”4.Theory of semiconductor” 1. Solid state electronic devices: B. G. Streetman and S. K.

Banerjee
Density of states and Fermi function in semiconduc- 2. Semiconductor physics: S. S. Islam
tor, carrier concentration, electrical conduction in 3. Microelectronics: J. Millman and C. C. Halkias
semiconductor, Extrinsic semiconductor, Doping con-
centration, Fermi level, Fermi potential , Einstein’s
relationship in inhomogeneous semiconductor. Carrier
injection, Generation and recombination of carriers,
continuity equation. p-n junction, energy band diagram,
built-in electric field, potential barrier, depletion width.6L

Course plan:

1. Introduction, Density of states and Fermi function in

semiconductor: L-1
2. Carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor,
electrical conduction in semiconductor: drift and diffusion
current. L-1
3. Extrinsic semiconductor; position of Fermi level, compen-
sated semiconductor, : L-1
4. Einstein relationships, Fermi potentia, carrier injection,
Generation and recombination of carriers,Continuity equa-
tion: L-1
5. Basic structure of the pn junction, Depletion region,
Electric field, electrostatic potential and width of the
depletion region: L-2
Total: L - 8

1 B.Roy

Preprint submitted to September 21, 2022

1. Density of states in conduction and valence
band of a semiconductor E E
E CB
In order to describes the electrical and optical proper-
ties of semiconductors, it is often necessary to know the EC EC
number of charge carriers per unit volume (carrier K dn( E )
K EF
concentration)in the material. To calculate carrier con-
centration, we need idea about the nature of density of K dp(E )
EV EV
E
states and probability of occupancy, i.e., the distribution
function in conduction and valence band. VB

d(E )
1.1. Density of states in metal
(a) (b) (c)
In free electron model the density electronic states with
energy E(total energy)[ which is kinetic energy as potential Figure 1: (a) Energy as a functin of K and density of states per unit
volume(lower panel) in metal, (b) one part of E − K diagram of the
energy is zero] is valence band and conduction band, (c) variation of Energy with d(E)
  3/2 in valence band(lower panel) and in conduction band(upper panel)
V 2m of a semiconductor.
D(E) = E 1/2
2π 2 h̄2
The density of states per unit volume is 2. Fermi function in semiconductor
  3/2
D(E) 1 2m
d(E) = = E 1/2 (1) The well known distribution function for elec-
V 2π 2 h̄2 trons(charge carrier) is Fermi-function(f (E)) is given by
The variation of E with K(wave vector) as well as d(E)
1
are shown in Fig. 1(a). f (E) = E−EF
1+e kT

1.2. Density of states in conduction band

f (E) is also called the probability of occupancy of state at
The expression for density of electronic states per unit E and EF is the Fermi energy.
volume can be obtained using Eq. (1). The kinetic As far as semiconductors are concerned, we must recall
energy(En ) of an electron in the energy state E starts that f (E) is the probability of occupancy of an available
at the bottom of the conduction band is En = E − state at energy level E and 1 − f (E) is the empty state.
EC (actually the electronic energy E is measured from EC , Thus if there is no available state at E, there is no pos-
i.e., the conduction band edge) shown in Fig. 1(b). There- sibility of finding an electron(occupancy) at this energy
fore, the density of states per unit volume, dn (E) at energy level(E).
E in the conduction band can be written as Example: There is no available state in the band gap of
 ∗ 3/2
1 2mn a semiconductor.
dn (E) = En1/2
2π 2 h̄2 The concept of the Fermi level in a semiconductor is dif-
 ∗ 3/2 ferent than in the case of metal, here the Fermi level acts
1 2mn 1/2
or dn (E) = (E − EC ) (2) as reference level that shows the distribution of electrons
2π 2
h̄2
over the energy levels of the conduction band and valence
where m∗n is effective mass of electron. A plot of E as a
band as shown in Fig. 2(a). We note that, the Fermi func-
function of dn (E) is shown in Fig. 1(c)(upper panel).
tion is symmetrical about EF for all temperature which
1.3. Density of states in valence band means that function f (E) for E > EF is symmetrical
The kinetic energy(Ep ) of a hole in the energy state E to the function 1 − f (E) for E < EF about the energy
in the valence band is Ep = EV −E[Fig. 1(b)]. The density E = EF , shown in Fig. 2(b). This is also means that the
of hole states per unit volume, dp (E) at energy E in the function f (E) for E = EF + ∆E is equal to the function
valence band is[Fig. 1(c)] 1 − f (E) for E = EF − ∆E. Therefore, at temperature
 ∗ 3/2 higher than 0K, if the electron leaves the state and cre-
1 2mp
dp (E) = Ep1/2 ated vacancy in that state, the probability f (E) of the
2π 2 h̄2 occupancy of a state (filled state) by an electron above
 ∗ 3/2
1 2mp 1/2 EF is same as the probability 1 − f (E) of an energy state
or dp (E) = (EV − E) (3)
2π 2 h̄2 E not to be occupied by an electron, i.e., the probability
where m∗p is effective mass of electron. A plot of E as a of finding a vacancy(empty state) or hole in the energy
function of dp (E) is shown in Fig. 1(c)(lower panel). state E below EF .
2
 E The total electron concentration is
f(E ) d(E )
f(E ) f(E ) ∞(top)
Z
EC 1 n= dn (E)f (E)dE
EF E=EC

1 − f( E)
EV Substituting dn (E) and f (E), we get
1−f(E )
d(E ) 3/2 Z∞
2m∗n

1 1/2 dE
n= (E − EC )
h̄2
E−EF
f( E) = 0 1 f( E) 0 EF 2π 2 1+e kT
E EC
(a) (b) 1 E−EF
as E − EF > kT ; E−EF ≈ e− kT

Figure 2: (a) Fermi function and density of state. (b) Symmetry of 1+e kT

Fermi function. 3/2 Z∞

2m∗n

1 1/2 E−EF
= 2 (E − EC ) e− kT dE
2π 2 h̄
EC
The symmetry of the distribution of unoccupied and oc- 3/2 Z∞
2m∗n

cupied states about EF makes the Fermi level a natural 1 1/2 E−EC +EC −EF
= 2 (E − EC ) e− kT dE
reference level in calculation of electron and hole con- 2π 2 h̄
EC
centrations in semiconductors. 3/2 Z∞
2m∗n

1 EF −EC
1/2 E−EC
= 2 e kT (E − EC ) e− kT dE
2π 2 h̄
2.1. Position of Fermi level EC
E − EC
The position of Fermi level depends on the nature of Let =x
kT
semiconductor and temperature. Fig. 3 shows the position  ∗ 3/2 Z∞
1 2mn EF −EC
3/2
of Fermi level in different type of semiconductor at same = e kT (kT ) x1/2 e−x dx
2π 2 h̄2
temperature. x=0
Z∞  π 1/2
EF N ow x1/2 e−x dx =
EC 4
x=0
EF 3/2
m∗n kT

EF −EC

EF E Fi =2 e kT
2πh̄2
EF 3/2
m∗n kT

EC −EF

EV = NC e− kT ; put NC = 2 (5)
EF 2πh̄2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) = NC f (EC )

Figure 3: Simplified energy band diagram for, [non-degenerate] (a) The parameter NC is called the effective density of states
EC −EF
intrinsic, (b) N -type, (c) P -type and [degenerate] (d) N -type, (e)
P -type semiconductor. Where EF i
of electrons in the conduction band and f (EC ) = e− kT
is intrinsic Fermi level. is the probability of occupancy at E = EC .

3. Carrier concentration in a semiconductor

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
To obtain the expression for carrier concentration in a EC −EF
Show that f (EC ) = e− kT
semiconductor, we have to multiply the density of elec-
tronic states(available quantum states) and probability of We have,
occupancy(i.e., distribution function) of the states at their
1
respective energy levels. f (E) = E−EF
1+e kT

3.1. Electron concentration in conduction band At E=EC

1
The concentration of electrons(dn) in the conduction f (EC ) = EC −EF

band in the energy range E and E + dE is e kT +1

We assume that the Fermi level EF lies at least several
dn = dn (E)f (E)dE (4) kT (at least 3kT ) below the bottom of the conduction
3
band, where EC − EF >> kT . The exponential term is EV − E
Let =x
large compared with unity and the Fermi function f (EC ) kT
 ∗ 3/2 Z0
can be simplified as 1 2mp EV −EF
1/2
p= e kT x1/2 (kT ) e−x (−kT ) dx
1 EC −EF
2π 2 h̄2
f (EC ) ≈ EC −EF = e− kT ∞
e Z∞
2m∗p 3/2
kT  
1 EV −EF
3/2
Under this approximation the Fermi function reduces to = 2 e kT (kT ) x1/2 e−x dx
2π 2 h̄
0
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function.
2m∗p 3/2
   π 1/2
1 EV −EF
3/2
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− = 2 e (kT )
kT
2π 2 h̄ 4
 ∗ 3/2
Since we are dealing with the thermal equilibrium situ- mp kT EF −EV
=2 2 e− kT
ation, the electronic concentration n = no , suffix o use to 2πh̄
 ∗ 3/2
denote thermal equilibrium state. Therefore E −E
− FkT V
mp kT
= NV e ; put NV = 2 (8)
−
EC −EF 2πh̄2
n o = NC e kT (6)
= NV [1 − f (EV )]
when EF = EC , no = NC .
The parameter NV is called the effective density of states
EF −EV
3.2. Hole concentration in the valence band of holes in the valence band and 1 − f (EV ) = e− kT is
An expression similar to Eq. (4) for the concentration the probability of an empty of state or hole occupancy at
of hole(dp) in the valence band in the energy range E and EV . At thermal equilibrium state,
E + dE is EF −EV
p = p o = NV e − kT (9)
dp = dp (E)[1 − f (E)]dE (7)
when EF = EV , po = NV .
where we have replaced f (E) by [1−f (E)] which represents
The magnitude of NC and NV is on the order of 1019 cm−3
the probability of finding a hole in the energy state E. The
at T = 300K for most semiconductor.
total hole concentration is
ZEV
4. Intrinsic semiconductor: The intrinsic carrier
p= dp (E)[1 − f (E)]dE
concentration
−∞(bottom)

ZEV   We may denote ni and pi as the electron and hole con-

1
= dp (E) 1 − E−EF dE centrations respectively, in the intrinsic semiconductor and
−∞
e kT +1
at thermal equilibrium state ni = no and pi = po [subscript
ZEV " E−EF
#
e kT o use to denote thermal equilibrium state].
= dp (E) E−EF dE
e kT +1 The Fermi level for the intrinsic semiconductor is called
−∞
the intrinsic Fermi level, denoted by EF i .
In the valence band, since E < EF the exponential term The electron concentration in intrinsic semiconduc-
in the denominator may be neglected in comparison to tor[Eq. (5)] is
unity. Thus we get
ni = NC e−(EC −EF i )/kT (10)
ZEV
E−EF
p= dp (E)e kT dE
Similarly, intrinsic hole concentration is
−∞

Therefore, pi = NV e−(EF i −EV )/kT (11)

ZEV 3/2
2m∗p

1 1/2 E−EF For intrinsic semiconductor ni = pi . This relation means
p= 2 (EV − E) e kT dE
2π 2 h̄ that, the carriers(electron-hole) are created in pair. For
−∞
Silicon(Si), ni ∼ 1010 cm−3 and Germanium(Ge), ni ∼
3/2 ZEV
2m∗p

1 1/2 E−EF
1013 cm−3 at T = 300K.
= 2 (EV − E) e kT dE
2π 2 h̄
−∞
4.1. The position of intrinsic Fermi level
3/2 ZEV
2m∗p

1 EV −EF
1/2 E−EV
= e kT (EV − E) e kT dE In the intrinsic semiconductor at thermal equilibrium
2π 2 h̄2
−∞ state the electron and hole concentrations are equal.
4
Therefore, equating Eq. (10) and Eq. (11), we have number of holes in the valence band. In the absence of
any applied electric field, these electrons and holes moves
NC e−(EC −EF i )/kT = NV e−(EF i −EV )/kT in random directions and constitute no current. When
NV
or e(2EF i −EC −EV )/kT = an external electric field(ε) is applied, the electrons will
NC
  assume non-equilibrium state and movement of electrons
NV
or 2EF i = EC + EV + kT ln is accelerated under the action of a force eε, where e the
NC
electronic charge. The equation of motion is
Using Eq.(5) and Eq.(9)
F = am∗n
 ∗
1 3kT mp
or EF i = (EC + EV ) + ln
2 4 m∗n −eε = am∗n
 ∗
3 mp eε
or EF i = Emidgap + kT ln (12) or a = − ∗
4 m∗n mn

At T = 0K, EF i = 12 Emidgap , i.e., the Fermi level lies where a is the acceleration and m∗n the effective mass of
in the middle of the conduction band and valence band, electron. The negative sign indicates that motion of the
i.e., EC − EF i =EF i − EV . This is also true at any tem- electron is opposite to the electric field direction. However,
perature, for intrinsic semiconductor where m∗p = m∗n , the electrons do not get accelerated indefinitely. In fact
EF i = Emidgap the intrinsic Fermi level is exactly in the during their motion the electron collide with impurities,
centre of the band gap, shown in Fig. 3(a). lattice imperfection and phonons. Therefore, in between
two collisions the electrons are accelerated by the field, but
4.2. intrinsic Carrier concentration in terms of en- on collision, the energy gained by the electrons is lost and
ergy band gap their velocity momentarily falls to zero[Fig. 4]. The steady
For intrinsic semiconductor, we have intrinsic electron
v
and hole concentration as
v
max
ni = NC e−(EC −EF i )/kT
pi = NV e−(EF i −EV )/kT
0 2τ 4τ 6τ Time
The intrinsic carrier concentration can be directly ob-
Figure 4: Plot of velocity(v) versus time.
tained, taking the product of intrinsic electron and hole
concentration average velocity or drift velocity is given by
 
ni pi = NC NV e−[(EC −EF i )+(EF i −EV )]/kT 1 2τ εe τ εe
vd = − =− ∗ (15)
−[(EC −EF i )+(EF i −EV )]/kT 2 m∗n mn
or n2i
= NC NV e
p where 2τ represents the time between two collisions and τ
or ni = NC NV e−Eg /2kT (13)
 3/2 is called the relaxation time. The electron current density
kT
3/4 −Eg /2kT
is
ni = 2 2 m∗n m∗p e (14)
2πh̄
Jn = n(−e)(vd )
where Eg = EC − EV band gap of the semiconductor. For
= n(−e)(−µn ε)
a given semiconductor material at a constant tempera-
ture, the value of ni is a constant and independent of = neµn ε (16)
the Fermi energy but depends on band gap Eg .
where, µn the mobility of electron is given by, Eq.(15)
The exponential temperature dependence term dominates
vd eτ
over, thus we neglected variation of ni due to T 3/2 depen- = − ∗ = −µn
ε mn
dence of the density of states(NV or NC ).
Similarly, the expression for hole current density can be
obtained as
5. Electrical conduction in semiconductors: Drift
velocity, mobility and drift current Jp = pevd = peµp ε (17)

At finite temperature, due to thermal agitation and lat- eτ

where µp = m ∗ is the hole mobility.
p
tice vibrations, some of the valence band electrons are Total drift current density is,
always present in the conduction band, i.e., at ordinary
Jd = Jdn + Jdp
temperatures, an intrinsic semiconductor always contains
some free electrons in the conduction band and an equal = e (nµn + pµp ) ε (18)

5
The electrical conductivity impurities and crystal defects. The resulting carrier mo-
Jd tion is termed diffusion. To discuss it, let us consider a
σ= = e (nµn + pµp ) (19) reference point(x0 ) inside the semiconductor sample where
ε
For intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni the equilibrium electron density is n[Fig. 6]. Since the car-
rier motion(average thermal motion or r.m.s velocity) at
σ = eni (µn + µp ) thermal equilibrium is entirely random, it may be assumed
on the basis of the principle of equipartition of energy, that
5.1. Variation of conductivity with temperature
half of them would be moving towards the right and the
Assuming mobilities to be independent of temperature,
remaining half towards the left of the reference point. If,
the temperature dependence of conductivity arises because
therefore, a uniform carrier density exists inside the semi-
of the variation of intrinsic carriers concentration ni with
conductor, the net number of carriers moving per unit area
temperature. Substituting ni from Eq. (14) in Eq. (19),
at reference point in each direction would be zero. But,
we have
 3/2 when concentration gradient exists, there would result a
kT
3/4 −Eg /2kT net flow of carriers moving through unit area in unit time,
σ = 2e 2 m∗n m∗p e (µn + µp )
2πh̄ which is cause of diffusion current.
which gives The diffusion current density can be written as
Eg 1 3
lnσ = − + lnT + constant Jdif (x) = charge of the carrier × diffusion contant
2k T 2
For the moderate temperature the second term is negligi- × concentration gradient of carrier
ble as compared to the linear one( T1 ). Thus above equation = charge of the carrier × net flux of charge carrier
approximately written as
6.1. Expression for diffusion current density
Eg 1
lnσ = − + constant On order to deduce an expression for diffusion current
2k T
density, let us consider electron concentration varies in one
The plot of lnσ versus T1 is a straight line as shown in
E dimension as shown in Fig. 6. Assume, two planes A1
Fig. 5. The slope( 2kg ) of the line gives an estimate of the
at x0 − l and A2 at x0 + l on the both sides of plane A
band gap of the semiconductor.
at x = x0 , where the carrier density is n[i.e., n(xo ) =
n]. The situation is depicted in Fig. 6. The sections A1
and A2 are separated from each other by a distance equal
to the mean free path l of carriers so that the carrier
ln σ
are not expected to collide with one another unless they
cross the sections. Before collision each section maintain
their equilibrium electron concentrations. Let, n1 and n2
are electron concentrations at A1 and A2 respectively, the
1
T number of electrons crossing the plane at x = xo per unit
area per unit time(i.e., flux) from the right is n1 < v >
Figure 5: Variation of conductivity with temperature.
and that from the left is n2 < v >, where < v > denotes
the average thermal velocity(r.m.s) is independent of x.
6. Diffusion process and diffusion current Since n1 > n2 , the net flux towards the right at x = x0 is
given by
Semiconductors are technologically important because
1
the mechanism of electrical conductivity is different from Nn = (n1 − n2 ) < v > (20)
2
that found in a perfect conductor. In semiconductor the
charge transport can be described by drift and diffusion
As n is the function of x and referring to Fig. 6, we may
mechanisms. The diffusion current can be produced due
express
to concentration gradient of carriers.  
dn
n1 = n(x0 − l) = n − l
Let us consider a piece of semiconductor in which, dx
 
for whatever reason, there is an electron concentration dn
and n2 = n(x0 + l) = n + l
gradient and there will be motion due to electron con- dx
centration. However, the motion of the cloud of carri- [we use Taylor series expansion of n(x) about x = x0 and
ers(electrons) would also be affected by lattice vibrations, consider the first term only, here we assume dn
dx is negative]

6
 the sum of these four components for one-dimensional
n(x) case
n1
n J = Jn + Jp = Jdn + Jdif n + Jdp + Jdif p
n2 dn dp
= enµn + eDn + epµp − eDp (22)
dx dx
l l
7. Extrinsic semiconductor
A1 A A2
A semiconductor in which controlled amount of specific
o xo x = xo + l x dopant(called donor or acceptor) or impurity atoms have
x = xo − l
been added, is called Extrinsic semiconductor. At ther-
Figure 6: Electron concentration gradient in one dimensional semi- mal equilibrium the concentration of donors(Nd ) for n-
conductor, the planes are separated by the mean free path l.
type and that of acceptors(Na ) for p-type semiconductor
affects the intrinsic carrier concentration, the Fermi energy
Substituting n1 and n2 in Eq. (20), we have and the conductivity of the semiconductor.
     
1 dn dn
Nn = n− l−n− l <v> 7.1. Carrier concentration and Fermi level of n-
2 dx dx type semiconductor
 
dn
=− l<v> The energy level diagram for n-type semiconductor is
dx
  shown in Fig. 7(a). At 0K all the donors are in the union-
dn
Nn = −Dn (21) ized state, i.e., all the donor levels are occupied with elec-
dx
trons. Let Nd be the donors per unit volume occupying the
where, Dn = l < v > defines the diffusion constant or donor levels with energy Ed . As the temperature increases
diffusion coefficient for electron. The Eq. (21) is known slightly some of the donors get ionized and contribute elec-
as Fick’s first law of diffusion. trons to the conduction band. Also some of the valence
band electrons may jump to the conduction band leaving
−−−−−−−−−−−−−
behind holes in the valence band. The number of holes
l2 <v> produced in this process is, however, quite small. There-
Dn = l < v >= ; τ= is relaxation time
τ l fore, the Fermi level must lie some where near the middle
− − − − − − − − − − −− of the donor level and the bottom of the conduction band
at 0K. The position EF depends on donor concentration.
The current density due to the electron diffusion is

dn
Jdif n = (−e)Nn = eDn Thermal electrons Thermal electrons
dx
− − − conduction band
−−−−− E −−−
C
Similarly, the hole diffusion current density is EF
dp Ed
Jdif p = (e)Np = −eDp un−ionized donors +++++
dx ionized donors

Where Dp is hole diffusion coefficient. E Fi

ionized acceptors
un−ionized acceptors − − − − −
The total diffusion current density is the sum of the Ea

11111111111
00000000000 00000000000
11111111111
contribution due to electrons and holes current densities EF

00000000000
11111111111 00000000000
11111111111 EV

00000000000 11111111111
11111111111 00000000000
Jdif = Jdif n + Jdif p +++ +++ +++++
valence band
Thermal holes
 
dn dp Thermal holes
= e Dn − Dp
dx dx (a) (b)
6.2. Total current density Figure 7: Energy band diagram of (a) n-type and(b) p-type semicon-
ductor. Thermal electrons/holes concentrations are called intrinsic
We now have four possible independent current flow concentration.
mechanisms in a semiconductor. These components are
electron (i) drift, (ii) diffusion currents and hole, (iii) To determine carrier concentration at thermal equilib-
drift, (iv) diffusion currents. The total current density is rium of temperature T . Let no and po are the thermal
7
equilibrium concentration of electrons and holes respec-
tively. Assuming that EF lies more that few kT below the
conduction band, [Boltzmann approximation], the electron
concentration in the conduction band is
no = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT
no in terms of ni
nd = electron concentration in donor level not in con-
duction band, for complete ionization nd = 0 i.e., all
are in conduction band. Hence, Nd+ = Nd . In n-type
semiconductor, no >> po [Example: no ∼ 1017 cm−3 ;
po ∼ 103 cm−3 ]. Thus po may be neglected in Eq. (26)
(23) which, therefore becomes
no = Nd+ ∼
= Nd

Similarly, for p-type semiconductor

EC −EF
n o = NC e − kT

EC −EF i +EF i −EF po = no + Na− (27)

−
= NC e kT

EC −EF i EF −EF i
where Na− = Na − p a
= NC e− kT e kT

EF −EF i pa = hole concentration in acceptor level not in valence

or no = ni e kT [using Eq.(10)] (24)
band, for complete ionization pa = 0 i.e., all are in
This form of the equation indicates directly that the elec- valence band. Hence, Na− = Na . In p-type semiconductor,
tron concentration(no ) is ni when Fermi level(EF ) is at the po >> no . Thus po may be neglected in Eq. (27) which,
intrinsic level EF i (i.e, EF =EF i ) and no increase exponen- therefore becomes
tially as the Fermi levels moves away from EF i towards po = Na− ∼
= Na
the conduction band, shown in Fig. 3(b).
Similarly, the hole concentration in valence band is 8. Mixed-semiconductor or compensated semicon-
−EF −EV ductor
p o = NV e kT

A semiconductor contain both donor and acceptor im-

po in terms of pi purity atoms in the same region is known as compensated
semiconductors or mixed. In this semiconductor the law
EF −EV of charge neutrality is written as
po = NV e− kT

= NV e −
EF −EF i +EF i −EV
kT no + Na− = po + Nd+ (28)
−EF i −EV EF −EF i
−
= NV e kT e kT no is the electron concentration at thermal equilibrium
= pi e
EF −EF i
kT [using Eq.(11)] state.
EF −EF i Na− =ionised acceptor ions.
or po = ni e kT as pi = ni (25) po is the hole concentration at thermal equilibrium state.
The hole concentration po increase as EF moves from EF i Nd+ = ionised donor ions.
towards the valence band, shown in Fig. 3(c). If two types of impurities are added in equal amount, i.e.,
Na = Nd and all the donor and acceptors are assume to
be ionized, i.e., Na− = Nd+ , then from Eq.(28) no = po .
7.2. Charge neutrality This indicates that the semiconductor behaves as pure or
In thermal equilibrium the semiconductor crystal is elec- intrinsic semiconductor. All the ionized acceptor combine
trically neutral. The electron are distributed among with free electrons of the donors and all the ionized donors
the various energy states, creating negative and positive combine with free holes of the acceptors to produce no
charges, but net charge density is zero. The charge neu- net free carriers.
trality condition is used to determine the thermal equilib-
rium electron and hole concentration as a function of the For Na 6= Nd , or Na− 6= Nd+ , semiconductor behaves
impurity doping concentration. For n-type semiconductor, as n-type or p-type depending on the relative amount of
according to charge neutrality condition sum of the nega- Nd and Na . (i) n-type if Nd > Na and (ii) for Nd < Na it
tive charge density(electrons, no ) must balance sum of the will be p-type.
positive charge density(holes, po and ionized donor atoms
8.1. Expression for no in n-type mixed-
Nd+ ). semiconductor

no = po + Nd+ (26) We have the charge neutrality condition

where Nd+ = Nd − nd no + Na− = po + Nd+ (29)

8
For complete ionization, Na− = Na and Nd+ = Nd . 8.5. The position of Fermi level with respect to EF i
From Eq.(29) we have In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electron
no + Na = po + Nd in terms of ni [Eq. (24)] is

n2i no = ni e
EF −EF i
kT
or no + Na = + Nd
no  
no
or n2o − (Nd − Na )no − n2i = 0 and EF − EF i = kT ln
s ni
2  
Nd − Na Nd − Na Nd − Na
or no = + + n2i = kT ln
2 2 ni

The positive sign in the quadratic formula must be used, For n-type semiconductor as Nd >> Na
since concentration can not be negative.  
Nd
It is shown that (see Ex. 8.1) Nd − Na >> ni , hence no ≈ EF − EF i = kT ln
ni
Nd − Na .
In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of hole in
8.2. Another expression for no and EC − EF terms of pi [Eq. (25)] is
We have, no in terms of NC (EF i −FF )

E −E
p0 = ni e kT
− CkT F
n o = NC e 
po

EF i − EF = kT ln
ni
The position of Fermi level with respect to EC can be  
Na − Nd
obtained using above equation = kT ln
  ni
NC
EC − EF = kT ln as Na >> Nd ,
no
 
NC
 
or EC − EF = kT ln Na
Nd − Na EF i − EF = kT ln
ni
For n-type semiconductor as Nd >> Na ,
  9. Law of mass action
NC
EC − EF = kT ln
Nd We have the expression for electron and hole concentra-
8.3. Expression for po in p-type compensated semi- tion at thermal equilibrium,
conductor Na > Nd
no = ni e(EF −EF i )/kT and po = ni e(EF i −EF )/kT
The charge neutrality condition at complete ionization
is Taking the product of electron and hole concentration at
thermal equilibrium, we have
p o + Nd = n o + Na
n2i no po = n2i e[(EF −EF i )+(EF i −EF )]/kT
or po + Nd = + Na
np
or no po = n2i (30)
or p2o − (Na − Nd )po − n2i = 0
s 2 This shows that, for a given semiconductor at thermal
Na − Nd Na − Nd
or po = + + n2i equilibrium state the product of electron and hole con-
2 2
centration is constant and is equal to the square of the
It is shown that (see Ex. 8.3:) for p-type semiconductor intrinsic carrier concentration. This important relation is
Na − Nd >> ni , called the law of mass action. This relation holds for
hence po ≈ Na − Nd . both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor(n-type or
If Na = Nd , po = ni = no i.e., intrinsic semiconductor. p-type).
8.4. Another expression for po and EF − EV
Comment
po in terms of NV is
EF −EV
If impurity atoms are added to intrinsic semiconductor
po = NV e− kT to increase(or decrease) n there will be corresponding de-
 
NV crease(or increase) in p such that the product remain con-
and EF − EV = kT ln
po stant. Thus we always have
 
NV
or EF − EV = kT ln np = n2i
Na − Nd
9
10. Einstein relationships 10.1. Fermi potential
It is now possible to introduction a new variable, the
At thermal equilibrium condition, if there is assuming no
Fermi potential, VF (volt). It is defined by the following
applied electric field in a semiconductor. The net current
relationship;
flows is zero. This is possible if the electron current density
Jn and hole current density Jh separately equal to zero. −eVF = EF − EF i
We consider the electron current component(Jn ), where Using Eq. (24) the relationship between the electron con-
the drift current due to the internal electric field εin (x) centration and the Fermi potential can be obtained, as
induced as a result of diffusion effect. From Eq. (22), follows
dn EF −EF i
enµn εin (x) + eDn = Jn no = ni e kT
dx eVF
dn or no = ni e− kT
enµn εin (x) + eDn =0
dx kT

no

dn or VF = − ln
or nµn εin (x) = −Dn e ni
dx
dn
or nµn εin (x) = −Dn (31) 11. Carrier injection
dx
This implies that diffusion results in an internal elec- Creation of excess carriers (not by doping) at a
tric field εin (x) develops locally. This field associ- point/region of a semiconductor is known as carrier in-
ated an electrostatic potential V (x), according to rela- jection.
tion εin (x) = − dVdx(x) and electrostatic potential energy The mechanisms of injection are (i) light ii) applied volt-
qV (x) = −eV (x). age.
We have seen that, the variation of carrier concentration Let no is the majority and po is minority carrier concen-
is given by Boltzmann distribution law[Eq. (23)] tration in a n-type semiconductor at thermal equilibrium
state. Example: If no = 1017 cm−3 , according to Law of
n = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT
mass action:
Therefore, the variation of n with x (one-dimensional no po = n2i
case) as a result of the electrostatic potential energy
Therefore, po = 103 cm−3 (as ni = 1010 cm−3 ).
−eV (x), where −eV (x) = EC − EF , implying this the
The excess carrier concentration (electron-hole pair) are
above equation becomes
generated by illuminating the semiconductor material.
n = NC e−[−eV (x)]/kT The excess electron and hole concentration above the ther-
mal equilibrium value are denoted by n0 and p0 . As they
or n = NC eeV (x)/kT (32)
are created equally, hence n0 = p0 . Let the new equilibrium
dn eNC dV (x) eV (x)/kT
and = e is obtained with carrier concentrations,
dx kT dx
ne dV (x)
= n = no + n0 and p = po + p0
kT dx
Substituting this in Eq. (31), we get For a given n-type semiconductor no = 1017 cm−3 and
po = 103 cm−3 , let n0 = p0 = 1013 cm−3 . Hence, n ' no
ne dV (x)
nµn εin (x) = −Dn and p = p0
  kT dx
dV (x) ne dV (x)
or nµn − = −Dn It is seen that concentration of majority carrier no
dx kT dx
kT unaffected (n0 << no ) but percentage of increases of hole
or Dn = µn (33)
e is very high. Such kind of injection is known as low
Similarly, the hole diffusion coefficient Dp is level injection. On the other hand if n0 is very high
and comparable with no the injection is called high level
kT injection.
Dp = µp (34)
e
A relationship between mobility and the diffusion constant of 12. Generation and recombination of carriers
carriers is known as Einstein relation.
Eqs. (33) and (34) are Einstein relations.(assume that car- The process by which electrons and hole are created is
riers obey Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics) known generation and process by which the electrons and
10
holes are annihilated is called recombination. On an av- we must derive the differential equation in the following
erage, a hole (or electron) will exist for τp (orτn )(life time) form, which governs the hole concentration as a function
second before recombination. of time.
In thermal equilibrium, the concentration of electrons and dp p
holes are independent of time, therefore the generation and =g− (35)
dt τ
recombination rates are equal.
where, dp
dt is the rate of change of hole concentration, g is
gn = gp = rn = rp the rate of thermal-generated hole concentration, τp is rate
of decrease of hole concentration due to recombination
where gn and gp be the rate of thermal-generated electron and τ is the life time of hole, which is independent of the
and holes respectively and rn and rp be the rate of hole concentration.
recombination of electron and holes respectively.
To find rate of generation g:
Consider a n-type semiconductor crystal bar of major-
ity carrier concentration, no and minority carrier con- Under steady-state condition before illumination dp
=0
dt
centration, po (no > po )(thermally-generated), shown in and p=po . Thus Eq. (35) reduce to
Fig. 8(a). Let excess electron-hole pairs are generated uni-
po
formly throughout the crystal by illuminating bar. The 0=g−
τ
excess electron and hole concentration are denoted by n0 po
or g=
and p0 respectively, where n0 = p0 . Let the new equilibrium τ
is obtained with carrier concentrations, The substituting g Eq. (35) becomes

n = no + n0 and p = po + p0 dp p − po
=− (36)
dt τ
Now, let the radiation is suddenly removed at t = 0. The
Let p − po = p0 be the excess or injected minority carrier
excess carrier concentration will be decrease with time as
concentration at any instant t, then above equation can be
in Fig. 8(b).
written as
Radiation

n dp0 p0
=− (37)
dt τ
Eq. (37) means the rate of decrease of excess minority
(a)
Steady−state carrier due to recombination is proportional to excess
p carrier concentration. The solution of Eq. (37) is
t
Radiation on

p ln(p0 ) = −+C
τ
(b) p(t)
at, t = 0, p0 (0) = p − po ; C = ln(p − po )
Steady−state
p0
 
Steady−state t
po ln =−
po p − po τ
Before radiation Radiation off t or p0 = (p − po )e−t/τ
Figure 8: (a) n-type semiconductor, (b) the steady state, before or p0 (t) = p0 (0)e−t/τ
radiation, during radiation and after radiation off.

Thus the excess carrier concentration decrease exponen-

12.1. Decay of excess carriers tially to zero [t → ∞; p0 (t) = 0; p = po ].

Let the new equilibrium is obtained by illuminating the
n-type semiconductor bar with carrier concentrations,
n = no + n0 and
where no , po are thermally generated carrier concentration
and n0 , p0 are excess electron and hole concentration re-
spectively.
To find the nature of the decay of excess carrier concentra-
tion, let the radiation is suddenly removed at t = 0. Now,
12.2. Characteristics of excess carriers: Continuity
equation
In general the excess carrier concentration in the
p = po + p0
body of a semiconductor vary both in space and time.
Within a given volume of the semiconductor there may be
generation, recombination, diffusion and drift in presence
of electric field, of excess carriers. The behaviour of
excess carriers in a semiconductor is due to the combined
effect of generation, recombination, drift and diffusion. The
11
effect/contribution of these process may be different but (iii) Let at any time t, Jp (x) is the total hole current den-
it should obey the principle of conservation of electrical sity(due to drift and diffusion) entering the volume element
charge. The differential equations combining these effects at x and Jp (x + dx) is the hole current density leaving the
are known as the electron and hole continuity equation. volume at x + dx as shown in Fig. 9. So the rate of change
of holes concentration with in the volume element due to
The continuity equations can be derived by considering movement is given by
the combined time rate of change of the excess carrier 1
pJ = [Jp (x) − Jp (x + dx)] A
density with in a volume element. This rate of change is e  
due to carrier (i) generation (ii) recombination and (iii) 1 ∂Jp (x)
= Jp (x) − Jp (x) − dx A
movement due to drift and diffusion. e ∂x
1 ∂Jp (x)
=− Adx (42)
Mathematical analysis e ∂x
The net rate of change of holes inside the volume element
Consider a volume element of area A and length dx Adx is equal to sum of Eqs. (39), (41) and (42)
of a n-type semiconductor subjected to an electric field ∂p
Adx = [pG + pR + pJ ]
along x-direction. The number of excess minority hole ∂t  
with in the volume element is changed by generation, ∂p p − po 1 ∂Jp (x)
or Adx = G − − Adx
∂t τp e ∂x
recombination, drift and diffusion. Let at thermal equi-
∂p p − po 1 ∂Jp (x)
librium state minority hole concentration is po . The hole or =G− − (43)
∂t τp e ∂x
concentration with excess carrier (hole) at time t be p(t)
and at time t + dt be p(t + dt). So the net rate of change This Eq. (43) is known as continuity equation or law
of number of holes in time dt in the volume element Adx of conservation of charge for hole.
is given by Now, the total hole current density due to drift and diffu-
sion is
[p(t + dt) − p(t)] Adx ∂p
= Adx (38) dp
dt ∂t Jp = epµp ε − eDp
dx
Substituting Jp in Eq. (43), we get
 
∂p p − po 1 ∂ dp
=G− − epµp ε − eDp
Hole current ∂t τp e ∂x dx
A Hole current
entering leaving ∂p p − po ∂(pε) ∂2p
=G− − µp + Dp 2 (44)
J(x ) ∂t τp ∂x ∂x
J(x+dx )
This Eq. (44) is also known as continuity equation for
x x+dx minority hole in n-type semiconductor.

Figure 9: The hole current entering and leaving the volume element
Adx. Continuity equation in terms of excess carrier
concentration
(i) Let G be the rate of generation of excess hole con-
∂po ∂po
centration (in pair) due to continuous external influence As p − po = p0 and ∂t = 0, ∂x = 0. Eq.(44) written as
such as illumination. So the rate of generated of holes in ∂p0 p0 ∂(p0 ε) ∂ 2 p0
the volume element Adx is =G− − µp + Dp 2 (45)
∂t τp ∂x ∂x
pG = GAdx (39) With out any electric field ε = 0. Above equation reduce
to
(ii) If τp be the life time of holes then the rate of change
∂p0 p0 ∂ 2 p0
of hole concentration(R) due to recombination is =G− + Dp 2 (46)
∂t τp ∂x
dp p − po
R= =− (40) 12.2.1. Continuity equation in p-type semiconduc-
dt τp tor
Therefore, rate of holes decreases in volume element Adx A similar equation[of Eq.(44)] can be derived for excess
is minority electrons in p-type semiconductor.
p − po ∂n n − no ∂(nε) ∂2n
pR = RAdx = − Adx (41) =G− + µn + Dn 2 (47)
τp ∂t τn ∂x ∂x
12
This Eq. (47) is known as continuity equation for
electron.
Continuity equation in terms of excess electron
p
p −x/Lp
concentration p (x)=p (o)e

Diffusion
The continuity equation in terms of excess electron con-
centration p
o
∂n0 n0 ∂(n0 ε) ∂ 2 n0 o
=G− + µn + Dn 2 (48) x
∂t τn ∂x ∂x
Figure 10: Variation of excess minority carrier along the length of
With out any electric field ε = 0. Above equation reduce
the bar. Steady state hole distribution p(x).
to
∂n0 n0 ∂ 2 n0
=G− + Dn 2 (49) 13. The pn junction
∂t τn ∂x
12.3. Steady state diffusion of excess carriers: Dif- 13.1. Basic structure of the pn junction
fusion length
Fig. 11(a) schematically shows the pn junction. It is im-
For steady state condition of excess hole in an n-type portant to realize that the entire semiconductor is single
0
semiconductor. We must take ∂p ∂t = 0. The rate of gen- crystal material in which one region is doped with accep-
eration of excess hole is zero, i.e., G = 0 for t > 0 in the tor impurity atoms to form the p-region and the adjacent
crystal, i.e., n value is fixed. With out any field, ε = 0. region is doped with donor atoms to form the n-region.
Under these conditions the Eq. (45) reduce to the diffusion The interface separating the pn-region is referred to as the
equation metallurgical junction. The junction where the doping
d2 p p − po concentration ”abruptly” changes from p type to n type at
Dp − =0
dx2 τp the the metallurgical junction is called a step junction.
d2 p p − po Let Na , Nd be the impurity/doping concentration in the
or 2
=
dx Dp τp p and n-region respectively, are shown in Fig. 11(b). For
d2 p0 p0 simplicity we will consider a step junction. Owing to the
or 2
= (as p0 = p − po )
dx Dp τp concentration gradient, electrons diffuse from n region into
d2 p0 p0 p region and holes from p to n region. As a result of the
or 2
= 2 (50)
dx Lp charge displacement an internal built-in-potential has been
where, Lp = Dp τp is the diffusion length for hole. p0 is
p
formed at the junction. It is called junction potential.
excess carrier concentration.
The solution of Eq. (50) is 13.2. Depletion region
When electrons diffuse from n region into p region, they
p0 (x) = Aex/Lp + Be−x/Lp (51)
leave behind immobile ionized donor atoms they origi-
The boundary conditions(BC) are
nated from. The region where these positively charged ions
At (i) x = 0, p0 (0) = p − po and are located constitutes a space-charge region. Since
at (ii) x → ∞, p0 = 0 i.e., p = po the space charge region is depleted of any mobile charge,
this is also called depletion region. The depleted re-
Applying these BCs we get,
gion exits both in n-region and p−region. Let xn and
A = 0 and B = p0 (0) xp are the width of the space charge region in the n ma-
The diffusion solution [Eq. (51)] is terial and p material respectively. The total width(W )
of the space charge region is sum of xn and xp i.e.,
p0 (x) = p0 (0)e−x/Lp (52)
W = xn + xp [Fig. 11(c)]. There are several named for the
depletion region located around the metallurgical junction,
The variation of excess hole is shown in Fig. 10. The it can be called the depletion region, the space-charge
excess(injected) hole concentration dies out exponentially region or the transition region.
in x due to recombination and the diffusion length Lp rep-
resents the distance at which excess hole concentration is 13.3. Built-in-electric field and its effect
reduced to 1e of its value at the point of injection(x = 0). In the transition region an electric field is created by the
We can show Lp is the average distance a hole diffuse be- space charges which is directed from n side to the p side
fore recombining. is called built-in-electric field.
13
 Metallurgical junction p n by solving the one-dimensional Poisson’s equation in the
Na depletion layer. Let Nd and Na be the concentration of
Nd donor and acceptor impurities. We assume that all the
p n Hole diffusion
Electron diffusion impurity atoms are ionized. Let us select x = 0 as the
neutral point and the depletion regions extended upto a
(a) (b) distance −xp towards p-region and up to +xn into the n-
− − − + + + + region, shown in Fig. 12(a). When x < −xp and x > xn
p n
− − − + + + + the potential, i.e., the Fermi level of p-type and n-type
− − − + + + + material are unaffected [Fig. 12(e)]. The one-dimensional
−xp x=0 xn Poisson’s equation is
(c)
Space charge region d2 V ρ
=− (53)
ε in dx2 s
Induced electric field where, V is potential in the depletion region, ρ is the
(d) due to space charge charge density and s is the permittivity of the semicon-
ε in field force on hole ductor material. For an abrupt junction Na and Nd are
Diffusion force
ε in field force on electron constant, i.e., independent on x. The charge density in the
on hole
Diffusion force
on electron
p-region is −eNa and in the n-region is eNd . An electric
field(ε) is created in the depletion region by the separation
Figure 11: (a) Simplified geometry of pn junction, (b) doping profile
of an ideal uniformly doped pn junction, Na > Nd . (c) The space of positive and negative charge densities.
charge region, (d) the induced electric field(εin ) and the different types For p-region Eq. (53) written as
of forces acting on the charged carriers.
d2 V eNa
2
=
The positive ions or charges in the depletion region at- dx s
 
d dV eNa
tracts electron of n material such that at equilibrium, or =
dx dx s
the force of diffusion pushing electrons into the p region
dε eNa dV
is exactly balance by the force of the built-in-electric or − = ; where ε = − (54)
dx s dx
field(εin ) ( this force is called εin field force) that ”recall”
the electrons back into the n region. Same phenomena will Solution of Eq. (54) is
be happened for hole also in p material. e
ε=− Na x + C1
Thus built-in-electric field motivates electrons and holes s
drift opposite to their direction of diffusion. Equilibrium Where C1 is a integration constant. The electric field ε
is established when the two types of currents cancel one is assumed to zero in neutral p-region since the currents
another, i.e., electrons current density and hole current are zero in thermal equilibrium. As there are no surface
density separately equal to zero. charge densities within the pn junction, the electric field
dn is a continuous function. Thus,
Jn (x) = enµn εin (x) + eDn
dx
dn ε = 0 at x = −xp
or 0 = enµn εin (x) + eDn e
dx and C1 = − Na xp
Dn dn kT dn Dn kT s
or εin (x) = − =− as =
nµn dx en dx µn e The electric field in the p region is given by
eNa
dp ε(x) = − (x + xp ) (55)
and Jp (x) = epµp εin (x) − Dp =0 s
dx
The built-in-electric field(εin ) is maximum at the point of For n-region Eq. (53) is
junction (x = 0), i.e., at the point of metallurgical junction d2 V eNd
as dn =−
dx is maximum and zero at x = xn dx2 s
dε eNd
or = (56)
14. Some basic parameter of pn junction dx s

14.1. Built in electric field Solution of Eq. (56)

The expressions for the built in electric field, the electro- e
ε= Nd x + C2
static potential and depletion layer width may be derived s
14
Where C2 is a integration constant and can be determined where A is the cross sectional area of the pn junction. QP
by setting ε = 0 at x = xn , since the electric field ε is and QN is the number of positive and negative charge in
assumed to zero in neutral n region and is a continuous p-region and n−region respectively. Eq. (59) states that
function. Thus, C2 = − es Nd xn . the number of positive charges in the p-region is equal
The electric field in the n region is to the number of the number of negative charges in the
n region, which is essentially the charge neutrality
eNd
ε(x) = (x − xn ) (57) condition.
s
14.3. Width of the space charge region or depletion
region
− − − + + + +
p n
− − − + + + + The width of the space charge region in the n-side and
− − − + + + +
p-side are xn and xp respectively. The total space charge
−xp x=0 +x n
(a) ρ or transition or depletion width is
e Nd
+ QN W = xp + xn
x
−Q P We can determine the width of space charge region, xp
(b) −eN a
and xn in terms of impurity/doping concentration and W .
ε Using the space charge neutrality condition [Eq. (58)]
x
xp Nd
(c) = (60)
xn Na
If Nd > Na ; the corresponding space charge width in n
+Vn
region will be less than that of p region, i.e., xn < xp .
(d) Using the above equation we get
0 Vbi
xp + xn Nd + Na
=
−Vp xn Na
E Cp
Na
or xn = W (61)
eVbi
Nd + Na
E Cn
E Fp E Fn xn + xp Na + Nd
and =
E Vp xp Nd
EFi
Nd
xp = W (62)
(e) Nd + Na
E Vn

Figure 12: (a) The space charge region of pn junction with Na > Nd .
x = 0 defined at the metallurgical junction. (b)The space charge density
in a uniformly doped pn junction in abrupt junction approximation, QN
is the number of positive space charges in the n region and QP is
that of negative space charges in the p region. (c) Electrical field in
the space charge region. (d) Electrostatic potential through the space
charge region. (e) Energy band diagram of a pn junction under zero
bias. ECp − ECn = eVbi
14.4. Potential in the depletion region: Built-in po-
tential barrier or contact potential
In the depletion region the potential in the p-region is
negative, -Vp and that of in the n-region is positive, Vn .
The built-in potential; Vbi = Vn − (−Vp ) = Vn + Vp and
energy is −eVbi but value of potential at x = 0 is zero.

The potential in the p-region is found by integrating

14.2. Charge neutrality condition in depletion layer
Eq. (55), we have
As the electric field is continuous function at the metal- Z
lurgical junction i.e., at x = 0. Setting Eqs. (55) and (57) V (x) = − ε(x)dx
equal to each other at x = 0 gives Z
eNa
= (x + xp ) dx
s
eNa xp = eNd xn   2 
eNa x
or Na xp = Nd xn (58) = + xxp + D1
s 2
or eNa Axp = eNd Axn
To find the integration constant D1 , we put the boundary
or QP = QN (59) condition,
15
V (x) = −Vp at x = −xp , thus Similarly,
" !#
eNa x2p
   1/2
2 2s Vbi Na 1
−Vp = − xp + D1 xn =
s 2 e Nd Na + Nd
eNa 2
or D1 = −Vp + x (63) Total depletion width W is
2s p
The potential in p region is W = xn + xp
1/2
(Na + Nd )2
  
eNa 2 2s Vbi 1
x + 2xxp + x2p


V (x) = −Vp + =
2s e Nd Na Na + Nd
eNa 2
 
2s Vbi Na + Nd
1/2
or V (x) = −Vp + (x + xp ) (64) = (67)
2s e Na Nd
The potential in the n-region is
Z 14.6. Variation of depletion width with bias
V (x) = − ε(x)dx As the barrier height changes with the applied bias, the
depletion width will also changes depending on the nature
Z
eNd
=− (x − xn ) dx
s of the bias.
eNd x2
  
=− − xxn + D2 14.6.1. Forward bias
s 2
In forward bias effective barrier height is Vbi − V , the
At x = xn , V (x) = Vn depletion width are
eNd x2n
  
1/2
− x2n
  
Vn = − + D2 2s (Vbi − V ) Na 1
s 2 xn =
e Nd Na + Nd
eNd 2
or D2 = Vn − x = mn (Vbi − V )1/2
2s n

eNd 2 1/2
x − 2xxn + x2n

  
T hus, V (x) = Vn − 2s (Vbi − V ) Nd 1
2s xp =
e Na Na + Nd
eNd 2
= Vn − (x − xn ) (65) = mp (Vbi − V )1/2
2s
At x = 0, V (x) = 0, thus equating Eqs. (64) and (65) we
  1/2
get 2s (Vbi − V ) Na + Nd
and W =
eNa 2 eNd 2 e Na Nd
−Vp + x = Vn − x
2s p 2s n = m(Vbi − V )1/2
eNd 2 eNa 2
or V n + Vp = x + x 14.6.2. Reverse bias
2s n 2s p
e  In reverse bias barrier height is Vbi + V and depletion
Nd x2n + Na x2p

or Vbi = (66)
2s width are
14.5. Depletion width in term of Vin
xn = mn (Vbi + V )1/2
Using Eq. (60) we have
xp = mp (Vbi + V )1/2
xp Nd
= and W = m(Vbi + V )1/2
xn Na
Na
or xn = xp
Nd
Substituting this relation in Eq. (66), we get
"  2 #
e Na
Vbi = Nd + Na x2p
2s Nd
  
e Na
= (Na + Nd ) x2p
2s Nd

   1/2
2s Vbi Nd 1
or xp =
e Na Na + Nd

16