SDP 0205

Semiconductor Device Physics
Lecture 2
Dr.-Ing. Erwin Sitompul

President University
http://zitompul.wordpress.com
2 0 1 9
President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/1
Chapter 2 Carrier Modeling
Manipulation of Carrier Numbers – Doping

 By substituting a Si atom with a special impurity atom
(elements from Group III or Group V), a hole or conduction
electron can be created.
Acceptors: B, Ga, In, Al Donors: P, As, Sb
Boron, Gallium Indium, Aluminum Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony

Doping Silicon with Acceptors

 Example: Aluminum atom is doped into the Si crystal.
Al– is immobile
 The Al atom accepts an electron from a neighboring Si atom,

resulting in a missing bonding electron, or “hole”.
 The hole is free to roam around the Si lattice, and as a moving
positive charge, the hole carries current.
Doping Silicon with Donors

 Example: Phosphorus atom is doped into the Si crystal.
P+ is immobile
 The loosely bounded fifth valence electron of the P atom can

“break free” easily and becomes a mobile conducting electron.
 This electron contributes in current conduction.

Donor / Acceptor Levels (Band Model)

▬
Ec
ED
+ Donor Level Donor ionization energy
Acceptor ionization energy

▬
Acceptor Level
EA
Ev
+
Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors

in Silicon (EG = 1.12 eV)
Donors Acceptors
Ionization energy of dopant Sb P As B Al In
EC – ED or EA – EV (meV) 39 45 54 45 67 160

Dopant Ionization (Band Model)

 Donor atoms
 Acceptor atoms

Carrier-Related Terminology
 Donor: impurity atom that increases n (conducting electron).
Acceptor: impurity atom that increases p (hole).
 n-type material: contains more electrons than holes.
p-type material: contains more holes than electrons.
 Majority carrier: the most abundant carrier.
Minority carrier: the least abundant carrier.
 Intrinsic semiconductor: undoped semiconductor n = p = ni.
Extrinsic semiconductor: doped semiconductor.

Density of States
E
DE
Ec gc(E)
Ec
Ev density of states g(E)

Ev gv(E)
 g(E) is the number of states per cm3 per eV.

 g(E)dE is the number of states per cm3 in the energy range
between E and E+dE).

Density of States
E
DE
Ec gc(E)
Ec
Ev density of states g(E)

Ev gv(E)
 Near the band edges:

mn* : effective mass of electron
mn* 2mn* E  Ec 
g c (E )  E  Ec
2
 h 3 For Silicon at 300 K,
mn*  1.18mo
mp* 2mp* Ev  E  mp*  0.81mo
g v (E )  2 3 E  Ev
 h mo  9.1 10 31kg
mo: electron rest mass

Electrons as Moving Particles

 In free space  In semiconductor
    
*
F  qE  m0 a F  qE  mn a
mo: electron rest mass mn*: effective mass of electron
Effective masses at 300 K

Si Ge GaAs
m n * /m 0 1.18 0.55 0.066
m p * /m 0 0.81 0.36 0.52

Fermi Function
 The probability that an available state at an energy E will be
occupied by an electron is specified by the following probability
distribution function:
1
f (E)  ( E  EF ) / kT
k : Boltzmann constant
T : temperature in Kelvin
1 e
 EF is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level.

If E  EF , f ( E )  0
If E  EF , f ( E )  1
If E  EF , f (E)  1 2

Boltzmann Approximation of Fermi Function

 The Fermi Function that describes the probability that a state
at energy E is filled with an electron, under equilibrium
conditions, is already given as:
1
f (E) 
1  e( E  EF ) / kT
 Fermi Function can be approximated, using Boltzmann

Approximation, as:
 ( E  EF ) / kT
 f (E)  e if E – EF > 3kT
( E  EF ) / kT
 1  f (E)  e if E – EF < 3kT

Effect of Temperature on f(E)

Effect of Temperature on f(E)

Equilibrium Distribution of Carriers

 n(E) is obtained by multiplying gc(E) and f(E),
p(E) is obtained by multiplying gv(E) and 1–f(E).
 Intrinsic semiconductor material
Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

diagram states of occupancy distribution


 n-type semiconductor material

diagram States of occupancy distribution


 p-type semiconductor material

diagram States of occupancy distribution

Important Constants
 Electronic charge, q = 1.610–19 C
 Permittivity of free space, εo = 8.85410–12 F/m
 Boltzmann constant, k = 8.6210–5 eV/K
 Planck constant, h = 4.1410–15 eVs h
h
 Free electron mass, mo = 9.110–31 kg 2
 Thermal energy, kT = 0.02586 eV (at 300 K)
 Thermal voltage, kT/q = 0.02586 V (at 300 K)

Nondegenerately Doped Semiconductor

 The expressions for n and p will now be derived in the range
where the Boltzmann approximation can be applied:
Ev  3kT  EF  Ec  3kT
3kT Ec
EF in this range
3kT
Ev
 The semiconductor is said to be nondegenerately doped

(lightly doped) in this case.

Degenerately Doped Semiconductor

 If a semiconductor is very heavily doped, the Boltzmann
approximation is not valid.
 For Si at T = 300 K,
Ec-EF < 3kT if ND > 1.6  1018 cm–3
EF-Ev < 3kT if NA > 9.1  1017 cm–3
 The semiconductor is said to be degenerately doped (heavily
doped) in this case.
• ND = total number of donor atoms/cm3

• NA = total number of acceptor atoms/cm3

Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

 Integrating n(E) over all the energies in the conduction band to
obtain n (conduction electron concentration):
Etop
n 
Ec
g c ( E ) f ( E )dE
 By using the Boltzmann approximation, and extending the

integration limit to , 3/ 2
 mn* kT 
n  N C e( EF  Ec ) kT
where N C  2  2 
 2 h 
• NC = “effective” density of conduction band states
• For Si at 300 K, NC = 3.22  1019 cm–3

Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

 Integrating p(E) over all the energies in the conduction band to
obtain p (hole concentration):
EV
p  g v ( E ) 1  f ( E )  dE
Ebottom
 By using the Boltzmann approximation, and extending the

integration limit to , 3/ 2
( Ev  EF ) kT
 mp* kT 
p  NVe where N V  2  2
 2 h 
• NV = “effective” density of valence band states
• For Si at 300 K, NV = 1.83  1019 cm–3

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

 Relationship between EF and n, p :
( EF  Ec ) kT
n  NCe
p  N V e( Ev  EF ) kT
 For intrinsic semiconductors, where n = p = ni,

np  ni2
ni  N C N V e  EG 2 kT
• EG : band gap energy

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

np  ( N C e( EF  Ec ) kT )  ( N V e ( Ev  EF ) kT )
 N C N V e( Ev  Ec ) kT
 N C N V e  EG kT
ni  N C N V e  EG 2 kT

Alternative Expressions: n(ni, Ei) and p(ni, Ei)

 In an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = ni and EF = Ei, where Ei
denotes the intrinsic Fermi level.
n  N C e( EF  Ec ) kT p  N V e( Ev  EF ) kT
ni  N C e( Ei  Ec ) kT pi  N V e( Ev  Ei ) kT
 N C  ni e ( Ei  Ec ) kT  N V  ni e ( Ev  Ei ) kT
n  ni e  ( Ei  Ec ) kT  e ( EF  Ec ) kT p  ni e  ( Ev  Ei ) kT  e ( Ev  EF ) kT
n  ni e ( EF  Ei ) kT p  ni e( Ei  EF ) kT
n  p
EF  Ei  kT ln   EF  Ei  kT ln  
 ni   ni 
Intrinsic Fermi Level, Ei

 To find EF for an intrinsic semiconductor, we use the fact that
n = p.
N C e( Ei  Ec ) kT  N V e ( Ev  Ei ) kT EG = 1.12 eV
Ec
Ei
Ev
Ec  Ev kT  N V  Si
Ei   ln  
2 2  NC 
Ec  Ev 3kT  m *
p

Ei   ln  * 
2 4 m 
 n
Ec  Ev
Ei  • Ei lies (almost) in the middle
2 between E and E c v

Example: Energy-Band Diagram

 For Silicon at 300 K, where is EF if n = 1017 cm–3 ?
Silicon at 300 K, ni = 1010 cm–3

n
EF  Ei  kT ln  
 ni 
5  1017

 0.56  8.62 10  300  ln  10  eV
 10 
 0.56  0.417 eV
 0.977 eV

Charge Neutrality and Carrier Concentration

 ND+: concentration of ionized donor (cm–3)
 NA–: concentration of ionized acceptor (cm–3)
+ 
 Charge neutrality condition: p  n  N D  N A 0
 Setting ND+ = ND and NA– = NA, as at room temperature almost

all of donor and acceptor sites are ionized,
2
ni
p  n  N D  N A  0, p
n
ni2
 n  ND  NA  0
n
n 2  n( N D  N A )  ni2  0
• Ei quadratic equation in n
 Assumptions: nondegeneracy (np product relationship
applies) and total ionization.
Charge-Carrier Concentrations
 The solution of the previous quadratic equation for n is:
12
N D  N A  N D  N A   2
2
n     ni 
2  2  
 New quadratic equation can be constructed and the solution

for p is: 12
NA  ND   NA  ND 
2
2

p     ni 
2  2  
• Carrier concentrations depend
on net dopant concentration
ND–NA or NA–ND

Dependence of EF on Temperature
Ec
300 K
d ) 400 K
o n o r - do pe
EF ( d
Ei
EF (ac
ceptor
-dope
d ) 40
300 0K
K
Ev Net dopant
concentration
1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 (cm–3)
n
EF  Ei  kT ln   , donor-doped
 ni 
 p
EF  Ei  kT ln   , acceptor-doped
 ni 
Carrier Concentration vs. Temperature

Phosphorus-doped Si
ND = 1015 cm–3
•n : number of majority
carrier
• ND : number of donor
electron
• ni : number of intrinsic
conductive
electron

Homework 2 (1 of 2)
 1. (Problem 2.6 in Pierret) (4.2)
a) Under equilibrium condition at T > 0 K, what is the probability of an
electron state being occupied if it is located at the Fermi level?
b) If EF is positioned at Ec, determine (numerical answer required) the
probability of finding electrons in states at Ec + kT.
c) The probability a state is filled at Ec + kT is equal to the probability a
state is empty at Ec + kT. Where is the Fermi level located?
 2.
(2.36)
a) Determine for what energy above EF (in terms of kT) the Boltzmann
approximation is within 1 percent of the exact Fermi probability function .
b) Give the value of the exact probability function at this energy.

Homework 2 (2 of 2)
 3.a. (4.2)
Calculate the equilibrium hole concentration in silicon at T = 400 K if the
Fermi energy level is 0.27 eV above the valence band energy.
 3.b.
(E4.3)
Find the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at:
(i) T = 200 K and (ii) T = 400 K.
 3.c.
(4.13)
Silicon at T = 300 K contains an acceptor impurity concentration of
NA = 1016 cm–3. Determine the concentration of donor impurity atoms that
must be added so that the silicon is n-type and the Fermi energy level is
0.20 eV below the conduction band edge.
 Deadline: Tuesday, 24 September 2019.

 This homework will be discussed in Recitation on
Wednesday, 25 September 2019,

SDP 0205

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SDP 0205

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Semiconductor Device Physics

Dr.-Ing. Erwin Sitompul

Manipulation of Carrier Numbers – Doping

Acceptors: B, Ga, In, Al Donors: P, As, Sb

Boron, Gallium Indium, Aluminum Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/2

Doping Silicon with Acceptors

 The Al atom accepts an electron from a neighboring Si atom,

Doping Silicon with Donors

 The loosely bounded fifth valence electron of the P atom can

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/4

Donor / Acceptor Levels (Band Model)

Acceptor ionization energy

Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/5

Dopant Ionization (Band Model)

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/6

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/7

Ev density of states g(E)

 g(E) is the number of states per cm3 per eV.

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/8

Ev density of states g(E)

 Near the band edges:

mo: electron rest mass

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/9

Electrons as Moving Particles

Effective masses at 300 K

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/10

 EF is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level.

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/11

Boltzmann Approximation of Fermi Function

 Fermi Function can be approximated, using Boltzmann

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/12

Effect of Temperature on f(E)

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/13

Effect of Temperature on f(E)

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/14

Equilibrium Distribution of Carriers

 Intrinsic semiconductor material

Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/15

Equilibrium Distribution of Carriers

Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/16

Equilibrium Distribution of Carriers

Energy band Density of Probability Carrier

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/17

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/18

Nondegenerately Doped Semiconductor

 The semiconductor is said to be nondegenerately doped

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/19

Degenerately Doped Semiconductor

• ND = total number of donor atoms/cm3

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/20

Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

 By using the Boltzmann approximation, and extending the

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/21

Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

 By using the Boltzmann approximation, and extending the

President University Erwin Sitompul SDP 2/22

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

 For intrinsic semiconductors, where n = p = ni,

• EG : band gap energy