CEng6001 CH 3 2012

Advanced Mathematics for Engineers
Part III
Dr. Semu Mitiku
Addis Ababa University

Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA
December, 2012
Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 1 / 37

Part III: Complex Variable Theory

1. Functions of Complex Variables
A complex number z is of the form x + yi and it represents a point

(x, y ) in a plane.
The set of complex numbers, C, is equivalent to the plane, R2
equipped with a new multiplication operation defined by
(a, b)(x, y ) = (ax − by , ay + bx).
Reading assignment ...

Read on the algebra involving complex numbers, modulus and
conjugate of complex numbers, polar form of a complex number and
the Euler’s formula, finding roots of any complex number, etc.

Functions of Complex ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Cont’d
A function w of a complex variable z is a rule that assigns a unique

value w (z) to each point z in some set D in the complex plane.
If z = x + yi, then
w (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
i.e., the real and imaginary parts of w (z) are functions of the
variables x and y .
Example
w (z) = z 2 = (x + yi)2 = x 2 − y 2 + i2xy .

Thus, u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 and v (x, y ) = 2xy .

1.1. Elementary Functions
1. Exponential Functions
Recall that e z = e x+iy = e x e iy = e x (cos y + i sin y ) (from Euler’s
formula). √
But ∣e iy ∣ = ∣ cos y + i sin y ∣ = cos2 y + sin2 y = 1.
Hence ∣e z ∣ = ∣e x e iy ∣ = e x ∣e iy = e x , for all z = x + iy .
So, the exponential function of a complex variable is well defined.
2. Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
From Euler’s formula we have,
e −iy = cos y − i sin y and e iy = cos y + i sin y
Combining the two we get
e iy + e −iy e iy − e −iy
cos y = and sin y =
2 2i
Using this fact we can give the following definition

1.1. Elementary Functions ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Cont’d
Definition
For a complex variable z the basic trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
are defined by
e iz + e −iz e iz − e −iz
cos z = and sin z =
2 2i
e z + e −z e z − e −z
cosh z = and sinh z =
2 2i
From the above definition the following relations follow immediately.

cos(iz) = cosh z, sin(iz) = i sinh z
cosh(iz) = cos z, sinh(iz) = i sin z
Using the definition show that
cos2 z + sin2 z = 1 and cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1.
Definition
For a complex variable z the basic trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
are defined by
e iz + e −iz e iz − e −iz
cos z = and sin z =
2 2i
e z + e −z e z − e −z
cosh z = and sinh z =
2 2i
From the above definition the following relations follow immediately.

cos(iz) = cosh z, sin(iz) = i sinh z
cosh(iz) = cos z, sinh(iz) = i sin z
Using the definition show that
cos2 z + sin2 z = 1 and cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1.
Polar Form and Multi-valuedness
The polar form of a complex number z takes the form

√ √ (y )
z = re i𝜃 , where r = z ⋅ z = x 2 + y 2 and 𝜃 = arctan .
x
The expression z k is single valued only if the exponent k is an integer.
n
If k is a rational number, k = m (in reduced form), then the map
f (k) = z k is n-valued.
[because there are exactly n nth -roots of a complex number z]

So there are multi-valued mappings in complex variable theory.

3. The Logarithmic function
Let z = e i𝜃 in its polar form. Then
log z = log re i𝜃 = ln r + i𝜃 = ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋)

( )
for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋.

This fact will lead us to the following definition
Definition
The natural logarithm of any complex number z is defined by
log z := ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
The natural logarithm of any complex number z is an infinite-valued

mapping unless we restrict our region of consideration, say by taking
only the principal argument of z.

3. The Logarithmic function
Let z = e i𝜃 in its polar form. Then
log z = log re i𝜃 = ln r + i𝜃 = ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋)

( )
for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋.

This fact will lead us to the following definition
Definition
The natural logarithm of any complex number z is defined by
log z := ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
The natural logarithm of any complex number z is an infinite-valued

mapping unless we restrict our region of consideration, say by taking
only the principal argument of z.

Example
Compute log(1 + i).
√
Here r = 2 and 𝛼 = 𝜋4 . Then
√ 𝜋
log(1 + i) = ln 2 + i(
+ 2k𝜋)
4
ln 2 𝜋 ln 2 9𝜋 ln 2 7𝜋
= +i , +i , − i ,...
2 4 2 4 2 4
Logarithm of a complex number is an infinite valued mapping.

To make “multi-valued - function” single valued we use the so called
a “branch cut” concept (for example, by specifying the integer k).

2. The Differential Calculus and Analyticity
Suppose f : C → C is a complex-valued function.

Note that f maps R2 into R2 .
Definition
The derivative of a complex-valued function f at the point zo is defined as
f (z) − f (zo )
f ′ (zo ) = lim
z→zo z − zo
if the limit exists and is a complex number.
In this definition the limit value should be independent of the way z

approaches zo .

Example
Evaluate the derivative of the following functions at any point z, if it
exists, using the definition
1. f (z) = z 2
1
2. f (z) = z
3. f (z) = z (the complex conjugate function)
Show that this function is nowhere differentiable in C.
How to test differentiability of a complex function at any given point?

Definition
A (complex-valued) function f is said to be
analytic in a domain D if f (z) is defined and is differentiable at all
points of D.
analytic at a point zo ∈ D if f is analytic in some neighborhood of zo .
(simply) an analytic function if it is analytic in some domain.

Test for Analyticity of a function
Consider the function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ). If f is analytic in some

domain D, then the partial derivatives of f w.r.t x and y must coincide.
i.e., at any point z = x + iy , we must have
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
+i = −i
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Or
ux = vy and vx = −uy (1)
The above equation (equation 1) is called the Cauchy-Riemann

equation.
Note that this equation is only a necessary condition for analyticity of
f . But the following Theorem gives us a sufficient condition for
analyticity.

Test for Analyticity ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Cont’d
Theorem (Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Analyticity)

Let f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) be defined throughout some neighborhood of
a point zo = xo + iyo . Then
1. If f is differentiable at zo , then the Cauchy-Riemann equation is
satisfied.
2. If the Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied at zo and if u and v are
continuously differentiable in some nbhd of zo , then f is analytic at
zo .
If f is differentiable at some point z = x + iy , then f ′ can be given in

any one of the following four expressions.
f ′ = ux + ivx = vy − iuy = ux − iuy = vy + ivx

Example
1. Give a formula for the derivative of the following functions in terms of z.
a. f (z) = sin z.
2
b. f (z) = e z −z .
2. When expressed in polar form, show that the Cauchy-Riemann equation is
given by
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
= , =− ,
∂r r ∂𝜃 ∂r r ∂𝜃
where f (z) = u(r , 𝜃) + iv (r , 𝜃). Thus, the derivative of f will be,
e −i𝜃 i 1
f ′ (z) = e −i𝜃 (ur + ivr ) = (v𝜃 − iu𝜃 ) = e −i𝜃 (ur − u𝜃 ) = e −i𝜃 ( vr + ivr )
r r r
3. Let f (z) = log z = ln r + i𝜃, with 𝜃 = arg z is the principal argument of z.

(i.e., 0 < r < ∞ and −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋). Then find f ′ (z), in terms of z.

If a function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is analytic in some domain D,
then the Cauchy-Riemann equation will be
ux = vy and uy = −vx in D.
Taking the derivative w.r.t x and y respectively we have
uxx = vyx and uyy = −vxy

uxy = vyy and uyx = −vxx
If a function f is analytic in D, then the partial derivatives of the

component functions of all order exists and are continuous in D.
Hence vyx = vxy ⇒ uxx + uyy = 0 in D.
and uxy = uyx ⇒ vyy + vxx = 0 in D.
The pair of these two last equations is called Laplace’s equation.
Moreover, the component functions u and v , with such properties are
called conjugate harmonic functions.

Functions that satisfy Laplace’s equation and all various first-and
second-order partial derivatives of their component functions w.r.t x and y
are continuous (or are C (2) functions) are called harmonic functions.
Theorem (Harmonic Functions)
If f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is analytic in a domain D, then u and v are
harmonic in D. That is, they are C (2) functions and satisfy the Laplace’s
equation:
∇2 u = uxx + uyy = 0
2
∇ v = vxx + vyy = 0
Note that, since f is analytic, u and v are related by the Cauchy-Riemann

equation. To refer to this relation ship we call such functions conjugate
harmonic functions.
Example
Show that the function u(x, y ) = x 2 − y 2 − y is harmonic in C and find a
conjugate harmonic function V of u.
3. The Complex Integral Calculus
Complex integration is an immediate extension of the “line Integral”

defined in R2 .
The complex Integral of a function f over a curve 𝒞 is:
∫
I = f (z)dz,
𝒞
where 𝒞 is an oriented curve in the complex plane, which is assumed

to be piecewise smooth and simple.
Here, 𝒞 is called the path of integration.
A curve 𝒞 can be represented parametrically as
z(t) = x(t) + iy (t)
For instance, if 𝒞 represents a circle of radius r , then
z(t) = r cos t + i sin t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋.
The sense of increment of the parameter t is called the positive sense
of 𝒞.
Complex Integral ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Cont’d
Theorem
Let 𝒞 be a piecewise smooth path, represented by z = z(t), where
a ≤ t ≤ b. Let f (z) be a continuous function on 𝒞. Then
∫ ∫ b
dz
f (z)dz = f (z(t))ż(t)dt, where ż(t) = .
𝒞 a dt
Example
Evaluate ∮
dz
,
𝒞 z
where 𝒞 is a unit circle.

NEXT CLASS
See you Next Week

If the integrand function f is defined in some domain D, and if 𝒞 is a

piecewise smooth, simple, closed path in D, then the integral will be
path independent provided both the paths contain all the points that
the function fail to be analytic.
∮ ∮
dz dz
i.e, = ,
𝒞 z 𝒞1 z
where both 𝒞 and 𝒞1 contain the same set of singularity points of f in

D.
Example
1. Show that {
2𝜋i if n = −1
∮
(z − a)n dz =
𝒞 0 if n ∕= −1
where 𝒞 is any piecewise smooth, simple, closed path containing a in
its interior and oriented counterclockwise.
Example
2. If f is analytic in D, then show that
∮
f (z)
dz = (2𝜋i)f (a) ∀a ∈ D,
𝒞 z −a
where 𝒞 is any piecewise smooth, simple, closed path in D containing

a in its interior.
The above equality can also be rewritten as:

∮
1 f (z)
f (a) = dz
2𝜋i 𝒞 z − a
Which is known as the Cauchy’s Integral formula.
This formula helps us to find the integrals of several complex
functions easily.
Example
1. Find
z3 − 6
∮
I = ,
𝒞 2z − i
1 𝜋
where a = 2i inside 𝒞. Ans.: I = 8 − 6𝜋i
2. Evaluate ∮
dz
I = ,
𝒞 z 2 (z − 2)(z − 4)
where 𝒞 is a rectangle defined by
𝒞 = {z ∈ C∣ − 10 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 3, −5 ≤ Im(z) ≤ 20}.

Example
1. Find
z3 − 6
∮
I = ,
𝒞 2z − i
1 𝜋
where a = 2i inside 𝒞. Ans.: I = 8 − 6𝜋i
2. Evaluate ∮
dz
I = ,
𝒞 z 2 (z − 2)(z − 4)
where 𝒞 is a rectangle defined by
𝒞 = {z ∈ C∣ − 10 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 3, −5 ≤ Im(z) ≤ 20}.

If a function f is analytic in some domain D then it follows from the

Cauchy’s Integral formula that f possesses derivatives of all order,
where the nth derivative is given by
∮
(n) n! f (𝜁)
f (z) = d𝜁
2𝜋i 𝒞 (𝜁 − z)n+1
Reading Assignment: Read and understand the notions of,

- Fundamental Theorem of Complex Integral Calculus
- Laurent Series,
- Singularity points of a complex function,
- Residue Theorem and its applications.

4. Conformal Mapping
It is helpful to develop a powerful solution technique for problems in

two dimensional Potential Theory
It deals with (more of) the geometrical aspect of a complex valued
mapping.
A conformal mapping is a change of variables that simplifies a
two-dimensional problem by simplifying the domain, while preserving
the Laplace PDE.

4.1 The Idea Behind Conformal Mapping
Suppose that we want to solve the two-dimensional Laplace equation:
∇2 𝜓 = 𝜓xx + 𝜓yy = 0 (2)
in some domain D of the xy -plane. Assume 𝜓 is C (2) (i.e., it is a

twice continuously differentiable function.)
If the shape of D is not simple (rectangle or circular), then the
problem (2) is difficult to solve.
Use a change of variables (to simplify the region)
u = u(x, y ) and v = v (x, y )
from x, y -plane in to the u, v -plane, so that the transformed region

D ′ is simpler than D.
This mapping should be invertible and we must have
x = x(u, v ) and y = y (u, v )

Conformal Mapping ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Cont’d
The transformation mapping is invertible if the Jacobian is nonzero in

D (by the Implicit Function Theorem)

∂(u, v ) ux uy
i.e, = = ux vy − vx uy ∕= 0
∂(x, y ) vx vy
Applying this change of variables in (2) we have:
𝜓x = 𝜙u ux + 𝜙v vx , where 𝜙(u, v ) := 𝜓(x(u, v ), y (u, v ))
and 𝜓xx = (𝜙uu ux + 𝜙uv vx )ux + 𝜙u uxx + (𝜙vu vx + 𝜙vv vx )vx + 𝜙v vxx
Similarly we get
𝜓yy = (𝜙uu uy + 𝜙uv vy )uy + 𝜙u uyy + (𝜙vu vy + 𝜙vv vy )vy + 𝜙v vyy
Hence (2) is equivalent to
⇒ (ux2 + uy2 )𝜙uu + (ux vx + uy vy )(𝜙uv 𝜙vu ) + (vx2 + vy2 )𝜙vv
+(uxx + uyy )𝜙u + (vxx + vyy )𝜙v = 0 (3)
To simplify equation (3), assume that the mapping
f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
is analytic in D.
Then u and v are C (2) functions and satisfy
ux = vy , uy = −vx , uxy = uyx and vxy = vyx in D.
The above equalities imply that
ux vx + uy vy = 0
uxx + uyy = 0 and
vxx + vyy = 0
This simplifies (3) in to

( 2
ux + uy2 (𝜙uu + 𝜙vv ) = 0
)
(4)

Again since
∂(u, v )
ux2 + uy2 = ux vy − uy vx = ∕= 0 in D
∂(x, y )
by the assumption, (4) will be reduced to
𝜙uu + 𝜙vv = 0
everywhere in D ′ .
Thus if the change of variables mapping is analytic and its Jacobian is
non-zero, then the Laplace equation is preserved under the change of
variables.

Hence we have the following Theorem

Theorem
Let w = f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) be analytic in a domain D, with
f ′ (z) ∕= 0 everywhere in D. Denote the image of D under f as D ′ , and let
the mapping be a bijection. If 𝜓(x, y ) is harmonic in D, then
𝜓(x(u, v ), y (u, v )) := 𝜙(u, v ) is also harmonic in D ′ .
A mapping f is said to preserve angles, if for any zo in D with two

smooth curves in D intersecting at zo making an angle 𝜃, then the
images of these curves also intersect at the same angle 𝜃 at f (zo ).
A mapping f is said to preserve orientation if a counterclockwise
rotation in D is mapped by f to a counterclockwise rotation in D ′ .

Hence we have the following Theorem

Theorem
Let w = f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) be analytic in a domain D, with
f ′ (z) ∕= 0 everywhere in D. Denote the image of D under f as D ′ , and let
the mapping be a bijection. If 𝜓(x, y ) is harmonic in D, then
𝜓(x(u, v ), y (u, v )) := 𝜙(u, v ) is also harmonic in D ′ .
A mapping f is said to preserve angles, if for any zo in D with two

smooth curves in D intersecting at zo making an angle 𝜃, then the
images of these curves also intersect at the same angle 𝜃 at f (zo ).
A mapping f is said to preserve orientation if a counterclockwise
rotation in D is mapped by f to a counterclockwise rotation in D ′ .

Using the above notions we define a conformal mapping

Definition (Conformal Mapping)
A mapping f : D → D ′ is conformal if it preserves angles and orientation.
To check conformality of a given mapping we need the following

characterization
Theorem (Conformality)
If f is analytic, then the mapping w = f (z) is conformal, except at points
where f ′ (z) = 0.

4.2 The Bilinear Transformation
The transformation (or a mapping) w : C → C, given by

az + b
w= for ad − bc ∕= 0 (5)
cz + d
is known as the Möbius transformation or linear fractional
transformation.
Since (5) is equivalent to czw + dw − az = b, and this equation is
linear with respect to both z and w separately. Hence it called a
Bilinear transformation.
The constants a, b, c and d in (5) can be real or complex.
By using long division we can also equivalently get
az + b a cb − ad
w= = + .
cz + d c c(cz + d)
0
The mapping w is not a merely constant function and also is not a 0
form.
Again from (5) we have

ad − bc
w ′ (z) =
(cz + d)2
exists and nonzero for all z ∕= − dc .

The Möbius transformation is conformal everywhere except at
z = − dc .
The point z = − dc is called a pole of the transformation and it
corresponds to a point at infinity in the w -plane (as 00 doesnot
happen).
In the extended plane, C, we can define
{ a
c if c ∕= 0
w (∞) =
∞ if c = 0
Thus, on the extended plane, C, w satisfies the following properties.

1. The bilinear transformation w is conformal on the extended complex

plane.
2. The bilinear transformation is a bijection on the extended complex
plane.
This is immediate from the condition that ad − bc ∕= 0
3. The bilinear transformation sends every circle (including the infinite
circle – straight line) into either a circle or a straight line.

One can show that specification of three points and their images
uniquely determines a linear fractional transformation; as the
following statement justifies.
Theorem (Three Point Theorem)
Let z1 , z2 , and z3 be three distinct points in the z-plane, and w1 , w2 and
w3 be three distinct points in the w -plane. Then there is a linear fractional
transformation T of the z-plane to the w -plane such that
T (z1 ) = w1 , T (z2 ) = w2 , quadand T (z3 ) = w3 .
Let w = T (z) be the transformation. Then we can determine the

mapping by solving the equation:
(w1 −w )(w3 −w2 )(z1 −z2 )(z3 −z) = (z1 −z)(z3 −z2 )(w1 −w2 )(w3 −w )
for each substitution of z = zj to get w = wj , j = 1, 2, 3.

Bilinear Transformation ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Cont’d
If the third image w3 is not given, we can define the transformation T

by assigning T (z3 ) = ∞.
Example
Find a linear fractional transformation T which maps:
1. 3 → i, 1−i →4 and 2 − i → 6 + 2i.
(20+4i)z−(68+16i)
Ans.: T (z) = (6+5i)z−(22+7i) .
2. i → 4i, 1 → 3 − i, and 2 + i → ∞.
(5−i)z−(1−3i)
Ans.: T (z) = −z+2+i .


Example
1. 3 → i, 1−i →4 and 2 − i → 6 + 2i.
(20+4i)z−(68+16i)
Ans.: T (z) = (6+5i)z−(22+7i) .
2. i → 4i, 1 → 3 − i, and 2 + i → ∞.
(5−i)z−(1−3i)
Ans.: T (z) = −z+2+i .


Example
1. 3 → i, 1−i →4 and 2 − i → 6 + 2i.
(20+4i)z−(68+16i)
Ans.: T (z) = (6+5i)z−(22+7i) .
2. i → 4i, 1 → 3 − i, and 2 + i → ∞.
(5−i)z−(1−3i)
Ans.: T (z) = −z+2+i .


Example
1. 3 → i, 1−i →4 and 2 − i → 6 + 2i.
(20+4i)z−(68+16i)
Ans.: T (z) = (6+5i)z−(22+7i) .
2. i → 4i, 1 → 3 − i, and 2 + i → ∞.
(5−i)z−(1−3i)
Ans.: T (z) = −z+2+i .

END of Part 3

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Advanced Mathematics for Engineers

Dr. Semu Mitiku

Addis Ababa University

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 1 / 37

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 2 / 37

A complex number z is of the form x + yi and it represents a point

(a, b)(x, y ) = (ax − by , ay + bx).

Reading assignment ...

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 3 / 37

A function w of a complex variable z is a rule that assigns a unique

w (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

w (z) = z 2 = (x + yi)2 = x 2 − y 2 + i2xy .

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 4 / 37

e −iy = cos y − i sin y and e iy = cos y + i sin y

Combining the two we get

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 5 / 37

From the above deﬁnition the following relations follow immediately.

From the above deﬁnition the following relations follow immediately.

The polar form of a complex number z takes the form

[because there are exactly n nth -roots of a complex number z]

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 7 / 37

log z = log re i𝜃 = ln r + i𝜃 = ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋)

for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋.

log z := ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

The natural logarithm of any complex number z is an inﬁnite-valued

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 8 / 37

log z = log re i𝜃 = ln r + i𝜃 = ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋)

for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋.

log z := ln r + i(𝛼 + 2k𝜋), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

The natural logarithm of any complex number z is an inﬁnite-valued

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 8 / 37

Logarithm of a complex number is an inﬁnite valued mapping.

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 9 / 37

Suppose f : C → C is a complex-valued function.

In this deﬁnition the limit value should be independent of the way z

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 10 / 37

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 11 / 37

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 12 / 37

Consider the function f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ). If f is analytic in some

The above equation (equation 1) is called the Cauchy-Riemann

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 13 / 37

Theorem (Necessary and Suﬃcient Conditions for Analyticity)

If f is diﬀerentiable at some point z = x + iy , then f ′ can be given in

f ′ = ux + ivx = vy − iuy = ux − iuy = vy + ivx

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 14 / 37

3. Let f (z) = log z = ln r + i𝜃, with 𝜃 = arg z is the principal argument of z.

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Taking the derivative w.r.t x and y respectively we have

uxx = vyx and uyy = −vxy

If a function f is analytic in D, then the partial derivatives of the

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 16 / 37

Note that, since f is analytic, u and v are related by the Cauchy-Riemann

Complex integration is an immediate extension of the “line Integral”

where 𝒞 is an oriented curve in the complex plane, which is assumed

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Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 20 / 37

If the integrand function f is deﬁned in some domain D, and if 𝒞 is a

where both 𝒞 and 𝒞1 contain the same set of singularity points of f in

where 𝒞 is any piecewise smooth, simple, closed path in D containing

The above equality can also be rewritten as:

𝒞 = {z ∈ C∣ − 10 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 3, −5 ≤ Im(z) ≤ 20}.

Semu M. Kassa (AAU) Advanced Mathematics for Engineers December, 2012 23 / 37

𝒞 = {z ∈ C∣ − 10 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 3, −5 ≤ Im(z) ≤ 20}.