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Table of Content

Contents
1. Classroom Management ...................................................................................... 1
2. Teaching Approaches, Methods, Strategis, And Techniques ............................ 9
3. Lesson Planning .................................................................................................. 18
4. Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) ........................................................ 23
5. Total Physical Response (TPR) .......................................................................... 31
6. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)...................................................... 39
7. Eclectic Approach .............................................................................................. 47
8. Cooperative Learning ........................................................................................ 50
9. Task/Project Based Learning (TBL) .................................................................. 69
10. Problem Based Learning.................................................................................... 76
11. Inquiry/Discovery Based learning..................................................................... 86
12. Scientific Approach............................................................................................ 90

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 Chapter 1
Classroom Management
1. Objectives of the Lesson
Student are able to :
1. Re Retrieving the concept of classroom management
2. Identify the concept of classroom management
3. Determine the roles of teacher in the classroom
4. Identify Element of successful language learning
5. Recognizing the expression used in Classroom Teaching and Learning
6. Conducting Classroom Activities
2. Material
GENARAL CONCEPT
We should be able to handle a variety of factors to manage classrooms
properly. These factors include setting up the classroom, whether students work
alone or in groups, and managing classroom time. We must also think about how
we present ourselves to the children and use our most important voice tool.
Another critical aspect of classroom management is communicating with
students - and who speaks the most throughout the session. We also need to
consider what function the students' mother language could have in the
classroom. Dealing with challenging situations is also a must for effective
classroom management (Harmer, 2007).
THE ROLES OF TEACHERS IN THE CLASSROOM
Teachers' physical presence may significantly impact how they control the
classroom atmosphere. It's not just about looks, either. The way they move and
stand and how physically demonstrative they are may significantly impact class
management. Most crucially, their ability to respond to what occurs in a class and
their level of awareness of what is occurring typically distinguishes between good
teaching and less acceptable classes. Like every other person, any teacher has
their physical features and habits to bring into the classroom (Harmer, 2007).

 Proximity
Teachers must determine how close to their students they should be.
When a teacher stands or sits near a student, it might make them feel
anxious. On the other hand, distance is a symptom of coldness for certain
people. Teachers should be aware of how close they are to their students,
consider this while analyzing their reactions, and adjust their conduct as
needed.
 Appropriacy

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 It's an issue to decide how close you should be to the students when
working with them. The overall manner in which teachers sit or stand in
classrooms is also problematic. It's critical to examine the impact of such
physical conduct to act in a suitable way for the kids we're teaching and
the relationship we want to build with them. Such a connection is
essential if we wish to manage a class properly.
 Movement
Some teachers like to spend most of their class time in one location, such
as front, side, or middle. Others spend much time pacing up and down the
aisles between the chairs or strolling from side to side. Although this is, to
some part, a question of personal choice, it is worth recalling that
immobile teachers may bore students, whereas immovable teachers can
transform their students into tennis spectators, with their heads moving
from side to side until they grow fatigued. To some extent, most successful
instructors move about the classroom. Our style, where we feel most
comfortable for class management, and working with small teams will
influence how often we move around in the classroom.
 Awareness
To properly manage a class, the teacher must be aware of what the
students are doing and how they are feeling to the extent feasible.
Assessing what students have said and responding correctly is what
awareness entails. We need to be as aware as possible of what is going on
in the minds of our students. It is tough to assist students in learning a
language in a classroom setting without creating this type of interaction.
The nature of this interaction will differ from one teacher to the next and
from one class to the next. Lastly, it is not only the students' awareness
that is essential. We must also be self-aware to assess the success (or
failure) of our actions and comprehend how our pupils see us.

ELEMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNING

Many of the principles and components outlined above are carefully
blended in most modern language education. It recognizes the importance of
language exposure through meaningful information, but nevertheless believes
that most individuals (with the exception of young children) find opportunities
to focus on language forms and how they might be utilized to be particularly
beneficial. Students are typically given the chance to reflect about how a piece of
grammar works (or which words group together, for example) while also being
given opportunities to utilize language in communicative activities and task-
based processes in current language teaching practice.

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 It provides students with the security of proper regulated practice (based
on variables such as the students' age, personal learning styles, and the language
in issue), as well as the freedom to use whatever language they know.
Refers to how students require exposure, motivation, and opportunities
for language use, as well as the fact that different students may respond
differently to different stimuli, it appears that most teaching sequences, whether
they last a few minutes, a half-hour, a lesson, or a series of lessons, must have
certain characteristics or elements. These are the Engage, Study, and Activate
aspects.
 Engage
Games (depending on the learners' age and the sort of game), music,
difficult conversations, fascinating graphics, dramatic stories, hilarious
anecdotes, and so on are all examples of activities and resources that
regularly interest students. Teachers can do their best to ensure that their
students are engaged with the topic, exercise, or language they will be
dealing with by encouraging them to make predictions or link classroom
items to their own lives, even if such exercises and resources are not
employed.
 Study
Showing students patterns of language and asking them to figure out the
rules is what studying requires. Instead of transferring intellectual work to
the instructor, such discovery activities ask students to accomplish it
themselves. Students might sometimes read a work together and highlight
terms and phrases for future study. They may also spend time with the
teacher listening to or looking at the language they have used to assess
how successful it has been. All of these (along with several additional
options) are examples of language construction research.
 Activate
This element describes exercises and activities which are designed to get
students using language as freely and communicatively as they can.
Activation is not just about producing language in speech and writing,
however. When students read or listen for pleasure (or when they are
listening or reading to understand the message rather than thinking about
the form of the language they are seeing or hearing), they are involved in
language activation. They are using all and any language at their disposal
to comprehend the reading or listening text.
EXPRESSION USED IN CLASSROOM TEACHING AND LEARNING
It is essential to have a few introductory sentences to begin learning
activities when the class is first opened. It is critical to provide the appropriate
phrases for learning activities to be enjoyable. Moreover, it is necessary to present
appropriate expressions to engage students.

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The following are the expression
GREETING
 Good morning, everybody.
 Good afternoon, everybody.
 Hello, everyone.
 Hello there, Hasan.
 Good morning, everybody
.
ASKING FOR CONDITION
 How are you today?
 How are you getting on?
 How's life?
 How are things with you?
 Are you feeling better today,
Andin?

INTRODUCTION
 My name is Mr/Mrs/Ms Kim.
I'm your new English teacher.
 I'll be teaching you English this
year.
 I've got five lessons with you
each week.

TIME TO BEGIN
 Let's begin our lesson now.
 Is everybody ready to start?
 I hope you are all ready for your
English lesson.
 I think we can start now.
 Now we can get down to work.
 Let's begin our lesson now.

WAITING TO START
 I'm waiting for you to be quiet.
 We won't start until everyone is
quiet.
 Stop talking and be quiet.
 Settle down now so we can start.
 Now we can get down to work.
 Let's begin our lesson now.

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 CHECKING THE ATTENDANCE LIST
 Who is absent today?
 Who isn't here today?
 What's the matter with today?
 What's wrong with William
today?
 Let's call the role

PUT YOUR THINGS AWAY

 Close your books.
 Put your books away.
 Pack your things away.

COMMITE LATE
 Where have you been?
 We started ten minutes ago.
What have you been doing?
 Did you miss your bus?
 Did you oversleep?
 Why were you absent last
Friday?
 Don't let it happen again

CONDUCTING PRE-TASK ACTIVITIES

The following are some of the strategies used to get started in delivering
teaching materials before entering the main lesson. Some of these activities can
be used with the aim of activating students' prior knowledge and ideas about the
topic and engaging learners on the learning activities.
1. Brainstorm
a) Introduce the topic to the students.
b) Find out what they understand or think about the topic.
c) Write down all their thoughts, even if they are factually inaccurate, on the
board.
This could be:
 a list of items, e.g., animals or emotions
 a list of facts about a situation, e.g., everything they know about ASEAN or
global warming
 opinions, e.g., arguments for and against free university education

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2. Group Brainstorm Competition
a. Students study in groups of three to eight. Each group has a writer who is
equipped with a pen and paper. Set a time restriction of 2-5 minutes for
each group. Within the time limit, groups must list as much information
as possible about the topic.
b. Allow groups to read their lists aloud.
c. The group with the most items on their list wins. Make a class list by
writing down all their things or thoughts on the board.
3. Discuss The Topic
a. Discuss about the students' personal experiences.
For example, have you ever seen a ghost? Do you have a fear of ghosts?
b. Share a personal narrative on the subject.
For example, one night I was strolling down the river to get home. I was
startled to hear a voice, but I couldn't place it.
c. Write a phrase expressing your opinion on the subject. elicit feedback
from pupils
4. Mind-Map
a. On the whiteboard, write an essential word.
b. Encourage the students to use their imaginations to come up with new
terminology.
c. Link them to the key word.

5. Picture with Questions

a. Show the class a picture about the topic.
b. Ask questions about the picture and the topic.

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 CONDUCTING CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
According to research, when students collaborate on learning
assignments, they acquire more information and find out how to use and expand
their new knowledge more successfully. Furthermore, this method encourages
learning among individuals from various backgrounds and learning styles. Active
learning techniques are also more engaging for both the teacher and the students
(Classroom Activities | GSI Teaching & Resource Center, n.d.)
The following are some active learning approaches that you may utilize in your
section.
Peer Instruction
Objectives
 To move the site of teaching and learning from the instructor to the
students.
 To have students connect or apply concepts by explaining to another
student or trying to convince another student.
 To enable students to evaluate their understanding of the instructor’s
explanation.
 To move students to a higher learning level that extends beyond concerns
about what to memorize.
Class Debate
Objectives
 To encourage students to organize their thoughts in a critical or
argumentative way that takes into account the complexity of issues and
the existence of alternative and opposing views.
 To increase students’ public speaking and presentation skills, including
the ability to think quickly on one’s feet.
 To develop students’ research skills and give them a chance to gain
expertise in a particular subject.
Role-Playing
Role-play may be done as a whole class or in small groups to enable
students to gain insight into diverse situations and perspectives.
Objectives
 To increase student awareness of the interconnectedness of knowledge
and the subtle complexities of a situation.

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  To include affective learning as well as cognitive understanding.
 To expand personal experience by enacting a situation.
Creative Scenarios and Simulations
Creative scenarios and simulations can be used to make students more
active in their learning and to increase their research skills.
Objectives
 To encourage students to extrapolate beyond the information they receive
in class.
 To stimulate creative and original thinking by having students look at
their knowledge from a new perspective.
 To foster a greater awareness of the interdependence of theories and facts.

c. TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. How do you come up with appropriate teaching and learning activities?
2. What is the role of the teacher in teaching and learning activities?
3. Elaborate 3 elements of successful language learning
4. How essential is it to use proper expressions in teaching and learning
activities?
5. How should learning and teaching activities be carried out?
D. TASKS / ASSIGNMENTS
Make a scenario of learning and teaching activities by paying attention to
the theory of classroom management above!
E. REFERENCES
Classroom Activities | GSI Teaching & Resource Center. (n.d.). Retrieved March 13,
2022, from https://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/discussion-
intro/activities/
Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English. Pearson Longman.

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 Chapter 2
Approaches, Methods, Strategies, and
Techniques
Materials
There have been many confusion in defining approach, method, and
strategy in teaching. Some expert have clearly discussed about this theory
(Brown, H. D., 2001; Harmer, J., 2007; Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, D., 2011;
Nunan, D., 2015; Richards, J. C., Rodgers, T. S., 2014; Richards, J.C. Renandya, W.
A., 2022). To clarify the main difference among them, you need to remember
these points that an approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural, a strategy is
specific method, and technique is implementational.
APPROACH is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language,
learning, and teaching. Theoretically well-informed positions and beliefs about
the nature of language, the nature of language of learning, and the applicability of
both to pedagogical settings. METHOD is described as an overall plan for
systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. A
generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic
objectives. Tend to be concerned primarily with teacher and student roles and
behaviours and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter
objectives, sequencing, and materials. STRATEGY is specific methods of
approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end,
or planned design for controlling and manipulating certain information.
TECHNIQUE is Implementational – that which actually takes place in a
classroom. It is particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an
immediate objective. Must be consistent with a method, and therefore in
harmony with an approach as well.
Additionally, LEARNING MODEL is a frame from the application of an
approach, strategy, methods, and techniques of learning. In learning model is
series of strategies, methods, and techniques of learning in a single unified whole.
Thus, the learning model is basically a form of learning which is reflected from
start to finish is typically presented by the teacher.
A. Approaches
Approach is Assumption. An Approach is a set of correlative assumption
about the nature of language and language learning. An approach is treating
something in a certain way. Teaching approach is your own personal philosophy
of teaching. Approach is a set of assumption (why). An approach is something
that reflects a certain model or research paradigm. Approach is a set of theories
and principles. Learning approach is the way teacher view the learning process, in
which there are learning strategies with all his theories. Learning approaches can
be divided into two approaches are student-centered approach and teacher-
centered approach.

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 We will view an ‘approach’ as a way of looking at teaching and learning.
Underlying any language teaching approach is a theoretical view of what
language is, and of how it can be learned. It contains a set of theoretical
principles about teaching with practical applications. An approach gives rise to
‘methods', the way of teaching language items, e.g., via classroom activities or
techniques. Some examples of approaches in language teaching are Deductive
Approach, Inductive Approach, Teacher Centered, and Students centered
approach.
B. Methods
Method can be considered as a way of learning that must be taken to
realize the plan that has been a teacher in real and practical activities in the
classroom to achieve learning activities. Thus, the strategy is “a plan for achieving
goals” while the method is “a way for achieving goals”. Method is a settle kind of
procedure, usually according to a definite, established, logical, or systematic plan.
Method is general way in which activity is conducted. A method is a plan for
presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a
selected approach.
Teaching method: refers to how you apply your answer from the question
stated in teaching approaches to your day to day instruction in front of your
students. Method is defined as a habitual, logical, or prescribed practice or
systematic process of achieving certain and results which accuracy and efficiency,
usually in a preordained sequence of steps. A method is how to carry out these
assumption and theories (how). A method is a set of procedures that describe
how to teach a language. A method is the way you apply these theories and
principles. A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language
material, no part of which contradict, and all of which is based upon the selected
approach. There are many methods of learning: lecture, demonstration,
discussion, simulation, laboratory, field experience, brainstorming, debates,
symposium, and so forth.
A method is how a language is taught. A method is made up of a set of
techniques that usually reflect a particular view of language teaching. For
example, The Communicative Approach is the most popular and most current
approach to language teaching. Task-based teaching is a methodology associated
with teaching the Communicative Approach. Other methods are also associated
with teaching the Communicative Approach. However, to confuse matters, some
methods have also been labelled ‘approaches’.
To sum up, here are variety of teaching methods and approaches that
might be applicable for language teaching; Direct Method, Grammar Translation
Method, Audiolingual Method, Structural Approach, Silent way, Suggestopedia,
Lexical Approach, Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL), Total Physical
Response (TPR), Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), Eclectic Approach,
Cooperative Learning, Task Based Learning (TBL), Project Based Learning, Content
Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), Problem Based Learning (PBL), Inquiry
Based learning, Discovery Learning, Scientific Approach, Montessori Method,
Multiple Intelligence Approach.

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 C. Strategies
Strategy usually requires some sort of planning for setting goals. Learning
strategies is a teacher of learning activities undertaken with the aim of the
learning process that takes place in the classroom can achieve (goals) to
effectively and efficiently. In principle, the learning strategy of conceptual plans
that will decisions be taken in the learning process. Viewed from the side of the
strategy, can be grouped into two general categories: exposition-discovery
learning, and group-individual learning. Learning strategy is still conceptual,
necessary for the implementation of certain teaching methods.
Language learning strategies are the conscious steps or behaviors used by
language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of
new information.
The more proficient learners use learning strategies that are appropriate to the
material, to the task, and their own goals, needs, and stage of learning. For
example, strategies could be techniques such as diaries, think-aloud procedures,
observations, and surveys.
More proficient learners appear to use a broader range of strategies in a
significant number of situations than less skilled learners. For example, more
proficient learners:
 employ appropriate language learning strategies that often result in
improved proficiency or achievement overall or in specific skill areas.
 tend to use strategies that work well together and which are tailored to the
requirements of the language task. These learners can easily explain the
strategies they use and why they employ them.
 use metacognitive strategies, such as translating and analyzing, and other
strategies, such as planning and organizing. Using combinations of
strategies often has more impact than relying on a single strategy.
 use specific strategies or clusters of strategies that are linked to particular
language skills or tasks.
D. Techniques
Technique is the various methods and process developed through
knowledge, skill, and experience. Technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem
or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective. Technique is a
procedure or skill for completing a specific task. Teaching technique: these are
little sneaky tricks we all know and use to get the job done in the classroom.
Technique means a systematic procedure, formula, or routine by which a task is
accomplished. Techniques are steps to achieve certain goals. Technique is a
classroom device or activity and it is more specific than method. A technique is
the tools and task you use to make your method succeed. A technique is
implementation. Techniques must be consistent with a method and therefore in
harmony with an approach. Technique is a practical method or art applied to
some particular task or skillfulness in the command of fundamentals deriving
from practice and familiarity. Learning techniques is the way in which teacher in
carrying out the method of learning.

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 E. Deductive and Inductive Approach
There are two ways that we can use to teach foreign languages, namely the
deductive and inductive approaches. Why is it called an approach? Because
approach is the degree to which assumptions and beliefs about language and
language learning are determined; under both there are methods that are
characterized by deductive and inductive. There are pros and cons to both
depending on the character of the material and learning preferences. A
combination of these two approaches may also be applied (Abdukarimova N.A. &
N.N, 2021)

Since inductive teaching and learning

involves the student’s perspective, it
INDUCTIVE APPROACH is easier for the student to learn the
concept. Concepts under this method
can be personalized and easily
remembered and understood. This is
a method of discovery and can be
Inquiry based Learning, time consuming as well as demanding
Problem Based Learning, of a student’s imagination and
Case based Learning creativity. Inductive teaching is
Discovery Learning perfectly suited for a small group of
Project Based Learning students with a competent and
experienced teacher who knows how
Scientific Learning
to make adjustments throughout the
lesson. Inductive approach is
Figure 1 Inductive Umbrella considered as a more effective
method to teaching EFL grammar
(Abdukarimova N.A. & N.N, 2021;
Benitez-Correa et al., 2019) .Inductive
teaching and learning is an umbrella
term that includes a variety of instructional methods, including inquiry learning,
problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based teaching, discovery
learning, and scientific learning. These methods have many features in common,
besides the fact that they all qualify as inductive. They are all learner-centered
which means that they place the responsibility on the students themselves for
their learning, rather than the traditional lecture-based deductive approach
(Prince & Felder, 2006).
There are many advantages of inductive teaching and learning; knowledge
is acquired naturally through exposure, and students are encouraged to make use
of their reasoning skills, prior knowledge, intelligence, and mental focus. This
method also measures how a student makes connections based on the
information presented. For younger children, the Inductive approach which is
rich in examples makes them familiar with the situation or context that underlies
the sentences or utterances they hear or see from examples.

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The differences between Deductive and Inductive Approach
a. Deductive and inductive methods of teaching and learning differ in many
aspects. In inductive learning, the flow of information is from specific to
general, and it is more focused on the student. On the other hand, the
deductive method’s information flow moves from general to specific, and
it is more focused on the teacher.
b. The deductive method introduces a concept and its process before
applying it in a test or activity. Meanwhile, in the inductive method, the
activity or test is introduced first before a discussion of the concept is
initiated.
c. The deductive method is used in a large classroom setting, while the
inductive method is effective when used on small groups of students.
d. The deductive method is traditional, structured, and predictable, while the
inductive method is personalized, and the concepts are easily remembered
and understood.
e. The deductive method is a method of verification where information
comes from a specific source and is delivered to students directly, while
the inductive method is an approach of discovery and relies on a student’s
perspective or understanding of a concept
f. In terms of application in language, both methods are applied in different
language modes, concepts, and instances. For example, the inductive
method is applied in developing a story or work. On the other hand, the
deductive method can be useful in explaining literary work.

F. History of English Teaching Methods

Throughout the history of teaching languages a number of different
teaching approaches and methodologies have been tried and tested with some
being more popular and effective than others. However, some of the methods
afre considered conservative ones and still use teacher centered and deductive
approach and not relevant anymore to the current condition of language
teaching. If you’re just beginning your TEFL career, it would be beneficial to be
familiar with a few of these.
The Direct Method
If you’ve ever heard the Direct Method being taught, you may have rightly
mistaken it for some sort of military drill, which is not far off as it was first
established in France and Germany in the early 1900’s to assist soldiers to
communicate in a second language quickly.
The direct method of teaching English is also known as the Natural Method. It’s
used to teach a number of different languages not just English, and the main idea
of the Direct Method is that it only uses the target language that the students are
trying to learn.
Its main focus is oral skill and it is taught via repetitive drilling. Grammar is
taught using an inductive way and students need to try and guess the rules
through the teacher’s oral presentation. Today popular forms of the Direct
Method are Callan and Berlitz.

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 The Grammar Translation Method
Just like its name suggests, this method of teaching English is grammar
heavy and relies a lot on translation. This is the traditional or ‘classical’ way of
learning a language and it’s still commonly used when learning some languages.
Some countries prefer this style of teaching and the main idea behind this
method is that the students learn all grammar rules, so they’re able to translate a
number of sentences. This is particularly common for those students who wish to
study literature at a deeper level.
The Audio Lingual Method
The Audio Lingual Method otherwise known as the New Key Method or
Army Method is based on a behavirourist theory that things are able to be
learned by constant reinforcement. However, just like in the army when someone
behaves badly (or in this case bad use of English), the learner receives negative
feedback and the contrary happens when a student demonstrates good use of
English.
This is related to the Direct Method and just like its predecessor it only
uses the target language. The biggest difference between the Audio Lingual
Method and the Direct Method is its focus of teaching. The Direct Methods
focuses on the teaching of vocabulary whereas the Audio Lingual Method focuses
on specific grammar teachings.
The Structural Approach
As the name suggests, the method is all about structure. The idea is that any
language is made up of complex grammar rules. These rules, according to this
approach need to be learnt in a specific order, for example the logical thing
would be to teach the verb “to be” prior to teaching the present continuous which
requires using the auxiliary form of the verb “to be.”
Suggestopedia
This is a behaviourist theory and related to pseudoscience. This method
relies heavily on students’ belief about the method’s effectiveness. This theory is
intended to offer learners various choices, which in turn helps them become
more responsible for their learning.
It relies a lot on the atmosphere and the physical surroundings of the class. It’s
essential that all learners feel equally comfortable and confident. When teachers
are training to use the Suggestopedia method, there’s a lot of art and music
involved. Each Suggestopedia lesson is divided into three different phases – 1.
Deciphering 2. Concert Session 3. Elaboration.
Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response, otherwise known as TPR is an approach that
follows the idea of ‘learning by doing’. Beginners will learn English through a
series of repetitive actions such as “Stand up”, “Open your book”, “Close the
door”, and “Walk to the window and open it.” With TPR, the most important skill
is aural comprehension and everything else will follow naturally later.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
The idea behind this approach is to help learners communicate more
effectively and correctly in realistic situations that they may find themselves in.

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This type of teaching involves focusing on important functions like suggesting,
thanking, inviting, complaining, and asking for directions to name but a few.
The Silent Way
The Silent Way emphasises learner autonomy. The teacher acts merely as
a facilitator trying to encourage students to be more active in their learning. The
main of this way of teaching is for the teacher to say very little, so students can
take control of their learning. There’s a big emphasis on pronunciation and a
large chunk of the lesson focuses on it. This method of learning English follows a
structural syllabus and grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation are constantly
drilled and recycled for reinforcement. The teacher evaluates their students
through careful observation, and it’s even possible that they may never set a
formal test as learners are encouraged to correct their own language errors.
Community Language Learning
This is probably one of the English teaching methods where the student
feels the safest as there’s a great emphasis on the relationship and bond between
the student and teacher. Unlike a lot of the other methods and approaches of
teaching English as a Second Language, a lot of the L1 (mother tongue) is used for
translation purposes.
Task Based Language Learning
The main aim of this approach to learning is task completion. Usually,
relevant and interesting tasks are set by the teacher and students are expected to
draw on their pre-existing knowledge of English to complete the task with as few
errors as possible.
The Lexical Approach
The Lexical syllabus or approach is based on computer studies that have
previously identified the most commonly used words. This approach in teaching
focuses on vocabulary acquisition and teaching lexical chunks in order of their
frequency and use. Teachers of the Lexical Approach place a great emphasis on
authentic materials and realistic scenarios for more valuable learning.

G. Language Skills and Components

There are four main language skills and three language components that
become the core competence students must have and improve. Reading and
listening are categorized into receptive skills. Writing and speaking are the
productive skills which shows students performance written and oral. The other
three language components are part of each skills in which it contributes to the
skills’ performances and competences. They are pronounciation, grammar, and
vocabulary. Each of skill and components might need different teaching and
learning strategy. Finally, with regard to the four skills, the more proficient
learner will likely demonstrate a cocktail of some of these strategies:
1. Listening: Comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration,
inference, selective attention, and self-monitoring.
2. Speaking: Speaking demands strategies such as risk-taking,
paraphrasing, circumlocution, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation.

15 | P a g e
 3. Writing: Writing benefits from the learning strategies of planning, self-
monitoring, deduction, and substitution.
4. Reading: Comprehension benefits from using strategies like reading
aloud, guessing, deduction, and summarizing.
5. Grammar: Grammar needs learning strategies that is more applicative
and inductive such as clarification, patterns opportunities, authentic
materials, and self-monitoring.
6. Vocabulary: Vocabulary will be effective in using learning strategies
like word coinage, avoidance, approximation, smart goal, and authentic
material
7. Pronunciation: Pronouncing words and sentence correctly will need
strategy like circumlocution for giving examples, smart goals, authentic
materials, and self-monitoring by checking dictionary.
Help your students to develop and enhance their learning strategies so
that, eventually, they will become independent learners with the ability to
use robust strategies in a variety of contexts.

ACTIVITIES
Lets discusss these following questions:
1. What is the diffferences betweeen approaches, methods, strategies, and
techniques?
2. Explain the history of ELT methods?
3. Mentions kinds of methods for language teaching?
4. Which methods are categorixed as deductive and inductive approach?
5. Which methods are considered teacher centered and students centered?
6. What is the best methods for teaching language ?
7. Does each skills require different strategy and technique?

TASKS/ASSIGMENTS
Write a summary about the history of ELT methods and approaches, the
content should include the previous discussions points.
REFERENCES
Abdukarimova N.A., & N.N, Z. (2021). Deductive and Inductive approached to
Teaching Grammar. Proceedings of International Scientific-Practical
Conference on “Cognitive Ressearch in Educationn,” 372–376.
Benitez-Correa, C., Gonzalez-Torres, P., Ochoa-Cueva, C., & Vargas-Saritama,
A. (2019). A comparison between deductive and inductive approaches for
teaching EFL Grammar to high school students. International Journal of
Instruction, 12(1), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.12115a
Bilash, O. (2009). Inductive and Deductive Instruction. Best of Bilash :
Improving Second Language Education.
https://bestofbilash.ualberta.ca/inductivedeductive.html
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to
language pedagogy (2nd Ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Logman.
Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Video explanation of approach methods and strategy

16 | P a g e
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8NMRelb-vs
Effective Learning Strategy
https://magicearsuniversity.teachable.com/courses/me-120-hour-
advanced-tesol/lectures/13049727
English Language Teaching Methods and Approaches
http://www.huntesl.com/a-brief-look-at-the-different-esl-teaching-
approaches-and-methods/
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, D. (2011). Techniques & principles in
language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nunan, D. (2015). Teaching English to speakers of other languages: An
introduction. New York and London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Prince, M. J., & Felder, R. M. (2006). Inductive Teaching and Learning
Methods : Definitions, Comparisons and Research Bases. J. Engr.
Education, 95(2), 123–138.
http://mate.calpoly.edu/media/files/Review_inductive_learning.pdf
Richard, Jack C and Rodgers, Theodore S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press.
Richard, Jack C, Richards J. Croft, Renandya, Willy A. (2002). Methodology in
Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge
University Press.
Thornbury, S. (1999). How to teach grammar. Harlow. In England: Pearson
Education Limited (Vol. 55, Issue April, pp. 203–213). Pearson Education
Limited.

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 Chapter 3
Lesson Planning
Objectives of the Lesson
Students are able to:
1. Identify the components of lesson planning
2. Formulate lesson objectives
3. Explore ICT application for lesson planning
4. Create lesson plan for teaching language skills and components
Materials
GENERAL CONCEPT
It's reasonable to learn about teaching as a three-part process. The first
step consists of activities required before teaching a class, such as Planning and
preparation; the second consists of activities in the classroom, such as
management, teaching, and learning; and the third consists of activities that
occur after the lesson, such as assessment, with associated activities such as
recording and reporting, and evaluation. 'I need to do some preparation now,'
'I'm teaching all day today,' or 'I've had to do some marking this evening'
are popular phrases used by teachers to categorize their job. The second phase,
actually being in the classroom and teaching, generally requires the most
significant energy and creates the job's emotional highs and lows. However, that
should not distract us from the importance of maintaining a high level of
professionalism both before and after classes. (Haynes, 2010)
Why should we have to create a course or a lesson plan?
The following are some of the reasons why we should organize our courses
and lessons:
 Planning ahead of time helps to minimize emotions of anxiety or fear,
instilling confidence and clarity instead.
 It gives children a sense of purpose, advancement, and coherence,
boosting their confidence.
 It aids in the comprehension of the research required.
 It helps you plan the time and activity flow in your lessons by reminding
you to gather items ahead of time.
 Students, too, will gather their ideas before class if at least some of the
Planning is shared with them.
 Plans may be utilized in classes to get things started, encourage memory,
and assist us in answering inquiries from students.
 Working on lesson preparation afterward and before ensures that the class
you're teaching receives a well-balanced combination of resources, topic,
and interaction styles throughout the course.

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  Course and lesson preparation include combing through all of your
information, resources, and beliefs and summarizing them down to a
formulation for one specific group, time, and location, and they help
create a personal style.
Instructional Planning for teaching oral communication
Spoken conversation preparation begins the same way as any other
instructional planning: with the needs of the students and the objectives. The
National Council of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages has
identified five criteria for building competency in English to Speakers of Other
Languages. The basic concept of all five standards is that language is used to
communicate. The first standard focuses on communication goals; the other
four standards are concerned with utilizing language to convey information,
ideas, and concepts in the primary curriculum areas of English language arts,
mathematics, science, and social studies. (Fisher, 2008)

Questions before planning the lesson

a. Who exactly are the students for this activity?
b. What do we want to do and why?
c. How long will it take?
d. How does it work?
e. What will be needed?
f. What might go wrong?
g. How will it fit in with what comes before and after it?

Components of Lesson Plan

a. Description of the students
b. Aims and Objectives
c. Procedures / Teaching and Learning Activities
d. Anticipated Problems
e. Extra Activities/Material (Just in Case)
f. Material to be used in the lesson
Source : (Harmer, 2007)

Format of Lesson plan

a. Learning Objectives
b. Teaching and Learning activities
c. Assessment
Source (Surat Edaran Nomor 14 Tahun 2019 Tentang Penyederhanaan
Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran, 2019)
Taxonomy Bloom for designing Learning Objectives

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 Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification hierarchy based on basic principles or
rules regarding thinking skills in the learning process. Initiator: Benjamin Samuel
Bloom, a psychologist in Education
The Three domains of Educational Purposes based on Bloom’s Taxonomy
1. Cognitive Domain, which contains behaviors that emphasize
intellectual aspects, such as knowledge, understanding, and thinking
skills.
2. Affective Domain, contains behaviors that emphasize aspects of
feelings and emotions, such as interests, attitudes, appreciation, and ways
of adjustment.
3. Psychomotor Domain, contains behaviors that emphasize aspects of
motor skills such as handwriting, typing, swimming, and operating
machines.
Cognitive Domain

Category Examples Operational Verbs

Remembering: Recall Recite a policy. Quote prices Defines, describes,

previous learned from memory to a customer. identifies, knows, labels,
information. Knows the safety rules. lists, matches, names,
outlines, recalls, recognizes,
reproduces, selects, states.

Understanding: Rewrites the principles of test Comprehends, converts,

Comprehending the
meaning,
translation, interpolation,
and interpretation of
instructions and problems.
State a problem in one's
own words.
writing. Explain in
one's own words the steps for
performing a complex
task. Translates an equation into
a computer
spreadsheet.
defends, distinguishes,
estimates, explains,
extends, generalizes, gives
an example, infers,
interprets, paraphrases,
predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, translates.

Applying: Use a concept in Use a manual to calculate an Applies, changes, computes,

a new situation or
unprompted use of an
abstraction. Applies
what was learned in the
classroom into novel
situations in the work
place.
employee's vacation
time. Apply laws of statistics to
evaluate the
reliability of a written test.
constructs, demonstrates,
discovers, manipulates,
modifies, operates, predicts,
prepares, produces, relates,
shows, solves, uses.

Analyzing: Separates Troubleshoot a piece of Analyzes, breaks down,

material or concepts into
component parts so that its
organizational
structure may be
understood. Distinguishes
between facts and
inferences.
equipment by using logical
deduction. Recognize logical
fallacies in reasoning. Gathers
information from a department
and selects the required tasks for
training.
compares, contrasts,
diagrams, deconstructs,
differentiates, discriminates,
distinguishes, identifies,
illustrates, infers, outlines,
relates, selects, separates.

20 | P a g e
Evaluating: Make
judgments about the value
of ideas or materials.
Creating: Builds a structure
or pattern from
diverse elements. Put parts
together to form a
whole, with emphasis on
creating a new
meaning or structure.
Affective Domain
Category
Receiving Phenomena:
Awareness, willingness to
hear, selected attention.
Responding to
Phenomena: Active
participation on the
part of the learners. Attends
and reacts to a particular
phenomenon. Learning
outcomes may emphasize
compliance in responding,
willingness to respond, or
satisfaction in responding
(motivation).
Valuing: The worth or
value a person attaches to a
particular object,
phenomenon, or behavior.
This ranges from simple
acceptance to the more
complex state of
commitment. Valuing is
based on the internalization
of a set of specified values,
while clues to these values
are expressed in the
learner's overt behavior and
Select the most effective
solution. Hire the most
qualified candidate. Explain and
justify a new budget.
Write a company operations or
process manual. Design a
machine to perform a specific
task. Integrates training from
several sources to solve a
problem. Revises and process to
improve the outcome.
Examples
Listen to others with respect.
Listen for and remember the
name of newly introduced
people.
Participates in class discussions.
Gives a presentation. Questions
new ideals, concepts, models,
etc. in order to fully understand
them. Know the safety rules and
practices them.
Demonstrates belief in the
democratic process. Is sensitive
towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity).
Shows the ability to solve
problems. Proposes a plan to
social improvement and follows
through with commitment.
Informs management on matters
that one feels strongly about.
Appraises, compares,
concludes, contrasts,
criticizes, critiques,
defends, describes,
discriminates, evaluates,
explains, interprets,
justifies, relates,
summarizes, supports.
Categorizes, combines,
compiles, composes,
creates, devises, designs,
explains, generates,
modifies, organizes, plans,
rearranges, reconstructs,
relates, reorganizes, revises,
rewrites, summarizes, tells,
write
Operational Verbs
Asks, chooses, describes,
follows, gives, holds,
identifies, locates, names,
points to, selects, sits,
erects, replies, uses.
Answers, assists, aids,
complies, conforms,
discusses, greets, helps,
labels, performs,
practices, presents, reads,
recites, reports, selects,
tells, writes.
Completes, demonstrates,
differentiates, explains,
follows, forms, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies,
proposes, reads, reports,
selects, shares, studies,
works.
21 | P a g e
 are often
identifiable.

Organization: Organizes
values into priorities by
contrasting different values,
resolving conflicts between
them, and creating a unique
value system. The emphasis
is on comparing, relating,
and synthesizing values.
Internalizing values
(characterization): Has a
value system that controls
their behavior. The behavior
is pervasive, consistent,
predictable, and most
importantly, characteristic
of the learner. Instructional
objectives are concerned
with the student's general
patterns of adjustment
(personal, social,
emotional).
Recognizes the need for balance Adheres, alters, arranges,
between freedom and combines, compares,
responsible behavior. Accepts completes, defends,
responsibility for one's behavior. explains, formulates,
Explains the role of systematic generalizes, identifies,
planning in integrates, modifies, orders,
solving problems. Accepts organizes, prepares, relates,
professional ethical standards. synthesizes.
Creates a life plan in harmony
with abilities,
interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes
time effectively to meet the
needs of the organization, family,
and self.
Shows self-reliance when Acts, discriminates,
working independently. displays, influences, listens,
Cooperates in group activities modifies, performs,
(displays teamwork). Uses an practices, proposes,
objective approach in problem qualifies, questions, revises,
solving. Displays a professional serves, solves,
commitment to verifies.
ethical practice on a daily basis.
Revises judgments and
changes behavior in light of new
evidence. Values people
for what they are, not how they
look.

Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and
motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured
in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.
The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most
complex: [The Simpson’s and Harrow’s psychomotor domains are especially
useful for children and young people's development and for developing skills in
adults that take people out of their comfort zones like. The Dave’s psychomotor
domain is the simplest and generally easiest to apply in the corporate
development environment. Both models offer different emotional perspectives
and advantages: Check the relevance and importance of each before you
implement.
Category Examples Operational Verbs

22 | P a g e
Perception (awareness):
The ability to use sensory
cues
to guide motor activity. This
ranges from sensory
stimulation, through cue
selection, to translation.
Detects non-verbal Chooses, describes,
communication cues. Estimate detects, differentiates,
where a ball will land after it is distinguishes, identifies,
thrown and then moving to the isolates, relates, selects.
correct
location to catch the ball.
Adjusts heat of stove to correct
temperature by smell and taste
of food. Adjusts the height of the
forks on a forklift by comparing
where the forks are in relation to
the pallet.

Set: Readiness to act. It
includes mental, physical,
and emotional sets. These
three sets are dispositions
that predetermine a person's
response to different
situations (sometimes called
mindsets).
Guided Response: The early
stages in learning a
complex skill that includes
imitation and trial and error.
Adequacy of performance is
achieved by practicing
Mechanism (basic
proficiency): This is the
intermediate
stage in learning a complex
skill. Learned responses have
become habitual and the
movements can be
performed
with some confidence and
proficiency.
Complex Overt Response
(Expert): The skillful
performance of motor acts
that involve complex
movement patterns.
Proficiency is indicated by a
quick, accurate, and highly
coordinated performance,
requiring a minimum of
energy. This category
includes performing
Knows and acts upon a sequence
of steps in a
manufacturing process.
Recognize one's abilities and
limitations. Shows desire to
learn a new process (motivation).
NOTE:
This subdivision of Psychomotor
is closely
related with the “Responding to
phenomena” subdivision of the
Affective domain.
Performs a mathematical
equation as
demonstrated. Follows
instructions to build a
model. Responds hand-signals of
instructor
while learning to operate a
forklift.
Use a personal computer. Repair
a leaking
faucet. Drive a car.
Maneuvers a car into a tight
parallel parking
spot. Operates a computer
quickly and
accurately. Displays competence
while
playing the piano
Begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts,
shows, states, volunteers.
Copies, traces, follows,
react, reproduce, responds.
Assembles, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles,
displays,
fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures,
mends,
mixes, organizes, sketches.
Assembles, builds,
calibrates, constructs,
dismantles,
displays, fastens, fixes,
grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures,
mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches. NOTE: The Key
Words
are the same as
Mechanism, but will have

23 | P a g e
 without hesitation, and adverbs or
automatic performance. For adjectives that indicate
example, players are often that the performance is
utter sounds of satisfaction or quicker,
expletives as soon as they hit better, more accurate, etc.
a tennis ball or throw a
football, because they can tell
by the feel of the act what
the result will produce.

Adaptation: Skills are well Responds effectively to Adapts, alters, changes,

developed and the individual
can modify movement
patterns to fit special
requirements.
Origination: Creating new
movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or
specific problem. Learning
outcomes emphasize
creativity based upon highly
developed skills.
unexpected rearranges, reorganizes,
experiences. Modifies instruction revises,
to meet varies.
the needs of the learners.
Perform a task with
a machine that it was not
originally intended
to do (machine is not damaged
and there is
no danger in performing the new
task).
Constructs a new theory. Creates a new gymnastic
Develops a new routine.
and comprehensive training Arranges, builds,
programming. combines, composes,
constructs, creates,
designs, initiate, makes,
originates

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. What is the importance of preparing a lesson plan?
2. Mention the components of the lesson plan!
3. Why is it critical to determine student profiles and contexts constructing
lesson plan?
4. What is the function of Bloom's taxonomy in the lesson plan preparation?

TASKS /ASSIGNMENTS
Create a lesson plan which consists of the following components, learning
objectives, teaching activities, and assessment.

REFERENCES
Fisher, D. (2008). Content-Area Conversations : How to Plan Discussion-Based
Lessons for Diverse Language Learners. The Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English. Pearson Longman.
Haynes, A. (2010). The Complete Guide to Lesson Planning and Preparation.

24 | P a g e
 Continuum International Publishing Group.
Surat Edaran Nomor 14 tahun 2019 tentang Penyederhanaan Rencana
Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran, (2019) (testimony of Kementerian Pendidikan
dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia).

25 | P a g e
 Chapter 4
Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL)
MATERIALS
A. Theory of Contextual Teaching
Contextual Teaching and Learning or (CTL) was developed through a
national project which was funded through the U.S Department of Education’s
office of Vocational and Adult Education; and through the National School to
Work Office (Leigh, 2006). The concept coined CTL was implemented to
teaching and learning subject matter to relate real world situations to subject
matter content; permitting a connection between knowledge and its application
that may be applied by the learner of said subject matter to real world situation
in their community, families, and as members of a work force as well as in
business.
Contextual teaching and learning is an approach of learning that can’t be
separated with behaviorism and constructivism theories. It is a conception of
teaching and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real
world situation and its application to their lives as family, citizen, and workers
and engage in the hard work that learning requires (Hudson& Whistler, 2007:1).
This theory emphasizes students’ interest and experience (Satriani, Emilia, &
Gunawan, 2012:11). Overall, contextual teaching and learning is an approach that
focuses on the students’ center. The purpose of the approach is to motivate the
learners to take charge of their own learning and to relate between knowledge
and its application to the various contexts of their lives (Satriani, Emilia, &
Gunawan, 2012:11).
The history of Contextual teaching and learning, from behaviorism to
constructivism and to contextual learning. In the beginning, contextual teaching
and learning approach was derived from the theory of behaviorism and then
continued with the theory of constructivism. According to Berns & Ericson
(2001:2) behaviorism is teaching and learning theory that was proposed by E.L
Thorndike who suggested that learning resulted from links formed between
stimuli and response through the application of rewards. It means that learners
study behaviorism theory that emphasized in the observable behavior produced
by a learner in order to response to the stimuli. The theory was applied in the
form of conventional way that emphasized in drill or memorization. Then, a new
theory was born that is constructivism in order to response to the behaviorism
theory. According to Berns & Ericson (2001:2) in constructivism , students could
construct their own knowledge by testing ideas based on the prior knowledge
and experience, applying these ideas to a new situation and integrating the new

26 | P a g e
knowledge gained with the pre-existing intellectual construct. In this case,
constructivism as learning theory emphasized in the role of students rather than
the teacher. In order they can find the solution from their problem that produce
students’ critical thinking. This theory consists of authentic learning activity that
is conducted in group.
Both the theory of behaviorism and constructivism include the direct
instruction in teaching and learning process. In this case, the positions of
behaviorism and constructivism theories related to the development of
contextual teaching and learning were behaviorism as a means for measure the
students’ observable behaviors when they took apart in teaching and learning
process while constructivism as a way to help them connect the content could be
used. That is the reason why CTL has the abbreviation of contextual teaching and
learning because it is a learning activity based on life context. Contextual
teaching and learning is a learning philosophy that emphasizes the students’
interest and experiences. It provides the means for reaching learning goals that
requires higher order thinking skills (Satriani, Emilia, & Gunawan, 2012:11).
B. Principles of CTL
Contextual teaching and learning as one of approaches for teaching and
learning has scientific principles. According to Johnson (2002:26) there are 3
principles of it. They are principles of interdependence, the principles of
differentiation, and the principles of self-regulation.
1. Principles of Interdependence
Human being could not establish intimacy with one another (Johnson,
2002:28). It means that although the approach consists of authentic
learning activity that is conducted group, there is no one can intimidate
the other’s to follow the certain students. It is a sharing and discussing
section when it is conducting in group, so the principle stresses that all of
the learners have the interdependence.
2. Principle of Differentiation
When the students are different in their creativity, they could be free to
explore their individual talents, cultivate their own learning styles, and
progress at their own pace(Johnson, 2002:31).It means that contextual
teaching and learning approach can be conducted to the students with
different characters, talents, and ability. The importance of the principle is
how the contextual teaching learning helps the students to explore their
own talent and can have a big motivation to study based on their life
context.
3. Principle of Self-Regulation

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 Self-regulation means everything is set up, maintained, and recognized by
yourself. The principle motivates the students to show all of their
potentials. Moreover, it also explores them to get the new talents. The
teacher should give them belief by giving responsibility for taking the
decision, behavior, choice, plan, solution etc.
C. Characteristic of CTL
Contextual Teaching and Learning integrates such strategies into learning
activities as: problem solving, self-directed learning, learning from peers, learning
in real situations and authentic assessments; the six characteristics to its
integration are as follows and can be incorporated into teaching activities,
practicums, theoretical material, capstone projects, dissertations and to Online
course material and Synchronous and Asynchronous Blackboard learning. There
are some characteristics of contextual teaching and learning that differentiate
with the other approaches. Johnson characterizes it into eight important
elements. They are as the followings.
1. Making Meaningful Connection
The students can learn the materials that make sense to them because the
materials itself are gained based on their real life context. Connecting
content to learners experience.
2. Doing Significant Work
The students could relate what the materials have gained in the school and
also in the various contexts that still exist in real world. Engaging students
in Active learning
3. Self-Regulated Learning
The purpose of self-regulated learning is to create the students to have
learning regularly in order they can get the knowledge as much as
possible. It is done because the role of the students in contextual teaching
and learning is to find their own material when they are learning. Enabling
students to have some opportunities to direct their learning.
4. Collaborating
Collaborating is derived from the word “collaborate”. It means that the
characteristic of contextual teaching and learning is to do the group
discussion, to have sharing session what they have known with the other
friends. Encouraging the construction of personal meaning from individual
and collective experience
5. Critical and Creative Thinking
It stresses on how the students can think critically if they find problem in
order to gain the best solution. Besides, they can be creative when there is
task that needs creativity.

28 | P a g e
 6. Nurturing the Individual
It stresses that the students still need the help of the other such as from
adult people who mostly have more experience than the young. So, the
students should respect the adult people. Identifying content that are
appropriate developmentally to the learner
7. Reaching High Standard
By relating high standard as the characteristics of contextual teaching and
learning, it can motivate the students to have more frequency of studying.
8. Using Authentic Assessment
The using of authentic assessment is useful in order to get the meaningful
purposes. The importance of it for contextualizing the meaningfulness of
learning and promoting students’ motivation (Paris & Winograd, 2006:2).
Assessing the attainment of outcomes within an authentic situation and
allowing for the interpretation of multiple meanings from a single
experience
D. CTL Strategies
Related to the application of contextual teaching and learning is the
strategy itself. There are five strategies that proposed by Crawford. They are
relating, experiencing, applying, cooperating, and transferring. It has the famous
abbreviation that is REACT (Satriani, Emilia, & Gunawan, 2012:12-13).
1. Relating means that the strategy intends the students to have the ability to
relate the prior and new knowledge to get new understanding.
2. Experiencing means the previous strategy involves the role of students to
relate the prior and new knowledge. While the position of teacher is to
help them to find the solution from the problem by constructing new
knowledge with hand on experience.
3. Applying means that the strategy intends the students to use the approach
they are engaged in hands on problem solving activities.
4. Cooperating means work together. The students discuss or share with
other friends in group. The task which is done in group has significant
progress than individually. When the students work individually, they can
become frustrated. But, when students cooperate in small group, they can
often handle complex problems with little help (Crawford, 2002:2).
5. Transferring is derived from constructivism that intends the students to
construct the meaning of something by their own understanding. Related
to the word “understanding”, the students who learn with understanding
can also learn to transfer knowledge.

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 E. Components Of Contextual Teaching and Learning
Contextual teaching and learning also consists of some components that
must be conducted as the part of its application. There are seven components of
contextual teaching and learning that are useful to gain success in applying it
(Wijarwadi, 2008:27).
1. Constructivism; From the history of contextual teaching and learning,
constructivism is a theory that emphasizes the way how the students
construct their own knowledge. It has five steps of learning. They are
activating knowledge, acquiring knowledge, understanding knowledge,
applying knowledge, and reflecting knowledge.
2. Inquiry; The principle shows how learning is conducted by including the
process of discovery that needs critical thinking. In this case, knowledge as
the part of learning does not get by considering a number of facts but also
from stimulating learning that allows the students to find their own material
in the real context.
3. Questioning; Questioning is one of the parts in teaching learning process. The
students’ ask something because they want to know something that they do
not know. They are curious to get the answer of their problem. That’s why
they ask to the teacher or others.
4. Learning Community; Contextual teaching and learning is conducted in
group because its purpose is wants the students to have sharing and
discussing section without the intimacy of others. The other purpose is the
students can help the others who need their help in positive way.
5. Modeling; Modeling is derived from the word “model”. Model means example.
The component of modeling means the teacher gives example to the students
if they find difficulties in real way. For example the English teacher gives the
example to pronounce certain words.
6. Reflection; Reflection is the ways of thinking about what the students have
learned and thinking about what they have done in the past. In this case, the
teacher can do about the information that acquired in the action.
7. Authentic Materials; It is important to have assessment for the teacher in
order to check whether the students have learned the material or not. The
assessment is done in authentic form in order to reduce the students do copy
paste to the other friends’ work. According to Ketter & Arnold (2003:36)
authentic assessment as a means of documenting content mastery.
Assessment is authentic when we direct examine student performance on
worthy intellectual task.

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 ACTIVITIES
1. Practice the learning activities using this method for teaching skills in
class
 Divide the class into seven groups: Listening, Speaking, Reading,
Writing, Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pronounciation.
 Each group Design the teaching technique and strategy based on
Contextual Teaching and Learning Method
 Present and practice the ideas in front of the class
2. Discussion : Give comments and suggestions toward the ideas of strategy
and techniques presented
TASKS/ASSIGMENTS
 Create Lesson Plan that consist of the Learning Objectives, Material,
Teaching and Learning Activities, and Assessment that implement
contextual Teaching and Learning
REFERENCES
Berns, R.G., & Erickson, P. M. (2001). Contextual Teaching and Learning:
Preparing Students for the New Economy. The Highlighted Zone Research
@Work. 2(5).1-8. Available
on www.cord.org/uploadedfiles/NCCTE_Highlight05-
ContextualTeachingLearning.pdf. Retrieved on November 11th 2012.
Blanchard, A. (2012) . Contextual Teaching and Learning. Available on
coe.csusb.edu/faculty/scarcella/siu463/Contextual Learning.htm. Retrieved
from January 5th 2013.
Crawford, M. (2002). Contextual Teaching and Learning: Strategies for Creating
Constructivist Classroom(Conclusion). Connections. 11(9). 1-6 .Available
on http://www.cord.org/uploadedfiles/Teaching Contextually
(Crawford).pdf. Retrieved on November 11th 2012.
Deen, I. S., & Smith, B.P .(2006). Contextual teaching and learning practices In
the family and consumer sciences curriculum. Journal of Family and
Consumer Sciences Education. 24 (1).14-27.Available
on www.natefacs.org/JFCSE/v24no1/v24no1Shamsid-Deen.pdf. Retrieved on
November 4th 2012.
Hudson,C.C., & Whisler, V. R. (2007). Contextual Teaching and Learning for
Practitioners. Valdosta. Adult and Career Education of Vadolsta State
University. Available
on http://www.iiisci.org/journal/cv$/sci/pdfs/e668ps.pdf .Retrieved on
th
November 11 2012.
Johnson, E.B. (2002). Contextual teaching and learning :what it is and why it is
here to stay. London :Routledge Falmer.

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 Johnson, Elaine B. 2022. Contextual Teaching and Learning: What it is and why
it’s here to stay. Corwin Press.Inc. Sage Publication. California
Ketter, C.T. & Arnold, J. (2003).” Implementing Contextual Teaching and
Learning: Case Study of Nancy, a High School Science Novice
Teacher. Final Report. Georgia: Department of Education at University of
Georgia. Available on
citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.200.5642&rep=rep1&typ
e=pdf. Retrieved on November 11th 2012.
Paris, S. G., & Winograd, P. (2006). Preparing Teachers to Use Contextual
Teaching and Learning Strategies To Improve Student Success In and
Beyond School. Paper. London : Department of Education Project.
Available on www.ciera.org/library/archive/2001-04/0104parwin.htm.
Retrieved on November 4th 2012.
Putnam, A.R., & Leach, L. (2004). Contextual Teaching with Computer-Assisted
Instruction. Paper. Carbondale: Department of Workforce Education and
Development. Available on gradworks.umi.com/3304124.pdf. Retrieved on
November 4th 2012.
Satriani,I., Emilia, E., & Gunawan, M. H. (2012). Contextual Teaching and
Learning Approach to Teaching Writing. Indonesian Journal of Applied
Linguistics. 2(1) .10-22. Available on
ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/IJAL/article/download/70/36. Retrieved on
November 11th 2012.
Wijarwadi, W. (2008). The Effectiveness of Contextual Teaching and Learning in
Teaching Speaking. Paper. Jakarta: Undergraduate Program of Syarif
HIDAYATULLAH State Islamic University. Available on
db4.wikispaces.com/file/view/rc18-THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING IN TEACHING
th
SPEAKING.pdf. Retrieved on November 11 2012.
https://onlinelearningconsortium.org/applying-formative-measure-analysis-
contextual-teaching-learning-activities/
https://mydreamarea.wordpress.com/2013/01/06/contextual-teaching-and-
learning/

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 Chapter 5
Total Phisycal Response(TPR)
A. Objectives of the Lesson
Students are able to:
1. Recognize general concept of Total Physical Response (TPR).
2. Determine the Principles of Total Physical Response (TPR).
3. Browse for resources and materials to assist your teaching using TPR.
4. Put the skills and strategies for teaching English using TPR.
5. Develop a lesson plan with the TPR method.

B. Materials
GENERAL CONCEPT
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a way of teaching language or vocabulary
ideas that involves physical movement in response to verbal instruction. The
method is modeled after how babies acquire their first language, and it lowers
student barriers and stress levels. TPR's goal is to establish a brain link between
speech and action in order to improve language and vocabulary comprehension.
Total Physical Response (TPR) may be used to teach a variety of
vocabulary, but it works best when teaching action vocabulary. When learning
new word, it is an excellent method to utilize with both English Language
Learners and native speakers. (Total Physical Response (TPR) - The Teacher
Toolkit, n.d.)
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
Next, we'll go through the ten questions to help us better comprehend
Total Physical Response.
1. What are the goals of teachers who use TPR?
Teachers who use TPR believe in the importance of having their students
enjoy their experience of learning to communicate in another language. In
fact, TPR was developed in order to reduce the stress people feel when
they are studying other languages and thereby encourage students to
persist in their study beyond a beginning level of proficiency. The way to
do this, Asher believes, is to base foreign language learning upon the way
children learn their native language.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
Initially, the teacher is the director of all student behavior. The students
are imitators of her nonverbal model. At some point (usually after 10–20
hours of instruction), some students will be ‘ready to speak.’ At that point,
there will be a role reversal with individual students directing the teacher
and the other students.

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3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
The first phase of a lesson is one of modeling. The teacher issues
commands to a few students, then performs the actions with them. In the
second phase, these same students demonstrate that they can understand
the commands by performing them alone. The observers also have an
opportunity to demonstrate their understanding. The teacher next
recombines elements of the commands to have students develop flexibility
in understanding unfamiliar utterances. These commands, which students
perform, are often humorous. After learning to respond to some oral
commands, the students learn to read and write them. When students are
ready to speak, they become the ones who issue the commands. After
students begin speaking, activities expand to include skits and games.
4. What is the nature of student–teacher interaction? What is the
nature of student–student interaction?
The teacher interacts with the whole group of students and with
individual students. Initially, the interaction is characterized by the
teacher speaking and the students responding nonverbally. Later on, the
students become more verbal and the teacher responds nonverbally.
Students perform the actions together. Students can learn by watching
each other. At some point, however, Asher believes observers must
demonstrate their understanding of the commands in order to retain
them. As students begin to speak, they issue commands to one another as
well as to the teacher.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
One of the main reasons TPR was developed was to reduce the stress
people feel when studying other languages. One of the primary ways this is
accomplished is to allow learners to speak when they are ready. Forcing
them to speak before then will only create anxiety. Also, when students do
begin to speak, perfection should not be expected. Another way to relieve
anxiety is to make language learning as enjoyable as possible. The use of
zany commands and humorous skits are two ways of showing that
language learning can be fun. Finally, it is important that there not be too
much modeling, but that students not be too rushed either. Feelings of
success and low anxiety facilitate learning.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Just as with the acquisition of the native language, the oral modality is
primary. Culture is the lifestyle of people who speak the language natively.
7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are
emphasized?
Vocabulary and grammatical structures are emphasized over other
language areas. These are embedded within imperatives. The imperatives
are single words and multi-word chunks. One reason for the use of

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 imperatives is their frequency of occurrence in the speech directed at
young children learning their native language. Understanding the spoken
word should precede its production. The spoken language is emphasized
over written language. Students often do not learn to read the commands
they have already learned to perform until after 10 hours of instruction.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
TPR is usually introduced in the students’ native language. After the
introduction, rarely would the native language be used. Meaning is made
clear through body movements.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
Teachers will know immediately whether or not students understand by
observing their students’ actions. Formal evaluations can be conducted
simply by commanding individual students to perform a series of actions.
As students become more advanced, their performance of skits they have
created can become the basis for evaluation.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
It is expected that students will make errors when they first begin
speaking. Teachers should be tolerant of them and only correct major
errors. Even these should be corrected unobtrusively. As students get more
advanced, teachers can ‘fine tune’—correct more minor errors.
(Diane Larsen-Freeman and Marti Anderson, 2011)
TECHNIQUES
1. Prepare
Choose the vocabulary that you'll be teaching. Prepare the tools, objects,
or photographs you'll need to demonstrate how the words work.
2. Teacher Modeling
Say the new vocabulary word for the students. As you do this, use
gestures, facial expressions, props or body movement to illustrate the
meaning of the word.
3. Student Modeling
Have student volunteers mimic the same gestures, facial expressions, use
of props or body movement modeled as you say the word.
4. Student Participation
Have all students mimic the same gestures, facial expressions, use of props
or body movement modeled by the teacher and student volunteers. Ask
them to say the word as they are making the movement. Vary this activity
by then doing the action and while students say the word.
5. Writing
Write the word or phrase where all students can see it so that students can
make the connection between oral and written words.
6. Repetition and Practice
Teach the next word or phrase using the same method. Review and
practice words with students multiple times to ensure learning. Recycle
words regularly to make sure that students do not forget old words.

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 PARCTICES
TPR Circles
Organize the students into a circle around the teacher. The teacher says
the word and the last person to do the action is out. This person then stands
behind the teacher and watches for the student who does the action last.
Eventually there is only one student, he or she is the winner.
TPR Sounds
The teacher will first get the students to do the actions connected with
each vocabulary word. Then, the teacher adds a sound related to the word and
the students practice hearing the word and doing the action along with making
the sound. The students are then ready to give commands to each other.
DEMONSTRATION LESSON PLAN
Teaching Focus
Vocabulary:
 Nouns: sponge, broom, vacuum cleaner, brush, dustcloth, sink, kitchen,
floor, rug, counter, bookshelves, living room
 Verbs: wipe, sweep, vacuum, scrub, dust
 Adverbs: carefully, quickly
Structures:
 Imperative + Object: Wipe the counter, etc.
 Tell someone to Verb + Object: Tell Hassan to scrub the sink, etc.
 Tell someone to stop + Gerund + Object: Tell Hassan to stop scrubbing the
sink, etc.
 While someone is Verb + ing, Imperative + Object:
 While Siti is wiping the counter, scrub the sink, etc.
 Imperative + someone who + Verb: Point to someone who likes to clean
the house, etc.
Objectives
1. Students will be able to understand the vocabulary presented.
2. Students will be able to demonstrate understanding by responding to
single commands and sequences of commands.
3. Students will be able to give commands to their peers and respond to
those commands.
4. Students will have fun during the lesson
Lesson Steps in Sequence
1. The teacher introduces the following items and names them: sponge, dust
cloth, vacuum cleaner, broom, brush.
2. The teacher asks for a volunteer to come to the front. She gives the
command, “Point to the _______.” She and the volunteer point to each
item in turn. Then she gives the commands at an increasingly rapid pace,
while the student points to the items.

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3. The teacher gives individual commands and the whole class points to the
items. She links two, and then three, commands together and the students
point.
4. The teacher demonstrates the cleaning actions.
5. The teacher asks for a volunteer to come to the front. She names the
actions and does them. Then she commands the student to do the actions.
6. The teacher gives the commands to the whole group. The first time she
does the commands together with the students, then she has them do the
commands without her.
7. The teacher strings two commands together with the word then.
8. The teacher commands individual students to tell other individuals to do
one of the cleaning actions.
9. The teacher demonstrates the meaning of quickly and carefully.
10. The teacher commands the students to do one action first quickly, then
carefully.
11. The teacher gives two and three commands at a time. The students
respond to the commands.
12. The teacher works with small groups, giving them two and three
command sequences.
13. The teacher introduces while + present progressive. She commands one
student to do a cleaning action. She commands another student to do a
different cleaning action while the first student is still doing his/her
action.
14. The teacher introduces stop + gerund. She commands a student to tell
another student to stop doing an action.
15. The teacher asks, “Who likes to clean the house?” She says, “Raise your
hands.”
16. The teacher asks, “Who doesn’t like to clean the house?” She says, “Raise
your hands.”
17. The teacher commands the students to point to someone who likes to
clean the house and then to someone who doesn’t like to clean the house.
18. The teacher writes the vocabulary on the board.
19. The teacher asks if the students have any questions.
20. The teacher hands out a sheet with the vocabulary from that day’s lesson.
21. The teacher asks the students to review the vocabulary so that they can
give the commands themselves the next day.
Teaching-Learning Activities
1. What are the notable characteristics of TPR?
2. What is the role of the teacher in applying TPR to teach activities?
3. One of TPR's fundamental concepts is that language acquisition is
increased when student anxiety is minimized. What are the benefits of
this strategy for reducing student anxiety?

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 4. How does the process of assessing student learning activities using TPR
activity?
Tasks/Assignments
 Create a lesson plan with the TPR method. The Lesson plan consist of
Learning Objectives, Activities and Assessment
Reference
Diane Larsen-Freeman and Marti Anderson. (2011). Techniques-Principles-
Language-Teaching (Third Edit). Oxford University Press.
Total Physical Response (TPR) - The Teacher Toolkit. (n.d.). Retrieved March 3,
2022, from https://www.theteachertoolkit.com/index.php/tool/total-
physical-response-tpr

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 Chapter 6
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
MATERIALS
A. Theory
The concept of communicative competence was then developed by Canale
and Swain (1980) who maintained that communicative competence consisted
of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse
competence, and strategic competence. Grammatical competence has to do
with a structured comprehensible utterance which includes grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling. Sociolinguistic competence deals
with how people use cultural codes in appropriate ways, such as saying
greetings in formal or informal ways. While discourse competence refers to
the ability of using cohesion and coherence in different texts, strategic
competence helps learners to improve their communication effectiveness and
cope with language difficulty (as cited in Beale, 2002, p. 12).
In support of the view that the goal of teaching language is to enable
students to communicate in the target language, CLT theory suggests that
language learning is likely to occur when classroom activities are made real and
meaningful to learners. Language theorists repeatedly mention the importance
of language learning to be premised upon genuine communication rather than
merely on learning the grammar of a language. They argue that while
students are well-taught in making grammatical sentences in the classroom,
they are unlikely to be able to use them effectively in the real situations. Thus, in
order to use the language effectively, learners need to develop communicative
competence (Hiep, 2007, pp. 193-194).
“Communicative Approach in language learning is an approach that is
used in learning the second language or foreign language that emphasizes on the
improvement of communicative ability”, that is ”the ability of applying the
language principle in order to produce grammatical sentences and understand
’when, where, and to whom’ the sentences used” (Richard, 1997). Communicative
method focuses on language as a medium of communication. It recognises that
communication has a social purpose – learner which has something to say or find
out.” Communication embraces a whole spectrum of functions and notions”
(Richards, Jack C. & Rogers, Theodore S., 2001).
Michael Canale said that “communicative ability is formed by four
competences: 1) grammatical, 2) sociolinguitic, 3) discourse, and 4) strategy”.
Grammatical competence relates to language system mastery, such as:

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’vocabulary, word formation, and sentence meaning’. Sociolinguistic competence
is a competence to understand and produce accurate
utterance in accordance with the context in which the utterance happen.
Discourse competence relates to the ability in combining the form and the
meaning of a language. Besides to understand the kinds of discourse which is
cohesive and coherence. Strategy competence refers to the ability of overcoming
the obstacles and simultaneously improving
the effectiveness of communication (1983: 6-10).
Communicative approach is much more pupil―orientated, because
dictated by pupil’s needs and interests. Communicative approach seeks to
personalise and localise language and adapt it to interests of pupils.
Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources, more interesting
and motivating. In foreign language classroom authentic texts serves as partial
substitute for community of native speaker. Newspaper and magazine articles,
poems, annuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, new bulletins, discussion
programmes – all can be exploited in variety of ways (Richards, Jack C. & Rogers,
Theodore S., 2001).
Communicative approach was developed in the 1980s as a reaction to
grammar based approaches. It is an approach for second and foreign language
teaching which mainly focuses on developing communicative competence.
This approach emphasizes the use of language for meaningful purposes in
authentic situation. The main principles of communicative approach include:
1) goal of effective communication
2) learning language by using it to communicate
3) focus on meaning and appropriate usage
4) focus both on fluency and accuracy
5) use of authentic materials to reflect real life situation
6) integration of four skills (speaking, writing, reading and listening)
It can be concluded that Communicative Approach is one of the important
approaches to help learners to be able to contact with others in order to talk
fluency and to express about themselves confidently and to present many social
issues in their environment as quick as possible. As what Littlewood said that
”Communicative Approach in the language learning pays attention to the
language structural aspects and its functional aspects”. ”Language structural
aspects focus on language form grammatically, while language functional aspects
relate to the functions of language form itself” (Littlewood, 1988).
B. Principles of CLT
The over-arching principles of communicative language teaching
methodology at this time can be summarized as follows:
1. Make real communication the focus of language learning.

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 2. Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they
know.
3. Be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the learner is building
up his or her communicative competence.
4. Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency.
5. Link the different skills such as speaking, reading, and listening together,
since they usually occur so in the real world.
6. Let students induce or discover grammar rules.
7. Emphasize more on fluency rather than accuracy
8. Students and inductive approach instead of Teacher centered and
deductive approach
9. More pair or group work class activities
10. Push and facilitate authenticity
In applying these principles in the classroom, new classroom
techniques and activities were needed, and as we saw above, new roles for
teachers and learners in the classroom. Instead of making use of activities that
demanded accurate repetition and memorization of sentences and grammatical
patterns, activities that required learners to negotiate meaning and to interact
meaning fully were required. There are ten core assumptions of current
Communicative Language Teaching:
1. Second language learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in
interaction and meaningful communication.
2. Effective classroom learning tasks and exercises provide opportunities for
students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice
how language is used, and take part in meaningful interpersonal exchange.
3. Meaningful communication results from students processing content that
is relevant, purposeful, interesting, and engaging.
4. Communication is a holistic process that often calls upon the use of
several language skills or modalities.
5. Language learning is facilitated both by activities that involve inductive or
discovery learning of underlying rules of language use and organization, as
well as by those involving language analysis and reflection.
6. Language learning is a gradual process that involves creative use of
language, and trial and error. Although errors are a normal product of
learning, the ultimate goal of learning is to be able to use the new
language both accurately and fluently.
7. Learners develop their own routes to language learning, progress at
different rates, and have different needs and motivations for language
learning.

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 8. Successful language learning involves the use of effective learning and
communication strategies.
9. The role of the teacher in the language classroom is that of a facilitator,
who creates a classroom climate conducive to language learning and
provides opportunities for students to use and practice the language and
to reflect on language use and language learning.
10. The classroom is a community where learners learn through collaboration
and sharing.
C. Characteristic of CLT
Approaches to language teaching today seek to capture the rich view of
language and language learning assumed by a communicative view of language.
Jacobs and Farrell (2003) see the shift toward CLT as marking a paradigm shift in
our thinking about teachers, learning, and teaching. They identify key
components of this shift as follows:
1. Focusing greater attention on the role of learners rather than the external
stimuli learners are receiving from their environment. Thus, the center of
attention shifts from the teacher to the student. This shift is generally
known as the move from teacher-centered instruction to learner-centered
instruction.
2. Focusing greater attention on the learning process rather than the
products that learners produce. This shift is known as the move from
product-oriented to process-oriented instruction.
3. Focusing greater attention on the social nature of learning rather than on
students as separate, decontextualized individuals
4. Focusing greater attention on diversity among learners and viewing these
difference not as impediments to learning but as resources to be
recognized, catered to, and appreciated. This shift is known as the study
of individual differences.
5. In research and theory-building, focusing greater attention on the views of
those internal to the classroom rather than solely valuing the views of
those who come from outside to study classrooms, investigate and
evaluate what goes on there, and engage in theorizing about it. This shift
is associated with such innovations as qualitative research, which
highlights the subjective and affective, the participants’ insider views, and
the uniqueness of each context.
6. Along with this emphasis on context comes the idea of connecting the
school with the world beyond as means of promoting holistic learning.
7. Helping students to understand the purpose of learning and develop their
own purpose.

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 8. A whole-to-part orientation instead of a part-to-whole approach. This
involves such approaches as beginning with meaningful whole text and
then helping students understand the various features that enable texts to
function, e.g., the choice of words and the text’s organizational structure.
D. CLT Practice
Another useful distinction that some advocates of CLT proposed was the
distinction between three different kinds of practice – mechanical, meaningful,
and communicative.
Mechanical practice refers to a controlled practice activity which students
can successfully carry out without necessarily understanding the language they
are using. Examples of this kind of activity would be repetition drills and
substitution drills designed to practice use of particular grammatical or other
items.
Meaningful practice refers to an activity where language control is still
provided but where students are required to make meaningful choices when
carrying out practice. For example, in order to practice the use of prepositions to
describe locations of places, students might be given a street map with various
buildings identified in different locations. They are also given a list of
prepositions such as across from, on the corner of, near, on, next to. They then
have to answer questions such as “Where is the book shop? Where is the café?”
etc. The practice is now meaningful because they have to respond according to
the location of places on the map.
Communicative practice refers to activities where practice in using
language within a real communicative context is the focus, where real
information is exchanged, and where the language used is not totally
predictable. For example, students might have to draw a map of their
neighborhood and answer questions about the location of different places, such
as the nearest bus stop, the nearest café, etc.
Current approaches to methodology draw on earlier traditions in
communicative language teaching and continue to make reference to some
extent to traditional approaches. Thus classroom activities typically have some of
the following characteristics:
 They seek to develop students’ communicative competence through linking
grammatical development to the ability to communicate. Hence, grammar is
not taught in isolation but often arises out of a communicative task, thus
creating a need for specific items of grammar. Students might carry out a task
and then reflect on some of the linguistic characteristics of their performance.
 They create the need for communication, interaction, and negotiation of
meaning through the use of activities such as problem solving, information
sharing, and role play.

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 They provide opportunities for both inductive as well as deductive learning of
grammar.
 They make use of content that connects to students’ lives and interests.
 They allow students to personalize learning by applying what they have
learned to their own lives.
 Classroom materials typically make use of authentic texts to create interest
and to provide valid models of language.
E. Activities Types in CLT
Jigsaw activities
These are also based on the information-gap principle. Typically, the class
is divided into groups and each group has part of the information needed to
complete an activity. The class must fit the pieces together to complete the
whole. In so doing, they must use their language resources to communicate
meaningfully and so take part in meaningful communication practice. The
following are examples of jigsaw activities:
The teacher plays a recording in which three people with different
points of view discuss their opinions on a topic of interest. The teacher prepares
three different listening tasks, one focusing on each of the three speaker’s points
of view. Students are divided into three groups and each group listens and takes
notes on one of the three speaker’s opinions. Students are then rearranged into
groups containing a student from groups A, B, and C. They now role-play the
discussion using the information they obtained.
The teacher takes a narrative and divides it into twenty sections (or as
many sections as there are students in the class). Each student gets one section of
the story. Students must then move around the class, and by listening to each
section read aloud, decide where in the story their section belongs. Eventually the
students have to put the entire story together in the correct sequence.

Task-completion activities
puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom tasks in
which the focus is on using one’s language resources to complete a task.

Information-gathering activities
Student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches in which students are
required to use their linguistic resources to collect information.

Opening sharing activities

Activities in which students compare values, opinions, or beliefs, such as a
ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance that they
might consider in choosing a date or spouse.

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 Information-transfer activities
These require learners to take information that is presented in one
form, and represent it in a different form. For example, they may read
instructions on how to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the
sequence, or they may read information about a subject and then represent it as a
graph.
Reasoning-gap activities
These involve deriving some new information from given information
through the process of inference, practical reasoning, etc. For example,
working out a teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class timetables.
Role plays
Activities in which students are assigned roles and improvise a scene or
exchange based on given information or clues.
Five practical tips towards applying the communicative language
teaching method:
1. Have plenty of communicative student-student activities (pair discussions,
role-playing, puzzle-solving, and other collaborative tasks) so that each
student is constantly exposed to the target language.
2. Communicative activities should include a clear situation or context, the
roles of the speakers, and a communicative purpose.
3. Practice different formal and informal interactions through games, role-
play, and problem-solving tasks.
4. Teachers should concentrate on providing a supportive learning
atmosphere and selecting personalized tasks for students in terms of their
individual level, needs, and interests.
5. Use the right tools for creating and assigning speaking-based language
learning activities. Forexample, you can use modern language teaching
software tools that allow recording each students' individual speaking
practices and group work. This also enables important self-evaluation by
allowing students to listen back to their own speech and recordings.
ACTIVITIES
Practice the learning activities using this method for teaching skills in
class
 Divide the class into seven groups: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing,
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pronounciation.
 Each group Design the teaching technique and strategy based on
Communicative Language Teaching method
 Present and practice the ideas in front of the class
Discussion : Give comments and suggestions toward the ideas of strategy and
techniques presented

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 TASKS/ASSIGMENTS
Create Lesson Plan that consist of the Learning Objectives, Material,
Teaching and Learning Activities, and Assessment that implement
communicative language teaching model.
REFERENCES
Ariatna. (2012). Communicative Language Teaching an Evolution in Revolution.
Universitas Negeri Medan
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy (2nd Ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Logman.
Richards, Jack C. (2006). Communicative Language Teaching Today. Cambridge
University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. (1990). Language Teaching Methods. Teachers’
handbook for Video Series. Office of English Language Program Materials
Branch. Washington D.C.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, D. (2011). Techniques & principles in language
teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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 Chapter 7
Ecletic Approach
A. Objectives of the Lesson
Students are able to:
1. Recognize general concept of Ecletic Approach.
2. Determine the Principles of Ecletic Approach.
3. Browse for resources and materials to assist your teaching using Ecletic
Approach.
4. Put the skills and strategies for teaching English using Ecletic Approach.
5. Develop a lesson plan with the Ecletic Approach Approach.
B. Materials
The eclectic approach was born out of the realisation that each of the
individual methods had strengths and weaknesses and that no one method was
responsive to the dynamic classroom context. Thus, based on the shortcoming of
the methods, Brown (2002) argues that eclecticism provides the solution because
the approach allows the teacher to select what works within their own dynamic
contexts. Gilliland, James and Bowman (1994) stated that the justification for the
eclectic approach lies in the weaknesses of the single approach because a single
method has a narrow theoretical basis and has a delimited set of activities and is
therefore inflexible.
The eclectic technique, according to Kumar (2013:1), "is a blend of diverse
methods of teaching and learning approaches." It may also be characterized as
principled eclecticism, which implies that the approach to language instruction is
typically desirable, coherent, and pluralistic. It also entails the employment of a
number of language learning activities, all of which are unique and may be driven
by a variety of underlying ideas about language education (Al Hamash 1985;
Larsen Freeman 2000; Mellow 2000, 2002).
Features of Eclectic Approach
It's essential to note that the eclectic method isn't a set of rules, therefore
its qualities may not be limited. However, every effort has been taken to include
as many of its major components as possible.
Ali (1981:7) lists the following principles of eclecticisms:
a. In each class session, teachers are given the option of using a variety of
instructional strategies to achieve the lesson's objectives.
b. Teachers have the freedom to choose any component or approach that
they believe is appropriate for teaching in the classroom.

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 c. Learners can observe a variety of teaching styles, as well as the use of
various teaching aids, that assist to make lessons more engaging and
assure a better understanding of the topic.
d. Resolving issues that may arise as a result of the textbook contents'
presentation.
e. Finally, it reduces the amount of time and effort required to present
english tasks.
Advantages of Eclectic Approach
a. It is simpler for students to comprehend the text's language when it is
placed in its cultural context.
b. It combines the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
c. Helps teachers educate more successfully by combining the strengths of
several teaching approaches while avoiding their limitations.
d. Due to the obvious employment of realistic situations in the classroom,
learning is simple.
LIMITATIONS OF ECLECTIC APPROACH
a. It prevents instructors from rethinking their professional methods. In a
summary, it makes them less likely to reflect on their instruction. They've
made up their minds; they'll use whatever works, produces results, and is
free of ideological excesses.
Adopting an eclectic approach might be risky since it can lead to a teacher
succumbing to the methodological baggage that comes with it.
b. Mixing a variety of tactics and approaches may result in a more diverse
teaching arsenal, but it may also lead to plenty of problems.
c. When new methods and techniques are offered, teachers sometimes forget
about the reason behind the approaches in their eagerness to incorporate
them into their existing teaching practices.
d. When an innovative approach is employed only occasionally and blended
in with other (perhaps contradicting) techniques, its impact is reduced.
C. Teaching-Learning Activities
1. What are the notable characteristics of Ecletic Approach?
2. What are the features of applying Ecletic Approach to teach activities?
3. What are the benefits and limitations of employing Ecletic Approach?
D. Tasks/Assignments
Create a lesson plan with the Ecletic Approach. The Lesson plan consist of
Learning Objectives, Activities and Assessment (Mwanza, 2017)
E. Reference
Ali, A.M. (1981). Teaching English to Arab Students. Jordan: Al-Falah
House.
Brown, H.D. (2002). English Language Teaching in the Post-Method‘ Era:
Toward better Diagnosis, Treatment, and Assessment. In J. Richards and W.

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Renandya (eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current
Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 9-18.
Gilliland, B. E., James, R. K., & Bowman, J. T (1994). Response to the
Lazarus and Beutler‘s Article ―On Technical Eclecticism.‖ Journal of Counseling
and Development, 72, 554-555
Kumar, C.P. (2013). The Eclectic Method: Theory and Its Application to the
Learning of English. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications,
3(6).ISSN 2250-3553
Mwanza, D. S. (2017). The Eclectic Approach to Language Teaching: Its
Conceptialisation and Misconceptions. International Journal of Humanities,
Social Sciences and Education, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0381.0402006

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 Chapter 8
Cooperative Learning
MATERIALS
Theory of Cooperative Learning
The main idea behind cooperative learning is to teach the students to be a
functional part of a group so that they have grouped responsibilities as well as
individual responsibilities. This type of learning not only increases the study
skills of a student but also develops the communication skills. In order to
understand deeply the cooperative learning, one must explore the main theories
of this type of learning.
In the first model given by Johnson & Johnson, there are five advantages
given of cooperative learning. It starts from reflection and planning, small group
or interpersonal learning skills, individual responsibility, simultaneous
interaction and to the last positive interdependence. These five can also be
regarded as the basic five principles of cooperative learning. The main idea
behind this model was to understand that the students need to learn together in
a non-competitive atmosphere. Johnson & Johnson model is more conventional
to the models of other theorists and therefore, is more approachable by the
teachers.
The second model of Robert Slavin (1980) is more based on the providing
needs of individual students. His theory was also based on five principles much
like that of Johnson & Johnson. Those five principles were, team recognition,
individual improvement scores, quizzes, teams, and class representation. Robert
Slavin was also the person to develop STAD (Student Teams and Achievement
Division). His model was discredited apart from it being on a good basis but
because of his lack of experience in the needs of today.
The third model which I am going to mention here is that of Spencer
Kagan (1985). His model mainly advocated two basic principles. His first
principle stated that the world is very much competitive while in some respects
not that much. For two, he did not support the idea of the only use of cooperative
learning methods. He wanted to have a learning method which had a balance
between individualistic, competitive, and cooperative classroom organization,
which is used to prepare the students for complete sort of social skills.
Cooperative learning is really important as it binds the communication skills with
social skills, which are in need to be developed by every student. However, since
every theorist has a different approach towards cooperative learning it depends

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on the teacher's style to determine, which approach he or she would use for
teaching.
Principles/Characteristic of Cooperative Learning
Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which
students team together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful
project. A group of students discussing a lecture or students from different
schools working together over the Internet on a shared assignment are both
examples of collaborative learning.
Cooperative learning, which will be the primary focus of this workshop, is a
specific kind of collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, students work
together in small groups on a structured activity. They are individually
accountable for their work, and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed.
Cooperative groups work face-to-face and learn to work as a team.
In small groups, students can share strengths and also develop their
weaker skills. They develop their interpersonal skills. They learn to deal with
conflict. When cooperative groups are guided by clear objectives, students
engage in numerous activities that improve their understanding of subjects
explored. In order to create an environment in which cooperative learning can
take place, three things are necessary. First, students need to feel safe, but also
challenged. Second, groups need to be small enough that everyone can
contribute. Third, the task students work together on must be clearly defined.
The cooperative and collaborative learning techniques presented here should
help make this possible for teachers. Also, in cooperative learning small groups
provide a place with these following characteristics:
1. Learners actively participate;
2. Teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
3. Respect is given to every member;
4. Projects and questions interest and challenge students;
5. Diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
6. Students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
7. Members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
8. Goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
9. Research tools such as internet access are made available;
10. Students are invested in their own learning.
Dr. Spencer Kagan proposed his model about cooperative learning in 1985
in his book 'Cooperative Learning Structures'. In his model, he mainly advocated
two basic principles. He first stated that the world is pretty much competitive
while in some fields it isn't that much. However, you have to be fully equipped
with knowledge in the fields you are going to face. Coming to the second

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principle, he wanted to have a learning method which was a mixture between
competitive and individualistic, with cooperative classroom organization so that
it could help in preparing the students for complete sort of social situations.
Cooperative Learning is a teaching arrangement that refers to small,
heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common goal
(Kagan, 1994). Students work together to learn and are responsible for their
teammates' learning as well as their own. The basic elements are:
1. Positive Interdependence - occurs when gains of individuals or teams are
positively correlated.
2. Individual Accountability - occurs when all students in a group are held
accountable for doing a share of the work and for mastery of the material
to be learned.
3. Equal Participation - occurs when each member of the group is afforded
equal shares of responsibility and input.
4. Simultaneous Interaction - occurs when class time is designed to allow
many student interactions during the period.
According to Anita, Lie (2002: 51) that "in cooperative learning there
are five principles adopted, namely :
1. Active Student Learning
The learning process by using student-centered cooperative learning
models, learning activities more dominantly carried out students, knowledge
that is built and found is by learning together with group members until each
student understands the learning material and ends by making group and
individual reports. group activities very clearly the activities of students by
working together, conducting discussions, expressing the ideas of each member
and testing them together, students dig up all information related to the
topics that are subject to group study and also discuss with other groups.
2. Cooperate Learning
The learning process is passed through working together in groups to
build on the knowledge being learned. It is this learning principle that
underlies the successful application of the cooperative learning model. All
students are actively involved in groups to conduct discussions and solve
problems, so new knowledge is formed from the results of their collaboration. It
is believed that the knowledge gained through the findings of this collaboration
will be of more permanent value in each student's understanding.
3. Participatory Learning
Through participatory learning students learn by doing something
(learning by doing) together to find and build knowledge that is the purpose of
learning. For example when groups solve problems in study groups, they do tests,
try to prove from the theories being discussed together, then discuss with other

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study groups. During the discussion, each group presented the results of group
work and each group was given the opportunity to express their opinions and
criticize the opinions of other groups.
4. Reactive Teaching
To apply this cooperative learning model, the teacher needs to create
the right strategy so that all students have high motivation to learn.
Student motivation can be aroused if the teacher is able to create a learning
atmosphere that is fun and interesting and can convince students of the benefits
of this lesson for their future. If the teacher knows that the student feels bored,
the teacher must immediately find a way to anticipate it.
5. Enjoyable Learning
One characteristic of learning that is widely embraced in the renewal
of learning today is fun learning. Learning must run in a pleasant
atmosphere, there is no longer a scary atmosphere for students or a
stressed learning atmosphere. A pleasant learning atmosphere must start with
the attitude and behavior of the teacher outside and inside the classroom.
Teachers must have a friendly attitude with language speech that loves
their students. The steps of the cooperative learning model will not be effective if
the learning atmosphere is not pleasant.
Not all groups are cooperative (Johnson & F. Johnson, 2009). Placing
people in the same room, seating them together, telling them they are a group,
does not mean they will cooperate effectively. To be cooperative, to reach the full
potential of the group, five essential elements need to be carefully structured into
the situation: positive interdependence, individual and group accountability,
promotive interaction, appropriate use of social skills, and group processing
(Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). Mastering the basic elements of cooperation
allows teachers to:
1. Take existing lessons, curricula, and courses and structure them
cooperatively
2. Tailor cooperative learning lessons to unique instructional needs,
circumstances, curricula, subject areas, and students.
3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working together and
intervene to increase the effectiveness of the student learning groups.
There are five basic elements found in the structure of cooperative
learning, stated by David Johnson and Roger Johnson as follows:
1. Positive interdependence; group failure and success are the responsibility
of each group member, therefore fellow group members must feel bound
and dependent on each other positively. Teachers must give a clear task
and a group goal so students believe they “sink or swim together.” Positive
interdependence exists when group members perceive that they are linked

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 with each other in a way that one cannot succeed unless everyone
succeeds. If one fails, all fail. Group members realize, therefore, that each
person’s efforts benefit not only him- or herself, but all other group
members as well. Positive interdependence creates a commitment to
other people’s success as well as one’s own and is the heart of cooperative
learning. If there is no positive interdependence, there is no cooperation.
2. Individual and group accountability; each group member is responsible for
mastering subject matter, because the success of group learning is
determined by how much individual learning outcomes contribute. The
group must be accountable for achieving its goals. Each member must be
accountable for contributing his or her share of the work (which ensures
that no one “hitch-hikes” on the work of others). The group has to be
clear about its goals and be able to measure (a) its progress in achieving
them and (b) the individual efforts of each of its members. Individual
accountability exists when the performance of each individual student is
assessed and the results are given back to the group and the individual in
order to ascertain who needs more assistance, support, and
encouragement in completing the assignment. The purpose of cooperative
learning groups is to make each member a stronger individual in his or her
right. Students learn together so that they can subsequently perform
higher as individuals.
3. Face-to-face interactions; that occur through discussion will benefit all
group members, because they take advantage of the strengths and fill the
weaknesses of each group member. A promotive interaction occurs when
members share resources and help, support, encourage, and praise each
other’s efforts to learn. Cooperative learning groups are both an academic
support system (every student has someone who is committed to helping
him or her learn) and a personal support system (every student has
someone who is committed to him or her as a person). There are
important cognitive activities and interpersonal dynamics that can only
occur when students promote each other’s learning. This includes orally
explaining how to solve problems, discussing the nature of the concepts
being learned, teaching one’s knowledge to classmates, and connecting
present with past learning. It is through promoting each other’s learning
face-to-face that members become personally committed to each other as
well as to their mutual goals.
4. Collaborative skills; the communication between members because in
every face-to-face discussion occurs, the communication skills between
group members is very important. The fourth essential element of
cooperative learning is teaching students the required interpersonal and

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 small group skills. In cooperative learning groups students are required to
learn academic subject matter (taskwork) and also to learn the
interpersonal and small group skills required to function as part of a group
(teamwork). Cooperative learning is inherently more complex than
competitive or individualistic learning because students have to engage
simultaneously in taskwork and teamwork. Group members must know
how to provide effective leadership, decision-making, trust-building,
communication, and conflict-management, and be motivated to use the
prerequisite skills. Teachers have to teach teamwork skills just as
purposefully and precisely as teachers do academic skills. Since
cooperation and conflict are inherently related, the procedures and skills
for managing conflicts constructively are especially important for the long-
term success of learning groups. Procedures and strategies for teaching
students social skills may be found in Johnson (2009) and Johnson and F.
Johnson (2009).
5. Group Processing; evaluation of group processes. The success of learning
in groups is found by the process of group work. To find out the success
of group work processes is done through evaluation of group processes.
Group processing is the fifth essential component of cooperative
learning. Group processing exists when group members discuss how well
they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective working
relationships. Groups need to describe what member actions are helpful
and unhelpful and make decisions about what behaviors to continue or
change. Continuous improvement of the process of learning results from
the careful analysis of how members are working together.
These five elements are essential to all cooperative systems, no matter
what their size. When international agreements are made and when
international efforts to achieve mutual goals (such as environmental protection)
occur, these five elements must be carefully implemented and maintained.
Types Of Cooperative Learning
There are thre types of cooperative learning: formal cooperative Learning;
informal cooperative learning; and cooperative based group. These three types of
cooperative learning may be used together integrated (Johnson, Johnson, &
Holubec, 2008). The best type of group depends on the purpose and context of
the cooperative learning. Group types range from short and informal to formal
and long-lasting. A typical class session may begin with a base group meeting,
which is followed by a short lecture in which informal cooperative learning is
used. The lecture is followed by a formal cooperative learning lesson. Near the
end of the class session another short lecture may be delivered with the use of
informal cooperative learning. The class ends with a base group meeting.

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 Type 1: Formal Cooperative Learning
Formal cooperative learning groups are commonly used when groups will
work together for one class period or longer. Formal cooperative learning groups
are commonly used in group projects that last one or more weeks. This structure
and scale enable group members to learn content and build collaborative skills.
Formal cooperative learning consists of students working together, for one class
period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals and complete jointly
specific tasks and assignments (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). In formal
cooperative learning groups the teachers’ role includes:
1. Making preinstructional decisions.
Teachers (a) formulate both academic and social skills objectives, (b) decide on
the size of groups, (c) choose a method for assigning students to groups, (d)
decide which roles to assign group members, (e) arrange the room, and (f)
arrange the materials students need to complete the assignment. In these
preinstructional decisions, the social skills objectives specify the interpersonal
and small group skills students are to learn. By assigning students roles, role
interdependence is established. The way in which materials are distributed can
create resource interdependence. The arrangement of the room can create
environmental interdependence and provide the teacher with easy access to
observe each group, which increases individual accountability and provides data
for group processing.
2. Explaining the instructional task and cooperative structure.
Teachers (a) explain the academic assignment to students, (b) explain the criteria
for success, (c) structure positive interdependence, (d) structure individual
accountability, (e) explain the behaviors (i.e., social skills) students are expected
to use, and (f) emphasize intergroup cooperation (this eliminates the possibility
of competition among students and extends positive goal interdependence to the
class as a whole). Teachers may also teach the concepts and strategies required
to complete the assignment. By explaining the social skills emphasized in the
lesson, teachers operationalize (a) the social skill objectives of the lesson and (b)
the interaction patterns (such as oral rehearsal and jointly building conceptual
frameworks) teachers wish to create.
3. Monitoring
Monitoring students’ learning and intervening to provide assistance in (a)
completing the task successfully or (b) using the targeted interpersonal and
group skills effectively.
While conducting the lesson, teachers monitor each learning group and
intervene when needed to improve taskwork and teamwork. Monitoring the
learning groups creates individual accountability; whenever a teacher observes a

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group, members tend to feel accountable to be constructive members. In
addition, teachers collect specific data on promotive interaction, the use of
targeted social skills, and the engagement in the desired interaction
patterns. This data is used to intervene in groups and to guide group processing.
4. Assessing
Assessing students’ learning and helping students process how well their groups
functioned.
Teachers (a) bring closure to the lesson, (b) assess and evaluate the quality and
quantity of student achievement, (c) ensure students carefully discuss how
effectively they worked together (i.e., process the effectiveness of their learning
groups), (d) have students make a plan for improvement, and (e) have students
celebrate the hard work of group members. The assessment of student
achievement highlights individual and group accountability (i.e., how well each
student performed) and indicates whether the group achieved its goals (i.e.,
focusing on positive goal interdependence). The group celebration is a form of
reward interdependence. The feedback received during group processing is
aimed at improving the use of social skills and is a form of individual
accountability. Discussing the processes the group used to function,
furthermore, emphasizes the continuous improvement of promotive interaction
and the patterns of interaction need to maximize student learning and retention.
Type 2: Informal Cooperative Learning
Informal cooperative learning groups can be arranged on the spot to break
up direct teaching or lecturing. For example, a long lecture can be broken into
several short segments, each followed by a period of cooperative group learning.
This can help students retain new information and become acclimated to
working with group members. Informal cooperative learning consists of having
students work together to achieve a joint learning goal in temporary, ad-hoc
groups that last from a few minutes to one class period (Johnson, Johnson, &
Holubec, 2008).
During a lecture, demonstration, or film, informal cooperative learning
can be used to focus student attention on the material to be learned, set a mood
conducive to learning, help set expectations as to what will be covered in a class
session, ensure that students cognitively process and rehearse the material being
taught, summarize what was learned and precue the next session, and provide
closure to an instructional session.
The teacher’s role for using informal cooperative learning to keep students
more actively engaged intellectually entails having focused discussions before
and after the lesson (i.e., bookends) and interspersing pair discussions
throughout the lesson. Two important aspects of using informal cooperative
learning groups are to (a) make the task and the instructions explicit and precise

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and (b) require the groups to produce a specific product (such as a written
answer). The procedure is as follows.
1. Introductory Focused Discussion:
Teachers assign students to pairs or triads and explain (a) the task of
answering the questions in a four to five minute time period and (b) the positive
goal interdependence of reaching consensus. The discussion task is aimed at
promoting advance organizing of what the students know about the topic to be
presented and establishing expectations about what the lecture will
cover. Individual accountability is ensured by the small size of the group. A
basic interaction pattern of eliciting oral rehearsal, higher-level reasoning, and
consensus building is required.
2. Intermittent Focused Discussions:
Teachers divide the lecture into 10 to 15 minute segments. This is about
the length of time a motivated adult can concentrate on information being
presented. After each segment, students are asked to turn to the person next to
them and work cooperatively in answering a question (specific enough so that
students can answer it in about three minutes) that requires students to
cognitively process the material just presented. The procedure is:
a. Each student formulates his or her answer.
b. Students share their answer with their partner.
c. Students listen carefully to their partner’s answer.
d. The pairs create a new answer that is superior to each member’s initial
formulation by integrating the two answers, building on each other’s
thoughts, and synthesizing.
The question may require students to:
a. Summarize the material just presented.
b. Give a reaction to the theory, concepts, or information presented.
c. Predict what is going to be presented next; hypothesize.
d. Solve a problem.
e. Relate material to past learning and integrate it into conceptual
frameworks.
f. Resolve conceptual conflict created by presentation.
Teachers should ensure that students are seeking to reach an agreement
on the answers to the questions (i.e., ensure positive goal interdependence is
established), not just share their ideas with each other. Randomly choose two or
three students to give 30 second summaries of their discussions. Such individual
accountabilityensures that the pairs take the tasks seriously and check each other
to ensure that both are prepared to answer. Periodically, the teacher should
structure a discussion of how effectively the pairs are working together (i.e.,
group processing). Group celebrations add reward interdependence to the pairs.

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 3. Closure Focused Discussion:
Teachers give students an ending discussion task lasting four to five
minutes. The task requires students to summarize what they have learned from
the lecture and integrate it into existing conceptual frameworks. The task may
also point students toward what the homework will cover or what will be
presented in the next class session. This provides closure to the lecture.
Informal cooperative learning ensures students are actively involved in
understanding what is being presented. It also provides time for teachers to
move around the class listening to what students are saying. Listening to student
discussions can give instructors direction and insight into how well students
understand the concepts and material being as well as increase the individual
accountability of participating in the discussions.
Tyoe 3: Cooperative Base Groups
Cooperative base groups last at least one year. They are especially useful
for helping members support each other in both academic and other pursuits, as
members hold each other accountable for following through on commitments
and making progress on goals. Cooperative base groups are long-term,
heterogeneous cooperative learning groups with stable membership (Johnson,
Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). The group member’s primary responsibilities are to:
a. ensure all members are making good academic progress (i.e., positive goal
interdependence)
b. hold each other accountable for striving to learn (i.e., individual
accountability), and
c. provide each other with support, encouragement, and assistance in
completing assignments (i.e., promotive interaction). In order to ensure the
base groups function effectively, periodically teachers should teach needed
social skills and have the groups process how effectively they are functioning.
Typically, cooperative base groups are heterogeneous in membership
(especially in terms of achievement motivation and task orientation), meet
regularly (for example, daily or biweekly), and last for the duration of the class (a
semester or year) or preferably for several years. The agenda of the base group
can include academic support tasks (such as ensuring all members have
completed their homework and understand it or editing each other’s essays),
personal support tasks (such as getting to know each other and helping each
other solve non-academic problems), routine tasks (such as taking attendance),
and assessment tasks (such as checking each other’s understanding of the
answers to test questions when the test is first taken individually and then
retaken in the base group). The teacher’s role in using cooperative base groups
are:
a. form heterogeneous groups of four (or three),

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 b. schedule a time when they will regularly meet (such as beginning and end
of each class session or the beginning and end of each week),
c. create specific agendas with concrete tasks that provide a routine for base
groups to follow when they meet,
d. ensure the five basic elements of effective cooperative groups are
implemented, and
e. have students periodically process the effectiveness of their base groups.
The longer a cooperative group exists, the more caring their relationships
will tend to be, the greater the social support they will provide for each other, the
more committed they will be to each other’s success, and the more influence
members will have over each other. Permanent cooperative base groups provide
the arena in which caring and committed relationships can be created that
provide the social support needed to improve attendance, personalize the
educational experience, increase achievement, and improve the quality of school
life.
Cooperative Teaching Strategies
Techniques can be related to one or more common categories: discussion,
reciprocal teaching, graphic organizers, writing, and problem solving. Within
these groups, common cooperative learning methods include: Think Pair Share,
Reciprocal Questioning, Jigsaw, Scripted Cooperation, Group/Cooperative
Investigation, and Mastery Designs. There are also some classic cooperative
learning strategies such as: Rally Robin, Timed pair Share, Round Robin, Rally
Coach, Stand up, hand up, pair up, and etc.
According to Slavin (1995) there are seven types of cooperative
learning models, namely:
1. Students Teams-Achievement Division (STAD) Model
2. Model Teams Games Tournaments (TGT)
3. Team Assisted Individualization (TAI) Model
4. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC) Model
5. Model Group Investigation (GI)
6. JIGSAW Model
7. CO-OPCO-OP Model
According to Kagan, there are several structural activites that use in
cooperative learning method.
1. Timed pair share
Students pair off, then number off, 1-2. The teacher chooses a number, 1 or
2, to speak first. That student speaks about a specified topic for a specified length
of time. The other student listens quietly and can nod or smile, but cannot speak
or interrupt the speaker. After the allotted time has elapsed, the other student
speaks for the same period of time on the same, or another, stipulated topic, with

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her or his partner in the listener role. After both partners have had equal
opportunity to speak, the teacher randomly chooses a number of students, and
asks them to summarize what their partners have said. (In a small class, all
students could perhaps report.)
This structure encourages self-expression and idea exchange by having
students "share the floor" equally. Listening is encouraged by students' need to
summarize their partner's contribution after the exchange is complete (students
cannot accomplish this step without listening). If the teacher does not wish to
call on all students to report what has been said, randomly choosing a few
students encourages all students to be ready to do so. Students do not know in
advance whether or not they will be chosen to report, so they prepare in the
event they will be chosen. In my own courses which typically have a large number
of students, I use small name cards prepared by the students in order to
randomly select students to report either orally, addressing the whole class, or in
writing, for example, by students using the blackboard.
2. Folded value line
A problem, or issue, is raised (e.g., U.S. policy towards Iraq; capital
punishment; building shelters for the homeless). The teacher elicits which
students are strongly supportive of, or against, the issue or idea via a show of
hands. Students who feel strongly for or against the issue stand at either end (the
"poles") of the Value Line, where one end of the line represents strong support for
an issue/concept, and the other represents its opposite. The rest of the class
physically position themselves along the line at the point reflecting their own
opinion. Thus, those who feel squarely in the middle of an issue stand at the
middle, while those who feel rather strongly in agreement with either "pole"
stand near that end of the line.
For students to first think about and articulate views with others holding
similar views, students can pair off with persons standing next to them in the
line. In pairs, they can exchange opinions and explain rationales for their
viewpoints. This can also be done in groups
of three or four. It can also be practiced first in pairs, followed by two pairs
joining to create a group of four, participating in an idea exchange which includes
reiteration of points made during the first pair exchange. Summarizing earlier
conversations gives students additional language practice (in language courses)
and/or helps students find out what was heard/understood/remembered.
Subsequently, for students to listen to views different from their own, the
line can be divided in half. The two halves can then be lined up as two parallel
lines of students facing each other. To illustrate, if you have 24 students in a class
standing in a single line, with person 1 strongly supporting the issue/statement,
and person 24 being strongly against it, the line would initially look like this:

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
The teacher can then ask students to divide the line between persons 12 and 13.
Person 13 leads the second half of the line over to person 1. The second half of the
line then thus pairs off with the first half like this:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Students can now exchange opinions easily with the person standing
across from them. The lines can be repeatedly divided and refolded to regroup
students, who then repeat their idea exchanges, to allow further airing of diverse
views. It is also possible to combine this structure with ones like the Timed Pair
Share, in which student exchanges are structured for equal participation via time
limits and rotating speaking order. A final step can be for randomly selected
students to orally summarize to the class the views they heard, or for students to
write a paper for homework that describes the breadth of opinions they heard,
complete with supporting and opposing arguments that were given.
Students could also be instructed to write/speak from the point of view of
an opinion they heard which is opposite, or very unlike, their own opinion, rather
than their own, to encourage perspective-taking. This structure can be used to
encourage self-expression, listening, paraphrasing, turn taking, and trying to
understand and appreciate various viewpoints. Listening to, and then evaluating,
various viewpoints boosts critical thinking skills as students consider an issue
from various angles. Students can be asked to note, for example, the strong
points of each diverse view, or to come up with a composite view incorporating
what they believe to be valuable in all viewpoints.
3. Corners
As with the previous structure, Corners can be used to have students
express, and listen to, various opinions on a topic, honing listening, critical
thinking, and self-expression skills. The teacher can make each corner of the
classroom represent a stipulated view. For example, three possible corners could
constitute For, Against, and Undecided relative to a topic. Students move to the
corner that represents their viewpoint. Next, students discuss their opinions, or
respond to a comment, within their corners. This could first be done in pairs, and
later with pairs joining other pairs to make groups of 4, or with subsequent
changes of partners to form new pairs.
Students can begin by summarizing their earlier conversation to their new
partner(s). Summarizing or repeating ascertains whether the listener listened and
understood, and helps validate the ideas of former speakers. The views of all
members in one corner can be aired for the benefit of the entire corner after ideas
have initially been exchanged in smaller groups. For example, students stand in a
circle in the corner, and each person summarizes what the person on their left

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said. Asking students to summarize what another person said encourages them
to listen to others, since if they haven't listened, they will not be able to complete
this task.
After students have finished their in-corner discussions, they can rotate
around to other corners in order to share their corner's viewpoints. One way to
do this is for the teacher to randomly select two representatives from each corner
to go to another corner and summarize their corner's viewpoint. They can rotate
to all other corners, making their presentation to each new corner; these
presentations can be performed within specified time limits to give all
representatives an equal chance to speak. The final step could include randomly
choosing students, other than rotating representatives, to report to the class on
what was expressed, heard, or learned.
4. Team statements; Blackboard share
Students first think about a stipulated topic alone, such as What can we do
to rectify economic disparities?, or What can we do to alleviate gender based job
discrimination?. After students have had time to think; and perhaps take notes if
they wish; they share their ideas in pairs or small groups. Next, students again
work alone and devise one statement that reflects their view. Students then
alternate presenting their individual statements to each other, allowing other
students in their group to ask for clarification, or further information.
The team then creates a Team Statement that represents an opinion
everyone in the group agrees with relative to the topic. After this, (some or all,
depending on class size) groups in the class share their team statements orally, or
in writing, with the rest of the class. One simultaneous method of reporting,
called Blackboard Share, is a structure that can be used at this stage. Blackboard
Share requires the teacher to section off portions of the blackboard equally for
groups to use. After groups write their Team Statements on the board, these can
be viewed/discussed by the entire class. If not all teams share (such as in very
large classes), one technique is for the teacher to randomly choose only some
teams to share. Since no team knows in advance which teams will share, all
prepare in the event they are called on to share.
Team Statements is designed to give students practice in self-expression,
consolidating views, and reaching a consensus despite differing opinions.
Blackboard Share can be used to have students simultaneously summarize any
individual or team view or result in writing for the whole class.
5. Draw a gambit
A "gambit" is a sentence or expression that can be used orally during a
face-to-face interaction. "Draw a gambit" can be used to help students learn and
practice social skills (in a native or foreign language). In a foreign or second
language course, expressions socially acceptable in the target culture could be the

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focus of instruction. Students, or the teacher, can create expressions to be used
in interactions focusing on a specific skill, such as showing interest in what is
being said, disagreeing politely, or praising the speaker. These expressions are
then written down on strips of paper by students (for example, after being copied
off the blackboard), and placed in a deck or pile. Students, in pairs, or groups,
then have a conversation.
While listening, listeners draw expressions from the deck and use them
during the interaction in ways they think are appropriate. Teachersor peers can
monitor this as desired; for example, through real time observation followed by
commentary, or responding after listening to or watching audio- or video-taped
exchanges. This structure helps students practice socially acceptable language.
The goal is to help create a positive ethic in the class by having students practice
skills such as praising (being verbally supportive), or disagreeing politely
(avoiding threatening or non-peaceful manners of communication), etc. This
instruction can be combined with teaching socially acceptable body language, for
example, modeled by the teacher, practiced in groups, and monitored by other
learners and the teacher.
6. Paraphrase passport; Rally robin
Paraphrase Passport requires students engaging in a group discussion to
paraphrase what others have said. Before a student can go on to offer their own
opinion or input, they must paraphrase what was last said. The person whose
statement was paraphrased indicates whether the speaker has correctly captured
their meaning. Once the speaker is satisfied that she or he has been accurately
paraphrased, the discussion continues with the next speaker's comments. Thus,
each person taking a conversational turn must paraphrase the prior speaker's
comments before giving their own ideas. This structure aims to give all speakers
in the group a chance to be heard and feel understood. It is also a useful device
for checking comprehension in a language class. It can be combined with other
structures such as Rally Robin. Rally Robin is a structure requiring students to
alternate speaking in a set order. It is used so that all students take turns
speaking, so that everyone will receive an equal chance to participate.
7. Jigsaw in 10 easy steps
The jigsaw classroom is very simple to use. If you’re a teacher, just follow
these steps:
1. Step one: Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups. The groups
should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and ability.
2. Step two: Appoint one student from each group as the leader. Initially, this
person should be the most mature student in the group.
3. Step three: Divide the day’s lesson into 5-6 segments. For example, if you
want history students to learn about Eleanor Roosevelt, you might divide a

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 short biography of her into stand-alone segments on: (1) Her childhood,
(2) Her family life with Franklin and their children, (3) Her life after
Franklin contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White House as First Lady,
and (5) Her life and work after Franklin's death.
4. Step four: Assign each student to learn one segment. Make sure students
have direct access only to their own segment.
5. Step five: Give students time to read over their segment at least twice and
become familiar with it. There is no need for them to memorize it.
6. Step six: Form temporary “expert groups” by having one student from each
jigsaw group join other students assigned to the same segment. Give
students in these expert groups time to discuss the main points of their
segment and to rehearse the presentations they will make to their jigsaw
group.
7. Step seven: Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.
8. Step eight: Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group.
Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.
9. Step nine: Float from group to group, observing the process. If any group
is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an
appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to
handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on
how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.
10. Step ten: At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material. Students
quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but
really count.
Compared with traditional teaching methods, The jigsaw classroom has
several advantages like; Most teachers find jigsaw easy to learn, most teachers
enjoy working with it, it can be used with other teaching strategies, it works even
if only used for an hour per day, it is free for the taking.
Teacher Tips for Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a method where teachers place students in small
teams with students of different learning levels. The object is for the higher-level
students to help lower-level students improve their understanding of concepts
being taught. In essence, each member is responsible for learning, as well as
helping teammates learn, too. Students are to keep practicing concepts until the
entire team understands and completes the assignment given. Here are some tips
for utilizing cooperative learning in your classroom.
1. Playing teacher. Divide students into even groups of five or less. Give
each student in a group a unique concept to learn. Then bring the group
back together and let students teach each other what they have learned.
Make sure that the entire group is learning about the same subject, just a

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 different aspect of the subject. Test each group when the teaching session
is completed within each group.
2. The Interview. Divide students into groups with an even number of
students in each group. Each member of a group chooses a partner. Have
individuals interview their partner by asking them clarifying questions.
Now let the partners switch roles. Lastly, let members of the entire group
share their responses as a team.
3. Catch a brainstorm. Divide students into teams of 4 to 6, and appoint
one student on each team to be the "secretary." Give each team a different
question that can have many answers. Now give each team a chance to
brainstorm answers to the question, with the "secretary" writing down the
team's responses. Have the students work in a circle, each taking turns to
give a response, instead of having all of the students shout out answers to
the "secretary" at once.
4. Number Frenzy. Divide students in groups of four. Label each student in
a group as number 1, 2, 3, or 4. Ask the groups a common question. The
group then works together to come up with the correct answer. Now you
call out a number (between 1 and 4), and the person in a group that is
assigned that number is to give you the answer to the question.
5. Group Grading. After taking a test, divide your students into groups with
an even number of people in each group. Let students trade their test
papers, so they will be grading each other. Now give each group a few
minutes to discuss the answers that group members got wrong, so that
those members can see why their answer was wrong and what the correct
answer should have been. Wrap up the groups and answer any dangling
questions not addressed in the individual groups.
6. The great debate. Cooperative learning can be used in any situation
where you want children to debate over a concept being taught. For
instance, when learning about the elections process, you can divide
students into groups and have them hold a debate over what they would
change about the elections process, what is working and not working with
the current process, etc.
7. Listing activity. Divide students into groups of five or less. Ask each
group to list words and/or phrases that describe what they are being
taught, i.e., farm animals that are most useful. Be sure that every response
is written down that each individual gives. Have each group discuss their
list and then come up with the words and/or phrases the entire group
agrees on. Later each group can get up before the class and discuss why
they chose the responses they did.

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 8. The One Minute Game. Divide the class into teams of five or less. Have
each group contemplate answers to these questions, giving them one
minute to answer them:
What was the main thing you learned today?
Tell me two questions that you have remaining about this lesson.
What else would you like to know about this topic?
This is a great cooperative learning activity that helps students give you
feedback about the lessons they learned.
9. Assigning group roles. Consider assigning each member of a group a
role, so each member feels they are contributing to the group in a positive
way. Roles could consist of:
Leader - The individual that makes sure everyone in the group has
mastered the concepts being learned through the exercises.
Secretary - The person who records responses for the entire group.
Reporter - The person that speaks for the group when standing in front of
the class.
Monitor - The person who keeps time for the group with timed
assignments.
Manager - The person who fills in for any member of the group who is
absent, and assists the leader of the group.
Roles can be switched within a group from time-to-time.
10. Ranking order. Determine whom you will put into groups by using the
following exercise. Present your students with an issue that is pertinent to
a lesson. Have the students rank this issue by how they feel about it with 1
being in strong agreement and 10 being in strong disagreement. Place a
rank-order line on your whiteboard and record the students' responses on
the line. Now form your groups by pulling out one person from each end
of the ranking order, and then two people from the center of the line.
ACTIVITIES
Practice the learning activities using this method for teaching skills in class
 Divide the class into seven groups: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing,
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pronounciation.
 Each group Design the teaching technique and strategy based on
Copoperative Teaching and Learning Method
 Present and practice the ideas in front of the class
Discussion : Give comments and suggestions toward the ideas of strategy and
techniques presented

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 TASKS/ASSIGMENTS
Create Lesson Plan that consist of the Learning Objectives, Material, Teaching
and Learning Activities, and Assessment that implement cooperative learning
strategy and method
REFERENCES
Anita, Lie. 2002. Cooperative Learning : Mempraktekan Cooperative Learning Di
Ruang-Ruang Kelas. Jakarta : PT. Gramedia Widiasarana Indonesia.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. (1998). Cooperation in the
classroom. Edina: Interaction Book Company.
Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Clemente: Resources for Teachers.
Slavin, R. (1995). Cooperative learning. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Slavin. R.E. 1995. Cooperative Learning : Theory, Research, and Practice.Boston :
Allyn and Baconhttps://www.teach-nology.com/

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 Chapter 9
Task Based Language Teaching
A. Objectives of the Lesson
Students are able to:
1. Recognize general concept of Task-based language teaching (TBLT)
2. Determine the Principles of Task-based language teaching (TBLT)
3. Browse for resources and materials to assist your teaching using Task-
based language teaching (TBLT)
4. Put the skills and strategies for teaching English using Task-based
language teaching (TBLT)
5. Develop a lesson plan with the Task-based language teaching (TBLT).

MATERIAL
GENERAL CONCEPT
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) has become a significant topic in
the field of second language acquisition in terms of fostering process-focused
syllabi and devising communicative tasks to enhance learners’ real language use
via the emergence of the communicative language teaching approach in the early
1980s and much stress on learners’ communicative abilities during the past
twenty years Jeon and Hahn in (Hismanoglu & Hismanoglu, 2011)
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on
the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching
(Richard, 2001)
Tasks are meaningful, and in doing them, students need to communicate.
Tasks have a clear outcome so that the teacher and students know whether or not
the communication has been successful. An example of a task in a task-based
syllabus is for students to plan an itinerary for a trip. Students work in small
groups with a train schedule. They are given certain destinations to include, and
they have to decide on the most direct route to travel by train—the one that will
take the least amount of travel time. As the students seek to complete the task,
they have to work to understand each other and to express their own thoughts.
By so doing, they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly and,
at times, they have to seek clarification (Diane Larsen-Freeman and Marti
Anderson, 2011)
The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez
(1998: 17) as:
 The focus is on process rather than product.

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  Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize
communication and meaning.
 Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully
while engaged in the activities and tasks.
 Activities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to
achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the
classroom.
 Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to
difficulty.
 The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the
previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the
language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support
available.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
We will now follow our customary procedure and review the answers to
our 10 questions.

1. What are the goals of teachers who use TBLT?

The goal of teachers is to facilitate students’ language learning by engaging
them in a variety of tasks that have a clear outcome.
2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The teacher’s role is to choose tasks, based on an analysis of students’
needs, that are appropriate to the level of the students and to create pre-
task and task follow-up phases that are in line with the abilities and needs
of the students. The teacher also monitors the students’ performance, and
intervenes as necessary. The role of the students is to communicate with
their peers to complete a task.
3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
A pre-task phase typically begins a task sequence. During this phase, a
teacher can introduce the students to the language they will need to
complete the task. The tasks are meaningful and relevant so that the
students see the reason for doing the task and can see how the task relates
to possible situations in their lives outside the classroom. Students are
actively engaged with the task, with the teacher monitoring their
performance and intervening when necessary. The task has clear outcomes
so that both students and teachers can tell if the task has been successfully
completed. A post-task phase takes place to reinforce students’ learning or
to address any problems that may have arisen.
4. What is the nature of student–teacher interaction? What is the
nature of student–student interaction?

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 The teacher is the input provider during the initial phase of the lesson. He
also sets the task for students to perform. The teacher pays attention
during the task, making note of language that should be focused on. He
provides feedback such as recasts. Students often work closely together to
help each other accomplish the task and to problem-solve.
5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
Students are motivated by doing tasks that prepare them for the real
world.
6. How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Language is for communicating and for ‘doing.’ Culture is not explicitly
dealt with although certain tasks might have a cultural focus, such as
when students prepare different ethnic foods to share.
7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are
emphasized?
The meaning dimension of language is emphasized. Depending on the
nature of the task, any of the four skills can be utilized.
8. What is the role of the students’ native language?
There is no explicit role for the students’ native language.
9. How is evaluation accomplished?
The teacher constantly evaluates students in light of task outcomes and
the language they use.
10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?
Focus on form is essential to students’ learning. Error correction is done
through recasts or modeling or by giving brief grammar explanations.
(Diane Larsen-Freeman and Marti Anderson, 2011)
TECHNIQUES
 Information-gap Task
An information-gap activity, which we saw used previously in CLT and
now in TBLT, involves the exchange of information among participants in order
to complete a task. In the TBLT lesson, students had to exchange information
within their groups in order to complete the schedule. Other examples might be
where one student is given a picture and describes the picture for another
student to draw, or where students draw each other’s family trees.
 Opinion-gap Task

An opinion-gap task requires that students express their personal

preferences, feelings, or attitudes in order to complete the task. For instance,
students might be given a social problem, such as high unemployment, and be
asked to come up with a series of possible solutions, or they might be asked to
compose a letter of advice to a friend who has sought their counsel about a

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dilemma. In our lesson, the students were only at the advanced-beginning level.
Their opinion-gap task was a rather simple one, which involved students
‘surveying their classmates about their most and least favorite subjects.1
 Reasoning-gap Task
A reasoning-gap activity requires that students derive some new
information by inferring it from information they have already been given. For
example, students might be given a railroad schedule and asked to work out the
best route to get from one particular city to another, or they might be asked to
solve a riddle. In the lesson we observed, students were asked to use the results of
their surveys or interviews to find out which were the three most popular and the
least popular subjects. Prabhu (1987) feels that reasoning-gap tasks work best
since information-gap tasks often require a single step transfer of information,
rather than sustained negotiation, and opinion-gap tasks tend to be rather open-
ended. Reasoning-gap tasks, on the other hand, encourage a more sustained
engagement with meaning, though they are still characterized by a somewhat
predictable use of language. According to Ellis (2009), TBLT tasks can be
unfocused or focused:
 Unfocused Tasks
Unfocused tasks are tasks designed to provide learners with opportunities
for communicating generally. The task described in the introduction to this
chapter, where students have to plan an itinerary for a train trip, is an example.
Students draw on their own language resources to fulfill the task.
 Focused Tasks
Focused tasks are tasks designed to provide opportunities for
communicating using some specific linguistic item, typically a grammar
structure. The task of trying to identify the owner of a briefcase left in a taxi is an
example. Of course, there is no guarantee that the task will elicit the grammar
structure that the task designers intended (Loschky and Bley-Vroman 1993). As
with all tasks, focused tasks should be meaningful. For this reason, the target
linguistic feature of a focused task is ‘hidden’ (the learners are not told explicitly
what the feature is) (Ellis 2009).2 One other distinction that Ellis (2009) makes is
between input-providing and output-prompting tasks:
 Input-providing Tasks
Input-providing tasks engage learners with the receptive skills of listening
and reading. We saw in the lesson in this chapter that the students completed a
schedule with the content that the teacher provided. Input-providing (e.g., ‘listen
and do’ tasks) not only work on the receptive skills, but also give teachers an
opportunity to introduce new language.

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  Output-prompting Tasks
Output-prompting tasks stimulate the students to write or speak
meaningfully. In our lesson, there was an output-prompting task when students
had to share the information on their cards so that their group members could
complete a schedule
Good advice
 Use the foreign language as much as possible.
 Use only mother tongue when necessary for explanation of exercises.
 The pre-task is meant to help create a good atmosphere for learning
without anxiety. Give words and supporting sentences for students to use.
 The pre-task must supply words, phrases, ideas to support the individual
student in the main task.
Remember that a pre-task can be anything from for example:
 audio text
 a video clips
 a brainstorm activity
 a small exercise (cloze, cross word etc.)
 photos (what do you see?)
 webpage (what do you see?)
Anything that will promote the foreign language and set the minds of the students
into a certain context and atmosphere.
 The main task must facilitate a process where each student can activate
and use his/her own strategies.
 Teacher role in the main task: monitoring the processes of the students
working with the main task.
(Commission, n.d.)

DEMONSTRATION LESSON PLAN

Beginner’s level - English for special purposes – technical English
Tools: “What’s this device?”
PRE-TASK
1. Ask students to give names of tools. Write them on the blackboard. Add
also standard sentences such as “this is a hammer”, “this is a spanner” etc.
2. Bring a tool box and show real tools to the student. Say or make students
say “This is a hammer” and so on.
3. If you can, show a short instruction video, where some typical tools are
used and where the language is not too difficult. Let students add new
names to the tools on the blackboard.
4. Prepare a memory game with selected tools (10-15). The memory game
must consist of pictures and written names of tools.

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 5. Split the class into groups of 3-4 students and let two groups play against
each other in the memory game. Do not play the game with only two
students in the game. This may create a lot of fear and anxiety for the
individual student who cannot remember all the tools and will do the
contrary of what is intended with the pre-task – namely to create a good
and safe learning environment.
6. Follow the memory game with a “What’s this device” exercise for the
whole group. This exercise should be run by the teacher. Let the students
see one sentence at a time. They should read and understand each
sentence.
7. Let one student read a sentence out aloud, and let others help in the
translation, so that this becomes a joint exercise.
8. When all sentences have been exposed, the students can hopefully guess
the name of the device/tool.
9. The student should now be split into groups of two-three people. Each
group must now produce their own “What’s this device” exercise. They
have to choose a tool from the memory game.
10. The teacher should leave help-sentences and phrases on the blackboard
for students to use if they need to. The teacher monitors the process of the
production in the different groups and helps only when it is really needed.
11. The student exercise should be written down, so that it can be used as
either an oral exercise or a reading exercise.
12. When all groups have finished an exercise and are satisfied with the result,
the groups must test the exercise with other groups.

MAIN TASK
1. This device is longer than it is wide
2. This device can be held in your hand
3. This device is made of wood and metal
4. This device can have many different sizes
5. This device is used to put other things in place
6. You have to use energy for this device
7. You have to lift your arm and make it fall to use this device
8. You need this device to put something on the wall
9. You use this device to hammer on things. Try to guess the name of this
device.

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C. Teaching-Learning Activities
1. What are the notable characteristics of Task-Based Language Teaching?
2. What is the role of the teacher in applying Task-Based Language Teaching
to teach activities?
3. How the Task-Based Language Teaching applied to emphasize the
language areas and skills?
4. How is the assessment of student learning activities in the implementation
of Task-Based Language Teaching?
Tasks/Assignments
 Create a lesson plan with the Task-Based Language Teaching method. The
Lesson plan consist of Learning Objectives, Activities and Assessment
E. Reference
Commission, E. (n.d.). Task Based Learning Task Based learning 2 Contens.
https://www.languages.dk/archive/pools-m/manuals/final/taskuk.pdf
Diane Larsen-Freeman and Marti Anderson. (2011). Techniques-Principles-
Language-Teaching (Third Edit). Oxford University Press.
Hismanoglu, M., & Hismanoglu, S. (2011). Task-based language teaching: What
every EFL teacher should do. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
15(February), 46–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.049
Richard, J. . : R. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.36074/logos-28.05.2021.v2.05

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 Chapter 10
Problem Based Learning (PBL)
MATERIALS
Theory/Founder
PBL is an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that
empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply
knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem. Critical to
the success of the approach is the selection of ill-structured problems (often
interdisciplinary) and a tutor who guides the learning process and conducts a
thorough debriefing at the conclusion of the learning experience.
However, a recent report on a systematic review and meta-analysis on the
effectiveness of PBL used in higher education programs for health professionals
(Newman, 2003) stated that “existing overviews of the field do not provide high
quality evidence with which to provide robust answers to questions about the
effectiveness of PBL” (p. 5). Specifically this analysis of research studies
attempted to compare PBL with traditional approaches to discover if PBL
increased performance in adapting to and participating in change; dealing with
problems and making reasoned decisions in unfamiliar situations; reasoning
critically and creatively; adopting a more universal or holistic approach;
practicing empathy, appreciating the other person’s point of view; collaborating
productively in groups or teams; and identifying one’s own strengths and
weaknesses and undertaking appropriate remediation (self-directed learning). A
lack of well-designed studies posed a challenge to this research analysis, and an
article on the same topic by Sanson-Fisher and Lynagh (2005) concluded that
“Available evidence, although methodologically flawed, offers little support for
the superiority of PBL over traditional curricula” (p. 260). This gap in the research
on the short-term and long-term effectiveness of using a PBL approach with a
range of learner populations definitely indicates a need for further study.
Despite this lack of evidence, the adoption of PBL has expanded into
elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, universities, and professional
schools (Torp & Sage, 2002). The University of Delaware
(http://www.udel.edu/pbl/) has an active PBL program and conducts annual
training institutes for instructors wanting to become tutors. Samford University
in Birmingham, Alabama (http://www.samford.edu/pbl/) has incorporated
PBL into various undergraduate programs within the Schools of Arts and
Sciences, Business, Education, Nursing, and Pharmacy. The Illinois Mathematics
and Science Academy (http://www.imsa.edu/center/) has been providing high

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school students with a complete PBL curriculum since 1985 and serves thousands
of students and teachers as a center for research on problem-based learning.
The Problem-based Learning Institute (PBLI) (http://www.pbli.org/) has
developed curricular materials (i.e., problems) and teacher-training programs
in PBL for all core disciplines in high school (Barrows & Kelson, 1993). PBL is used
in multiple domains of medical education (dentists, nurses, paramedics,
radiologists, etc.) and in content domains as diverse as MBA programs (Stinson &
Milter, 1996), higher education (Bridges & Hallinger, 1996), chemical engineering
(Woods, 1994), economics (Gijselaers, 1996), architecture (Kingsland, 1989), and
pre-service teacher education (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). This list is by no means
exhaustive, but is illustrative of the multiple contexts in which the PBL
instructional approach is being utilized.
The widespread adoption of the PBL instructional approach by different
disciplines, for different age levels, and in different content domains has
produced some misapplications and misconceptions of PBL (Maudsley, 1999).
Certain practices that are called PBL may fail to achieve the anticipated learning
outcomes for a variety of reasons. Boud and Feletti (1997, p. 5) described several
possible sources for the confusion:
 Confusing PBL as an approach to curriculum design with the teaching of
problem-solving,
 Adoption of a PBL proposal without sufficient commitment of staff at all
levels,
 Lack of research and development on the nature and type of problems to
be used,
 Insufficient investment in the design, preparation and ongoing renewal of
learning resources,
 Inappropriate assessment methods which do not match the learning
outcomes sought in problem-based programs, and
 Evaluation strategies which do not focus on the key learning issues and
which are implemented and acted upon far too late.
The possible sources of confusion listed above appear to hold a naïve view
of the rigor required to teach with this learner-centered approach. In the next
section I will discuss some of the essential characteristics and features of PBL.

Principles/Characteristic
On the website for the PBL Initiative
(http://www.pbli.org/pbl/generic_pbl.htm) Barrows (nd) describes in detail a set
of Generic PBL Essentials, reduced to bullet points below. Each of these essential
characteristics has been extended briefly to provide additional information and
resources.

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1. Students must have the responsibility for their own learning.
PBL is a learner-centered approach—students engage with the problem
with whatever their current knowledge/experience affords. Learner
motivation increases when responsibility for the solution to the problem
and the process rests with the learner (Savery & Duffy, 1995) and as
student ownership for learning increases (Savery, 1998; 1999). Inherent in
the design of PBL is a public articulation by the learners of what they
know and about what they need to learn more. Individuals accept
responsibility for seeking relevant information and bringing that back to
the group to help inform the development of a viable solution.
2. The problem simulations used in problem-based learning must be ill-
structured and allow for free inquiry. Problems in the real world are ill-
structured (or they would not be problems). A critical skill developed
through PBL is the ability to identify the problem and set parameters on
the development of a solution. When a problem is well-structured learners
are less motivated and less invested in the development of the solution.
(See the section on Problems vs. Cases below.)
3. Learning should be integrated from a wide range of disciplines or subjects.
Barrows notes that during self-directed learning, students should be able
to access, study and integrate information from all the disciplines that
might be related to understanding and resolving a particular problem—
just as people in the real world must recall and apply information
integrated from diverse sources in their work. The rapid expansion of
information has encouraged a cross-fertilization of ideas and led to the
development of new disciplines. Multiple perspectives lead to a more
thorough understanding of the issues and the development of a more
robust solution.
4. Collaboration is essential. In the world after school most learners will find
themselves in jobs where they need to share information and work
productively with others. PBL provides a format for the development of
these essential skills. During a PBL session the tutor will ask questions of
any and all members to ensure that information has been shared between
members in relation to the group’s problem.
5. What students learn during their self-directed learning must be applied
back to the problem with reanalysis and resolution. The point of self-
directed research is for individuals to collect information that will inform
the group’s decision-making process in relation to the problem. It is
essential that each individual share coherently what he or she has learned
and how that information might impact on developing a solution to the
problem.

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6. A closing analysis of what has been learned from work with the problem
and a discussion of what concepts and principles have been learned are
essential.
Given that PBL is a very engaging, motivating and involving form of
experiential learning, learners are often very close to the immediate details
of the problem and the proposed solution. The purpose of the post-
experience debriefing process (see Steinwachs, 1992; Thiagarajan, 1993 for
details on debriefing) is to consolidate the learning and ensure that the
experience has been reflected upon. Barrows (1988) advises that learners
examine all facets of the PBL process to better understand what they
know, what they learned, and how they performed.
7. Self and peer assessment should be carried out at the completion of each
problem and at the end of every curricular unit. These assessment
activities related to the PBL process are closely related to the previous
essential characteristic of reflection on knowledge gains. The significance
of this activity is to reinforce the self-reflective nature of learning and
sharpen a range of metacognitive processing skills.
8. The activities carried out in problem-based learning must be those valued
in the real world. A rationale and guidelines for the selection of authentic
problems in PBL is discussed extensively in Savery & Duffy (1995), Stinson
and Milter (1996), Wilkerson and Gijselaers (1996), and MacDonald (1997).
The transfer of skills learned through PBL to a real-world context is also
noted by Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000, p. 77).
9. Student examinations must measure student progress towards the goals of
problem-based learning. The goals of PBL are both knowledge-based and
process-based. Students need to be assessed on both dimensions at regular
intervals to ensure that they are benefiting as intended from the PBL
approach. Students are responsible for the content in the curriculum that
they have “covered” through engagement with problems. They need to be
able to recognize and articulate what they know and what they have
learned. Problem-based learning must be the pedagogical base in the
curriculum and not part of a didactic curriculum.
Steps/Mechanism/
Steps to a Problem-Based Learning Approach:
1. Explore the issue. Gather necessary information; learn new concepts,
principles, and skills about the proposed topic.
2. State what is known. Individual students and groups list what they already
know about the scenario and list what areas they are lacking information.
3. Define the issues. Frame the problem in a context of what is already known
and information the students expect to learn.

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 4. Research the knowledge. Find resources and information that will help
create a compelling argument.
5. Investigate solutions. List possible actions and solutions to the problem,
formulate and test potential hypotheses
6. Present and support the chosen solution. Clearly state and support your
conclusion with relevant information and evidence.
7. Review your performance. Often forgotten, this is a crucial step in
improving your problem-solving skills. Students must evaluate their
performance and plan improvements for the next problem.

Problem-Based Learning vs. Case-Based and Project-Based Learning

Both case-based and project-based approaches are valid instructional
strategies that promote active learning and engage the learners in higher-order
thinking such as analysis and synthesis. A well-constructed case will help learners
to understand the important elements of the problem/situation so that they are
better prepared for similar situations in the future. Case studies can help learners
develop critical thinking skills in assessing the information provided and in
identifying logic flaws or false assumptions. Working through the case study will
help learners build discipline/context-specific vocabulary/terminology, and
an understanding of the relationships between elements presented in the case
study. When a case study is done as a group project, learners may develop
improved communication and collaboration skills. Cases may be used to assess
student learning after instruction, or as a practice exercise to prepare learners for
a more authentic application of the skills and knowledge gained by working on
the case.

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 Project-based learning is similar to problem-based learning in that the
learning activities are organized around achieving a shared goal (project). This
instructional approach was described by Kilpatrick (1921), as the Project Method
and elaborated upon by several researchers, including Blumenfeld, Soloway,
Marx, Krajcik, Guzdial, and Palinscar (1991). Within a project-based approach
learners are usually provided with specifications for a desired end product (build
a rocket, design a website, etc.) and the learning process is more oriented to
following correct procedures. While working on a project, learners are likely to
encounter several “problems” that generate “teachable moments” (see
Lehman, George, Buchanan, & Rush, this issue). Teachers are more likely to be
instructors and coaches (rather than tutors) who provide expert guidance,
feedback and suggestions for “better” ways to achieve the final product. The
teaching (modeling, scaffolding, questioning, etc.) is provided according to
learner need and within the context of the project. Similar to case-based
instruction learners are able to add an experience to their memory that will serve
them in future situations.
While cases and projects are excellent learner-centered instructional
strategies, they tend to diminish the learner’s role in setting the goals and
outcomes for the “problem.” When the expected outcomes are clearly defined,
then there is less need or incentive for the learner to set his/her own parameters.
In the real world it is recognized that the ability to both define the problem and
develop a solution (or range of possible solutions) is important.

Problem-Based Learning vs. Inquiry-Based Learning

These two approaches are very similar. Inquiry-based learning is grounded
in the philosophy of John Dewey (as is PBL), who believed that education begins
with the curiosity of the learner. Inquiry-based learning is a student-centered,
active learning approach focused on questioning, critical thinking, and problem
solving. Inquiry-based learning activities begin with a question followed by
investigating solutions, creating new knowledge as information is gathered and
understood, discussing discoveries and experiences, and reflecting on new-found
knowledge.
Inquiry-based learning is frequently used in science education (see, for
example, the Center for Inquiry-Based Learning
http://www.biology.duke.edu/cibl/) and encourages a hands-on approach where
students practice the scientific method on authentic problems (questions). The
primary difference between PBL and inquiry-based learning relates to the role of
the tutor. In an inquiry-based approach the tutor is both a facilitator of learning
(encouraging/expecting higher-order thinking) and a provider of information. In
a PBL approach the tutor supports the process and expects learners to make their

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thinking clear, but the tutor does not provide information related to the
problem—that is the responsibility of the learners. A more detailed
discussion comparing and contrasting these two approaches would be an
excellent topic for a future article in this journal.

DISCUSSIONS
1. What are the pros and cons of PBL?
2. For a specific learner audience and set of learning objectives, design four
class activities, one that would follow each of the following four learning
theories: case-based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based
learning, and problem-based learning.

ACTIVITIES
Practice the learning activities using this method for teaching skills in
class
 Divide the class into seven groups: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing,
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pronounciation.
 Each group Design the teaching technique and strategy based on problem
based learning model
 Present and practice the ideas in front of the class
Discussion : Give comments and suggestions toward the ideas of strategy
and techniques presented
TASKS/ASSIGMENTS
Create Lesson Plan that consist of the Learning Objectives, Material,
Teaching and Learning Activities, and Assessment that implement problem
based learning model.

REFERENCES
Albanese, M. A., & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of the
literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine,
68 (1), 52-81.
Barrows, H. S. (1988). The tutorial process. Springfield: Southern Illinois
University School of Medicine.
Barrows, H. S. (1994). Practice-based learning: Problem-based learning applied to
medical education. Springfield: Southern Illinois University School of
Medicine.
Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief
overview. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based
learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions for
Teaching and Learning Series, No. 68 (pp. 3-11). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Barrows, H. S., & Kelson, A. (1993). Problem-based learning in secondary
education and the Problem-based Learning Institute (Monograph).
Springfield: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine.
Barrows, H. S., & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to
medical education. New York: Springer.
Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., &
Palinscar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing,
supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26 (3/4), 369-398.
Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (1997). The challenge of problem-based learning (2nd ed.).
London: Kogan Page.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Bridges, E.M., & Hallinger, P. (1996). Problem-based learning in leadership
education. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based
learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions in
Teaching and Learning, No. 68 (pp. 53-61). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Denton, B. G., Adams, C. C., Blatt, P. J., & Lorish, C. D. (2000). Does the
introduction of problem-based learning change graduate performance
outcomes in a professional curriculum? Journal on Excellence in College
Teaching, 11 (2&3), 147-162.
Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E., & Allen, D. E. (2001). Why problem-based learning? A case
study of institutional change in undergraduate education. In B. Duch, S.
Groh, & D. Allen (Eds.), The power of problem-based learning (pp. 3-11).
Sterling, VA: Stylus.
Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the
design and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of
research for educational communications and technology. New York:
Macmillan.
Ertmer, P. A., & Simons, K. D. (2006). Jumping the PBL implementation hurdle:
Supporting the efforts of K–12 teachers. Interdisciplinary Journal of
Problem-based Learning, 1 (1), 40-54.
Gijselaers, W. H. (1996). Connecting problem-based practices with educational
theory. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based
learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions in
Teaching and Learning. No. 68, Winter 1996 (pp. 13-21). San Francisco:
Jossey Bass.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students
learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266.

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Kingsland, A. J. (1989). The assessment process in architecture at Newcastle. In B.
Wallis (Ed.), Problem-based learning: The Newcastle workshop. Proceedings
of the ten-year anniversary conference (pp. 121-130) Faculty of Medicine,
University of Newcastle.
Kilpatrick, W. H. (1921). Dangers and difficulties of the project method and how
to overcome them: Introductory statement: Definition of terms. Teachers
College Record, 22 (4), p. 283-287 (ID Number: 3982) Retrieved January 23,
2006 from http://www.tcrecord.org.
MacDonald, P. J. (1997). Selection of health problems for a problem based
curriculum. In D. Boud & G. Feletti (Eds.), The challenge of problem-based
learning (2nd ed.) (pp. 93-102). London: Kogan Page.
Maudsley, G. (1999) Do we all mean the same thing by “problem-based learning”?
A review of the concepts and a formulation of the ground rules. Academic
Medicine, 74(2), 178-85.
Newman, M. (2003). A pilot systematic review and meta-analysis on the
effectiveness of problem-based learning. Retrieved December 12, 2005 from
http://www.ltsn-01.ac.uk/docs/pbl_report.pdf.
Sanson-Fisher R. W., & Lynagh, M., C. (2005). Problem-based learning: A
dissemination success story? Medical Journal of Australia, 183(5), 258-260.
Savery, J.R., & Duffy, T.M. (1995). Problem-based learning: An instructional
model and its constructivist framework. In B. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist
learning environments: Case studies in instructional design (pp. 135-148).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Savery, J. R. (1998). Fostering ownership with computer supported collaborative
writing in higher education. In C. J. Bonk & K. S. King (Eds.), Electronic
collaborators: Learner-centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship,
and discourse (pp. 103-127). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Savery, J. R. (1999). Enhancing motivation and learning through collaboration
and the use of problems. In S. Fellows & K. Ahmet (Eds.), Inspiring students:
Case studies in motivating the learner (pp. 33-42). London: Kogan Page.
Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and
distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1(1), 9–20.
Retrieved from http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/
Steinwachs, B. (1992). How to facilitate a debriefing. Simulation & Gaming, 23(2)
186-195.
Stinson, J. E., & Milter, R. G. (1996). Problem-based learning in business
education: Curriculum design and implementation issues. In L. Wilkerson &
W. H. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher
education: Theory and practice. New Directions For Teaching and Learning
Series, No. 68 (pp. 32-42). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Thiagarajan, S. (1993). How to maximize transfer from simulation games through
systematic debriefing. In F. Percival, S. Lodge & D. Saunders (Eds.), The
Simulation and Gaming Yearbook, vol. 1 (pp. 45-52). London: Kogan Page.
Torp, L., & Sage, S. (2002). Problems as possibilities: Problem-based learning for
K-16 education (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Vernon, D. T. A., & Blake, R. L. (1993). Does problem-based learning work? A
meta-analysis of evaluation research. Academic Medicine, 68(7), 550-563.
White, H. B. (1996). Dan tries problem-based learning: A case study. In L. Richlin
(Ed.), To Improve the Academy, vol. 15 (pp. 75-91). Stillwater, OK: New
Forums Press and the Professional and Organizational Network in Higher
Education.
Wilkerson, L., & Gijselaers, W. (Eds.). (1996). Bringing problem-based learning to
higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions For Teaching and
Learning Series, No. 68. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Williams, S. M. (1992). Putting case-based instruction into context: Examples
from legal and medical education. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2, 367-
427.
Wingspread Conference. (1994). Quality assurance in undergraduate education:
What the public expects. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States.
Woods, D. R. 1994. Problem-based learning: How to gain the most from PBL.
Waterdown, Ontario: Donald R. Woods.

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 Chapter 11
Inquiry/ Discovery Based Learning
A. Objectives of the Lesson
Students are able to:
1. Recognize general concept of Inquiry/Discovery Based Learning.
2. Determine the Principles of Inquiry/Discovery Based Learning
3. Browse for resources and materials to assist your teaching using
Inquiry/Discovery Based Learning
4. Put the skills and strategies for teaching English using Inquiry/Discovery
Based Learning
5. Develop a lesson plan with the Inquiry/Discovery Based Learning
B. Materials
GENERAL CONCEPT
Inquiry-based learning is a method of learning and teaching that brings
the students' ideas, questions, and observations at the center of the learning
process. Education plays an important part in this process by fostering a culture
in which ideas are challenged, tested, reinterpreted, and viewed as permanent
but valuable, shifting students from a position of wondering to a position of
prevailing understanding and further questioning. (Inquiry Based Learning Dalam
Pembelajaran Online – BINUS University, n.d.)
In an inquiry-based classroom, the teacher's role is significantly different
from that of a traditional classroom. Rather of giving students direct instruction,
teachers assist them in generating their own content-related questions and
guiding the exploration that follows. An inquiry-based curriculum can increase
student achievement and narrow the gap between high- and low-achieving
students. (Rehorek, 2004)
Four types of student inquiry:
1. Structured Inquiry: Students follow the lead of the teacher as the entire
class engages on one inquiry together
2. Controlled Inquiry: the teacher chooses topics and identifies the
resources students will use to answer the questions
3. Guided Inquiry: the teacher chooses topics and questions, and students
design the product or solution
4. Free Inquiry: the students choose their topics without reference to any
prescribed outcome
(Gholam, 2019)
The benefits of Inquiry based Learning
1. Reinforces curriculum content,
2. Warms up the brain for learning,

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 3. Promotes a deeper understanding of the content,
4. Helps make learning rewarding,
5. Builds initiative and self- direction,
6. Works in almost any classroom, and
7. Offers differentiated instruction.

STEPS IN APPLYING INQUIRY BASED LEARNING

IBL projects in the English classroom have five steps: project proposal,
research and learning, creating or doing, reflecting, and sharing.
Depending on the ability and level of your students, as well as the topics you may
want to guide them toward, these steps are quite malleable. The projects can
focus on general, student-centered topics (e.g., inquiry question) or more
teacher-directed topics (e.g., understanding the world and language of
Shakespeare).
(Inquiry-Based Learning in Middle and High School English | Edutopia, n.d.)

Step 1: Project Proposal

Offer students the opportunity to shape their focus questions(s) and
projects via a project proposal
Step 2: Research and Learning
The next step is the research and learning phase, which fits beautifully
into any language curriculum, as mini-lessons on proper research techniques,
bias, gathering and documenting sources, etc., can take place at a grade- and
skill-appropriate level.
Step 3: Creating or Doing
This is where IBL projects differ from traditional research projects. Ask
students to either create, experience, or do something with their learning. The
beauty of IBL projects in English language arts is that the project topic and
physical result don’t have to have anything to do with English class. It’s the
process that effectively reflects multiple ELA curriculum expectations, such as
listening and/or reading and summarizing, documenting and assessing research
sources, writing, and so on
Step 4: Reflecting
The goal of this step of the IBL project is to have students reflect on their
methods, research, actions, and next steps. This process can take place in a
variety of ways. I try to focus the medium on something I need to assess in my
curriculum, whether it’s a writing task, media product, or oral communication
presentation.
Step 5: Sharing and Assessment

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 The final step of the IBL project is for students to share their entire project
with their teacher, peers, and/or the world at large via social media as a video,
post, or website.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
There are some basic principles in IBLL presented in this paper. The writer
combined these principles from Fauziati (2014) with Prince and Felder (2006) in
(Rejeki, 2017). Those principles are presented as follow.
1. The origin of IBLL is on the constructivism theory.
Jean Piaget (1972), Vygotsky (1978), and Jerome Brunner (1990) are those
who concern on this theory. According to them, the students construct
their knowledge by communicating their experience with the environment
instead of being transmitted by the teacher. They use their sense to get
any information and store it as mental structures (schemata). Vygotsky
says that cultural history, social context, and language are important in
this cognitive process. He also
mentions that the students can understand the concept and idea that they
cannot master with the help of other experienced peers.
2. Students take initiative and autonomy in the classroom.
The questions driving the classroom activity are from the students. It
means that they initiate the learning process and are responsible for their
own learning. The teacher may ask question but it is intended to guide
them, not the center of the learning activity. His or her job is to facilitate
them with the appropriate activities in order to help them in constructing
the knowledge.
3. Classroom activities are around solving authentic, ill- defined
problems that may have more than one solution.
In essence, we can call it as student center in which the students are more
active than the teacher in the classroom. They get the knowledge from the
problem initiated and solved by them instead of getting it from the
teacher’s explanation.
4. Students not only interact with the textbooks but also with the raw
data, primary resources, the teacher, and other students.
The material that the students have to study is not only textbooks but also
other sources for instance the teacher, their peers, raw data (spoken and
written conversation), and etc. Those are sufficiently needed for their
learning process in a way that they provide context and real situation.
5. Communication in the classroom is characterized by discourse.
Two ways communication is more appropriate to describe this situation.
The students ask questions and discuss them with the teacher and other

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 students. It is not merely question and answer session but dialogue to find
the solution.

C. Teaching-Learning Activities
1. What are the notable characteristics of Inquiry based Learning ?
2. What is the role of the teacher in applying Inquiry based Learning to teach
activities?
3. How the Inquiry based Learning applied to emphasize the language areas
and skills?
4. How is the assessment of student learning activities in the implementation
of Inquiry based Learning ?
D. Tasks/Assignments
 Create a lesson plan with the Inquiry based Learning method. The Lesson
plan consist of Learning Objectives, Activities and Assessment
E. References
Gholam, A. (2019). Inquiry-Based Learning: Student Teachers’ Challenges and
Perceptions. Journal of Inquiry and Action in Education, 10(2), 112–133.
Inquiry-Based Learning in Middle and High School English | Edutopia. (n.d.).
Retrieved March 11, 2022, from https://www.edutopia.org/article/inquiry-
based-learning-english-classrooms
Inquiry Based Learning dalam Pembelajaran Online – BINUS University. (n.d.).
Retrieved March 10, 2022, from
https://binus.ac.id/knowledge/2019/12/inquiry-based-learning-dalam-
pembelajaran-online/
Rehorek, S. J. (2004). Inquiry-Based Teaching. In The American Biology
Teacher (Vol. 66, Issue 7). https://doi.org/10.1662/0002-
7685(2004)066[0493:it]2.0.co;2
Rejeki, S. (2017). Inquiry-Based Language Learning (Ibll): Theoretical And
Practical Views In English Classroom. English Franca, 1(2), 135–148.

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 CHAPTER 12
SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
MATERIALS
Theory/Founder
Scientific approach is one of the learning approaches promoted by
the 2013 Curriculum. This approach also emphasizes on process of searching
knowledge and students as subject of learning through applying science
principles. Since the students become the subject of learning, the learning
method promoted is ‘learning by doing’ which is largely promoted by an
American educator and philosopher John Dewey (1859-1952). Since learning is
a search for meaning, learning objectives should be established that connect to
important issues for the student. In addition, scientific approach in learning
process means learning process which is organized to make learners actively
construct concepts, laws, or principles through activities of observing,
hypothesizing, collecting data, analyzing data, drawing conclusion, and
communicating the concepts, laws, and principles found (Hosnan, 2014, p.39;
Saddhono, 2013, p.440). It is expected to encourage students searching
knowledge from multisources through observation and not to be given by
teachers only.
Scientific approach also emphasizes on communicating skill as well as
sceintific principles. As discribed by McCollum (2009), A learning approach can
be regarded as scientific approach if it covers some criteria explained by
Ministry of Education and Culture. They are: (1) the teaching materials come
from facts or phenomena that logically can be explained, (2) teacher’s
explanation, and teacher-student interaction are based on objectivity, (3)
teaching materials build students’ critical thinking and accuracy in
identifying, understanding, and resolving problems, (4) it encourages and
inspires students to think hypothetically in looking at difference, congruence
and links to each learning material given, (5) it fosters students to understand,
apply, and develop pattern of rationale and objective thinking towards
learning materials, (6) it should be based on concepts, theories, and empirical
facts, and (7) learning objectives are composed in simple, clear and attractive
presentation way (Kemendikbud, 2013a).
Principles/Characteristic
Learning by implementing scientific method is based on the following
principles.

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 1. Be student-centered i.e. the students physically and mentally take
an active Participation in developing meaning and understanding
particular concept, law or principles.
2. Develop students’ self concept i.e developing particular concept based
on their own understanding,
3. Avoid verbalism,
4. Give opportunity to students to assimilate and accomodate concepts,
law, and principles,
5. Force the development of students’ thinking capability,
6. Develop students’ learning mativation,
7. Force opportunity for students to train their ability in communication,
8. Likely build validation process towards concepts, laws, and principles
which are deconstructed by students in terms of its cognitive structure,
9. Involve scientific process skill in constructing concepts, laws, and
principles, and
10. Involve potentially cognitive process in stimulating intellectual
development especially high order thinking (Directorate General of
Junior High School Management, 2014).
The results of learning by implementing scientific method are in the
forms of concepts, laws, or principles which are deconstructed by students with
the teacher’s help. In a specific condition, the data needed to answer the
questions are not likely collected directly by students since the data are
sometimes got in a long time. In this case, the teacher can provide
the data needed and successsively analysed by the students.
There are seven criteria to determine whether a method of teaching is
scientific or not:
1. The teaching materials are based on facts or phenomena which can be
logically or reasonably explained. They are not based on prediction,
approximation, imagination, legend, or myth.
2. The teachers’ explanation, students’ responses, and teacher-student
interaction are not based on subjectivity and wrong logic,
3. The teaching materials support and inspire students to be critical in
thinking and analyzing, and accurate in identifying, understanding,
and resolving problems, and applying the materials learned.
4. The learning materials foster and inspire students to
hypothetically think when seeing diversities, similarities and links in the
learning materials,
5. The learning materials foster and inspire students to understand,
apply, and develop objectivity and rational thinking in responding
to the learning materials,

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 6. The materials are built on the basis on empirically valid concepts,
theories, and facts, and
7. The formulation of learning objectives is simple, clear, but attractive
(Directorate General of Junior High School Management, 2014).
Stages of Scientific Approach
The stages of learning in scientific approach in the 2013 Curriculum
context generally are divided into five main stages. They are observing,
questioning, experimenting, associating, and communicating. (Abidin, 2014,
p.132; Hosnan, 2014, p.37; Kemendikbud, 2013; Mulyasa, 2014; Suharyadi,
p.1350; Saddhono, 2013, p.441; Permendikbud No. 103 Year 2014). Each of the
stages will be elaborated.
Observing
The first stage is observing. Observing is “a deliberate and systematic
activity to study a social phenomenon or real object through utilization of
the five sense” (Hosnan, 2014, p.40) and involving descriptive skill (Halonen, et
al., 2003, cited in Mutaqqin, 2015). In this stage teacher contextualizes learning
activity for students in the classroom. In language learning-teaching, the
materials in form of fact that can be observed, as described by Kemendikbud
(2013b) for instance are interpersonal or transactional text, specific text,
functional text, and linguistic features of a text, video, or recording.
Teaching materials in form of concepts are for instance social function of a
text, while the material in form of procedural can be structure of the text
observed. The activities can be watching or listening a video of conversation,
watching a short movie or video, reading story book, text, magazine,
brochure, or posters. Besides, “repeating/copying/imitating guided examples”,
in which the students do not only receiving information but also they can repeat
and practice the activities provided by the teacher (Muttaqin, 2015), are also
covered in activities of observing stage. Therefore, observing stage becomes a
vital role in leading students to the next stage, so that by doing the activities
students’ curiosity is also built here.
Questioning
The second stage is questioning. Questioning is the process of
constructing knowledge in form of concepts of social function in particular
material, procedure of structure text through group discussion or class
discussion (Kemendikbud, 2013; Abidin, 2014; Mulyasa, 2014). Based on the
regulation of Ministry of Education and Culture (Permendikbud No 81a,
2013) n this stage, students pose questions from what have been observed in
the previous stage for gaining more information and comprehension about
the material.

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 The question expected in this stage also must requires criteria of good
question:
(1) compact and clear,
(2) inspiring,
(3) focus on a particular subject,
(4) probing and divergent,
(5) valid and reinforced question,
(6) increasing cognitive level, and
(7) promoting interaction.
Thus, in this stage, students pursue their own knowledge to
construct a concept, principle, procedure, theory or law of the material learned.
It can be obtained through classroom discussion, or group discussion
(Abidin, 2014, p.137; Hosnan, 2014, p.40; Kemendikbud, 2013b).
Experimenting
The third stage is experimenting. In this stage, students get real or
authentic learning, for example they have to do experiments. As stated in the
Regulation of Indonesia Ministry of education and Culture No. 81/2013, in
doing the experiment, the students have to read other sources or collect
extra information by several ways such as, doing experiment, observation,
and interview, reading texts or books or other sources or functional texts.
In addition, experimenting might be started by visiting new places, try new
things, seek information through various sources (Dyer et al., 2011) It is
intended to develop the ability to communicate and collect information through
various sources. The teacher provides learning sources, worksheets, media or
experiment tools. Therefore, the roles of teacher in this stage are as director
and as the controller who plan and manage the activity of collecting data and its
process (Brown, 2001, as cited in Nugraha, 2015). The teacher may give feedback
during the process of the activity.
Associating
The fourth stage is associating. In this stage, students and teacher are
engaged into learning activities, such as text analyzing, and categorizing. The
information or data that have been collected from the previous activitiy,
experimenting, must be analyzed to draw conclusions. Students then will
process the information from the teachers and draw the conclusions out of
that information. As stated on the Policy of Indonesia Ministry of Education
and Culture No. 81a/2013, associating process must through: (1) processing
information that has been collected from the result of experimenting and
observing activity and, (2) processing the information collected to find
solutions from variety of sources that have different opinions to the contrary.

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Thus, students are expected to be able to relate the result of learning or
experimenting to the reality they find.
Communicating/Networking
The last stage is networking. In this stage, students communicate,
demonstrate, and publish their learning product as a form of collaborative
learning in which they face various changes. In collaborative learning, the
learners interact with empathy, mutual respect, and receive a deficiency or
excess, respectively in order to create social interaction to gain meaningful
learning (Wahyudin, 2015). The teacher gives feedback, suggestions or more
information related to students’ work. There are interactions between teacher
and students and among the students. In this stage, teacher holds role that
provides correct information and the reciprocal scaffolding (Brown, 2001,
cited at Nugraha, 2015). This can be done through dialogue and discussion
between teacher with the students. Thus communicating stage is in which
students report or deliver the results of the observing, experimenting and
concluding based on the result of the analysis orally or written or in other
forms to let others know what learners have learned (Abidin, 2014; Arauz,
2013; Hosnan, 2014, p.77; Mulyasa, 2014).
Steps of Scientific Method in the English Language Teaching
The same as other subjects at school, the teaching of English should also
implement the steps in scientific method consisting of observing,
questioning, experimenting (collecting data/information), analyzing, and
communicating. The discussion below shows how the steps are implemented.
1. Observing
In the language learning process, observing means reading and/or
listening to texts. Students are exposed to models of text in order to list items
they need to know in order to understand and/or produce texts or communicate
ideas. The texts can be authentic and/or simplified. The items to list basically
include the social function of the text, text structure, grammar, and vocabulary.
Some activities conducted in this stage are for example, students listen to an
audio recording, watch a video, watch the teacher (with or without other
students) demonstrate a monologue or dialogue, watch other students act out a
monologue or dialogue, and read texts. In this step teachers have some roles.
The roles include assisting students to list items to know in order to
comprehend and create the targeted texts, providing a list of items from which
the students can select some, and making some items in the input (model of
language) salient.
2. Questioning
In this second step students ask or formulate questions based on the
identified items. The questions at least cover all of the achievement indicators

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stated in the lesson plan. In this step of learning, students are encouraged to
propose temporary answers based on their knowledge and/or limited
information they have. This stage serves the following functions:
a. to arouse the students’ curiosities about, interests in , and attention to the
lesson;
b. to encourage and inspire the students to learn actively and develop
questions from and for themselves;
c. to diagnose the students’ difficulties in learning and at the same
time anticipate the solutions;
d. to organize the learning tasks and provide the students with the
opportunity to show their attitude, skills, and understanding of the lesson;
e. to elicit the students to use their skills in speaking, asking questions, and
answering them logically, systematically with accurate and
appropriate language expressions;
f. to encourage the students to participate in discussing, arguing, developing
the thinking skills, and drawing conclusions;
g. to encourage the students to be open in giving to and accepting opinions
or ideas from one another, enriching vocabulary, and developing the
social tolerance in group activities;
h. to accustom the students to think spontaneously and quickly, as well as to
respond to sudden problems quickly; and
i. to train the students to speak politely and to develop their empathy
to others (Directorate General of Junior High School Management, 2014).
Examples of the activities in this step include, for example with or
without the teacher’s guidance, students ask questions about the social
function, generic structure, and linguistic features of the text being read or
heard (watched) that they do not understand or want to know more, or with
guiding questions, the students formulate questions about the social function,
generic structure, and linguistic features of the text being read or heard
(watched). To facilitate the process of questioning the teacher should help
the students ask questions with reference to the items they want to know,
provide them with a number of questions the students can start with, and even
provide them with a number of guiding questions – the students can just tick
some of them.
3. Collecting data/information (experimenting)
In experimenting, students collect data/information to answer the
questions formulated in the second step. They use one or more
techniques such as observation (e.g. watching videos or listening to audio
recording), interviewing resource persons, and reading books. To enable the
students to collect data or information, the teachers should provide them with
worksheets and learning resources. The activities in this stage are for

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example watching more videos, listening to more audio recordings, listening
to more sample expressions, reading more texts, looking up words into the
dictionary, interviewing resource people, reading books on grammar,
pronunciation, vocabulary, etc. assigned by the teacher, accessing website links,
doing exercises, or practising the grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation.
4. Associating (analyzing data/information)
In this step, students analyze data/information to answer their questions
and draw conclusions. With or without teacher’s support students sort out,
classify, and identify patterns to answer their questions. Some activities can be
alternatives, for instance identifying patterns (grammar, vocabulary, or
pronunciation), formulating patterns (grammar, vocabulary, or pronunciation),
finding answers for the formulated questions, or drawing conclusions To
facilitate the students in analyzing data/information the teachers should help
students see patterns to answer questions, and also help them draw conclusions.
5. Communicating (answers/conclusions)
In the communicating step students communicate their answers or
conclusions to the class in writing and/or orally. Their answers (conclusions)
represent a new knowledge they ‘construct’ or learn. At the end of this step the
students are expected to have learned the necessary knowledge (especially about
the social function of the text, structure of the text, grammar, and
vocabulary) in order to comprehend and create texts. In this step, students
present their answers (conclusions) to the class, to the other groups, display
their answers (conclusions) or exchange their findings (answers/conclusions)
to the other groups. In this step teachers should play some roles, for example
providing feedback – correction, and enriching the knowledge that the
students ‘construct’.
6. Creating (texts)
In the context of English language teaching the five steps in the
scientific approach are not enough to enable the students to communicate in
English because learning a language does not end when students already learn
the features of (the targeted) texts and their knowledge about texts should be
used to understand and create texts (through guided, semi guided and free
anguage production tasks). Another step, namely creating, is needed to help
students achieve the communicative competence. In this step the students
are involved in the various activities ranging from guided to free activities,
for example doing guided writing or speaking activities, doing semi guided
writing or speaking activities, and doing free writing or speaking activities. It is
the teachers’ job to design guided, semi-guided and free language production
tasks and to provide the students with strategy, idea, and language support.

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 ACTIVITIES
Practice the learning activities using this method for teaching skills in
class
 Divide the class into seven groups: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing,
Vocabulary, Grammar, and Pronounciation.
 Each group Design the teaching technique and strategy based on Scientific
Approach model
 Present and practice the ideas in front of the class
Discussion : Give comments and suggestions toward the ideas of strategy and
techniques presented
TASKS/ASSIGMENTS
Create Lesson Plan that consist of the Learning Objectives, Material,
Teaching and Learning Activities, and Assessment that implement Scientific
approach.
REFERENCES
Nugraha, I.S. & Suherdi, D. 2017. Scientific Approach: An english learning
Teaching (ELT) Approach in the 2013 Curriculum. Journal of English and
Education. Vol. 5, No 2. Pp: 112-119.

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Direktorat Jenderal Pembinaan Sekolah Menengah Pertama. 2013. Kurikulum
2013. Jakarta: DITPSMP
Direktorat Jenderal Pembinaan Sekolah Menengah Pertama. 2014. Bridging
Course SMP. Jakarta: DITPSMP
Direktorat Jenderal Pembinaan Sekolah Menengah Pertama. 2014.
Panduan Proses Pembelajaran.. Jakarta: DITPSMP
Madya, Suwarsih. 2013. Metodologi Pengajaran Bahasa. Yogyakarta: UNY Press
McLelland, Christine _____. The nature of science and scientific method.
The geological society of America
Napitupulu, S., Manalu, D. B., Siahaan, S. Scientifc Approach-Based English
Learning Strategy (SABELS). The News Educational Review.
Priyana, Joko. 2014. The English language teaching steps based on the scientific
method. A paper presented in a teacher training on the scientific
method, in Yogyakarta State University.
Priyana, Joko. 2015. Pembelajaran dan Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran. A
presentation in the training on Curriculum 2013 for junior high school
teachers, in Jakarta.
Sarwanti, Sri. 2016. Scientific Method in language teaching. Transformatika,
Vol. 12. No. 1.
Suharyadi. 2013. Exploring “Scientific Approach” in English Language
Teaching. Prosiding 2. Seminar nasional Exchange of Experiences. Pp:
1348-1355

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