Manufacturing – made by hand - Both external & internal shape Foundary inspection - Ejector to eject & lubricant must
ary inspection
-Technical-to alter the geometry & appearance
- Economic – add value
Manufacturing industries
- Primary (cultivates &exploits natural resources)
- Secondary (primary > consume or capital good)
- Tertiary (service sector of economy)
Manufacturing capabilities- limitation of company
- Technological processing capability (roll steel
cannot produce car)
- Physical product limitation (heavy product need
heavy machineries)
- Production Quality (production rates effected by
operation hours, no of ppl & availability)
Manufacturing process
- Assembly operation – 2 or more component to
create a new entity
- Shaping operation- to change the geometry
Shaping operation
- Solidification- starts off as molten metal (casting)
- Particulate- starts of powder metal
- Deformation – shape is deformed( rolling)
- Material removal – drilling or milling
Assembly operation
- Joining process- permeant joint (welding)
- Mechanical assembly- temp joint
NET SHAPE- no machining required
NEAR NET SHAPE- Min machining required
Tolerance- diff between Max & Min limit
- Bilateral tolerance- both +&- dimension
- Unilateral tolerance- Only one direction
- Limit dimension- Max & Min size given
Max Material condition- a lot of material is left behind
- Max Shaft dia & MIN hole dia
Min material condition- less material is left behind
- Min shaft dia& max hole dia
Type of measurement error
- Systematic errors- + or – deviation from the true
value but consentient
- Random errors- imprecise reading every time
Measurement will be precise when random errors are
minimised
Accuracy-how far from bullseyes
Precision- degree of repeatability
Resolution is the smallest discrimination that an
instrument can show
GO GAUGE- MaxMC- Minsize(hole)&Maxsize
(external)
NO GO GAUGE – Min material condition
Wear band tolerance- only in go side
Sin bar (A)=H/L
Surface texture
- Roughness- small waved finely spaced from
nominal surface
- Waviness- measurement of the more widely spaced
component of surface texture
- Lay is the direction of the predominant surface
pattern ordinarily determined by the production
method used.
Measurement of surface- Fingernail, stylus electronic
& optical techniques
Better finish = $$$↑↑↑
𝐿 |𝑦| |𝑦𝑖|
𝑅𝑎 = ∫0 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 (Ra arithmetic mean value
𝐿𝑚 𝑛 - Micro porosity(only in alloy, use pressure)
of roughness, y vertical deviation from nominal
surface)
Problem with Ra calculation
- Waviness not included, lay pattern not counted,
cut-off length- filter to separate waviness from
surface deviation (usally 0.8mm or 5X Lm )
Surfaces are important- aesthetic, safety, assembly of
part, smooth surface
CASTING – Advantage
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part geometry
- Ejector to eject & lubricant must be sprayed onto the
- Net or near net shape
- Produce large parts & best for mass production
Disadvantage- Porosity effect mechanical properties
- Poor dimensional accuracy & surface finish
- Safety hazard (hot temperature)
- Environmental problem( emission of gas)
2 types of mold- open (ingots) &close mould
2 types of casting- expandable & permeant mold
Steps in casting
1. Heating the metal- 3 stages – Raise to Tm, convert
from solid>liquid, raise to higher temp
2. Pouring the molten metal- factor of success>
pouring rate & turbulence
3. Let it cool down
𝑉2 = √2𝑔ℎ(ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
Aspiration – turbulence prevented by tampered sprue
𝑉 𝑛
𝑇𝑇𝑠 = 𝐶𝑚 (𝐴) A=Surface area, n=2,vol
4
𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3
Higher (V/A) ratio cools & solidifies more slowly
Riser - ↑V/A
Shrinkage during solidification
- Liquid Contraction -↓ height (0.5%)
- Solidification - ↓height
- Thermal contraction-↓ vol. linearly
Shrinkage = solid is denser than liquid except cast iron be casted, close dimension control& good surface
with high carbon content (it expands)
Shrinkage allowance- makes pattern oversize than
actual size to allow shrinkage
Directional solidification- to minimize shrinkage
- Areas which freezes first are placed away from riser geometry, high cost to make mold
- chills- heat sink to encourage rapid cooling
Shrinkage allowance (Linear shrinkage)
- Al alloy – 1.3%
- Brass, yellow- 1.3 – 1.6%
- Cast iron grey – 0.8 – 1.6%
- Cast iron white, Mg, tin, steel, chrome, nickel- 2.1% - After cool, plunger goes up die open ejector push the
- Mg alloy – 1.6% steel, carbon – 1.6-2.1%
- Zinc 2.6%
Riser design – waste metal (min as possible)
- Shape to max V/A ratio
- To be reduce as minimum as possible
Defect In casting
- Misrun(temp, low vel, low v/A ratio) solidify before
filling
- Cold shut (lack of fusion due to premature freezing)
- Cold shot(metal splatter during pouring, high turb,
poor design) formation of solid lobules
- Shrinkage cavity (avoid by using good raiser &
gating system)
- Hot tear- by rigid mold that cannot contract
because of rigid structure
Sand casting defect
- Sand blows- gas released from sand case cavity
- Pinholes- same us sand blow but smaller
- Penetration – high fluidity metal penetrate sand Mold for die casting -tools steel, mold steel, maraging Edge bending – High production quality
mold steel
- Mold shift – displacement of cope & drag -Tungsten& molybdenum usually for die cast steel & As it stretches when bending it need to be
- Mold crack- form a ‘fin’ on the final casting iron
STARTING BLANK SIZE straighten flow of polymer melts “clear memory”
- Visual (misrun, cold shuts, severe surface flaw) cavity to prevent sticking W= blank width, L=L1+L2+Ab of Circular motion of the screw
𝛼
- Dimensional measurement ( to see if in size) Advantage- Economical for large production, good 𝐴𝑏 = 2𝜋(360)(𝑅 + 𝐾𝑏𝑎 𝑡) Injection Mold (ONLY FOR THERMOPLASTIC)
- Non-destructive test to check quality accuracies & surface finish, thing section possible, - High pressure injection & net shape
t= thickness, R= radius of bend, α= bend angle
Product Design rapid section possible, rapid cooling (small grain size)& - Typical Cycle time 10 – 30 sec
Kba {R<2t⤃Kba=0.33},{ R≥2t⤃Kba=0.5}
- Geometric simplicity reduce porosity - Complex & intricate shape are possible
Spring back- happen because it gains it elastic
- Avoid unnecessary complexities Disadvantage- Limited to low Tm metal, Part geometry deformation - Shape limited to allow easy removal of mold (No
- Remove stress concentrator must allow removable from the die Compensating spring back –over bending – bend under Cut)
- Uniform section thickness SHEET METAL more than what is needed to compensate - Economical For Large Production due to high cost
- Draft angle (easy to remove part) - thickness- 0.4 to 6 mm (must not be smaller than - Bottoming – Systems in Injection molding
- Remove the need of core compared) Bending force- - Injection system
Sand casting- POOR dimensional accuracies - Usually performed as cold work (30 % below Tm K) 𝐾𝑏𝑓(𝑇𝑠)𝑤𝑡 2 - Clamping system
𝐹= w=width, t= thickness, d= die opening
Die casting- GOOD dimensional accuracies Advantage – High Strength 𝐷 o Holds 2 half in proper alignment
2 types of casting process - Good dimensional accuracy & surface finish (mm), Ts= tensile strength (Mpa), Kbf- Vbend=1.33 o Resist injection force
- Expandable mold – mold get destroyed, one part - Relatively low cost Edge bend = 0.33 o Open & close at appropriate time
Drawing- sheet metal to cup shape or box shape - Injection system
one mold not suited for high rate - Economical for mass production
- Permeant mold- use of permeant mold Shearing process- cutting of material without Clearance in drawing C= 1.1t (thickness=t) o Screw- Acts as a ramp to push melt it also mixing
LOST WAX PROCESS- Capable of producing high producing chips Major stress & heating polymers
accuracy (75µm) and intricate design STEPS Clearance in between to start crack from corner and - Flange – wrinkling(compressive hoop stress) THE types of Mould
1. Create a wax pattern reach another corner - Wall- longitudinal tensile stress (tearing) 2 plates – only one is movable
Effect of blank holder - Oversized for shrinkage & have ejection pins
2. Dip it in a thin refractory material (usually silica) or
pack it in then let it dry Fh- too high= prevents flow - External pumps water to remove heat
3. Melt the wax, upside down, wax can be recycled - Too low = cause wrinkles - Air vents to let trap air escape
𝐷𝑏
4. Preheat the mold pour the molten metal and let it Drawing ratio ⤃Dr = 𝐷 ≤ 2(𝐶𝐴𝑁), > 2 × 3plates- 2 plates are Movable – mold open, runner
𝑝
solidifies 𝐷 −𝐷 and part is disconnected
Reduction ratio ⤃ 𝑅 = 𝑏𝐷 𝑝 ≤ 0.5 (𝑐𝑎𝑛)
5. Crack the mold and retrieve the part 𝑏 Hot runner- Eliminates solidification of sprue &
𝑇
Advantage- Part with great complexity & intricacy can > 1% (𝑐𝑎𝑛) (less than 1% cause wrinkling) runner- save material
𝐷𝐵
Rollover- Shrinkage- High thermal expansion coefficient
finish, wax is recyclable & net shape process Blank size = 𝐷𝑏 = √𝐷𝑝 2 + 4𝐷𝑝 ℎ check final volume is Compensation for shrinkage
depression made
Disadvantage- $$& many step for automation same as initial volume 𝐷𝑐 = 𝐷𝑝 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑝 𝑠 2 Dc= cavity dimension
by punch prior to
Permanent mold casting 𝐷 Dp= molded part dimension, S= shrinkage rate.
cutting Drawing force (Max force) = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 𝑡(𝑇𝑠)(𝐷𝑏 − 0.7)
𝑝 Nylon 6,6=0.02 (mm/mm)
- Design for easy & precise opening & closing
- Burnish – smooth region due to penetration punch
- Mold used for lower tm metal made from steel & 0.7= correction factor, t= thickness, Dp punch dia, ts Polyethylene – 0.025 PVC-0.005
cast iron prior to fracture tensile strength. Length in mm Polystyrene- 0.004
0.015𝑌𝜋
- Mold use for steel need refractory material - Fracture zone- relatively rough surface caused by 𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹ℎ = 4 {𝐷𝑏 2 − Factor effecting shrinkage
Steps in permeant mold casting fracture as the punch goes down (𝐷𝑝 + 2.2𝑡 + 2𝑅𝑑 ) } 2 - Injection pressure- more material can go in
1. Mold is preheated&lubricated ( to give easy- Burr- sharp corner edge- elongation of metal Rd- die corner radius (mm) - Compaction time- more time ↑ material
release) Punch & die Size Dp – punch dia, Db- starting blank dia(mm), Y tensile - Molding temp- ↑temp= thin material, more flow
2. Force closed& metal is poured in - If we want blanked size(Db) strength - Thicker design ↑shrinkage
3. release before completely cool down o Blanking punch dia = Db-2c Defect in Drawing – Wrinkling in Flange or walls, Defect in injection
Advantage –Good dimensional control, rapid o Hole die dia = Db earing, hot tear or surface scratches. - Short shot- misrun
- If I want a hole in the punch die (Dh)
solidification (finer grain stronger structure) SHAPING PROCESS FOR POLYMER - Flash- polymer melts squeeze into the parting
Disadvantage – limited to low tm, simpler part o Hole Punch dia (Dh) - Unlimited variety of part geometric surface or around ejector pins
o Hole die dia =Dh+2C - Net shape - Sink marks & Voids: too thick mold ↑ shrinkage
Allowance
Die casting- molten pour in cavity with high pressure - Less energy required than metal - Weld line – melt flow around core and met other
- 11005 & 50525 Al alloy all tampers-0.045
(to remove cavity & porosity) HOT & COLD CHAMBER - Painting is not required side
Hot chamber – metal is melted in container - 20245t & 6061st Al alloy, brass soft cold rolled steel, Polymers melt Compression molding (THERMOSET PLASTIC)
soft stainless steel – 0.06
- Piston injected the liquid metal at 7-35 Mpa (not to - Viscosity – shear stress to shear rate – high - Moulding compounds – powder, pellets liquids
remove till solidify) - Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel half & full molecular weight (Viscosity of polymer melt - Charge must be precisely controlled
hard (0.075) decreased with shear rate & temperature goes up) Mold for compression molding
metal out Clearance (4 to 8 %) - Viscoelasticity – combination of viscosity and – Simpler than injection molding
- High production rate (500 parts/ hour) - Too small- fracture line pass each other = double elasticity – No sprue and runner
- ONLY to low Tm metal ( lead, zinc, Tin) burnish- need larger force Die swelling- Extrude polymers “rmb” its previous – Limited or simpler geometric –lack of flow
- Too large – metal is pinched between cutting edge shape – Mold must be heated
& excessive burr Swell- extrude part bigger than die shape
𝐶 = 𝑎𝑡 Clearance, allowance, t-sheet metal Plastic shape processing
Angular Tolerance– allow part to drop (0.25 to 1.5 - Casting – like metal mold (Both thermoset &
deg) thermoplastic can be casted)
Cutting force (Max) 𝐹 = 𝑆𝑡𝑙 = 0.7(𝑇. 𝑠)𝑡𝑙 o Advantage- less residual stress , surface &
L= PERIMETER of shape cut off (mm), s=shear force, ts optical properties will be good
COLD CHAMBER – molten metal is poured in from = tensile strength (mpa)
o Disadvantage- large shrinkage
external melting container, high production but not as
Shear angle- punch is angled
- Extrusion – Used for Thermoplastic and elastomer Transfer molding (THERMOSETS)
hot chamber (Pressure= 14- 140 Mpa) Advantage- Reduce the shock on the process
o Continues process, extrudate is cut at desirable -Polymers enter as fluid.
- Reduce the cutting force length Fed section (1), Compression section (air 2type - POT & PLUNGER transfer
- Cutting graduate on along stroke is removed (2)), Metering section-(melt is
Fine blanking- 1% of allowance homogenised (3))
Type of sheet bending
V- bending- low production quality , simple &
inexpensive
Angle above 90 deg dies is more complicated
- Breaker plate & screen pack- very fine mesh ⤃ to
compensated
filter hard lump and contaminates ⤃ also
 Compression vs transfer molding
 Both process have cull (wasted part can’t recycled)
 Transfer molding very good for Molding parts insert
BLOW MOLDING (ONLY THERMOPLASTIC)
 One piece hollow plastic – bottles
 Used for very high quantity
3 types
 Extrusion blow molding
o Extrude tube comes in- pinched in placed, blown
to specification
 Injection blow molding
o 2 mold used- 1 for parison, 2nd for actual part
 Stretch blow Molding
o Blowing rod stretches the soft parison
o Resulting structure is more rigid , transparent &
impact resistance
THERMOFORMING (ONLY THERMOPLASTIC)
 Comes in plastic or film
o Vacuum thermoforming
o Pressure thermoforming -3 to 4 atm
o Mechanical thermoforming-$$ due to 2 mold,
but both side will have details.
WELDING- JOINING process in which 2 or more surface
or parts are coalesced at their contacting surface by
application of heat and OR pressure. ESSENCE OF
WELDING=Atomic Bonding!
2 major categories- FUSION & SOLID STATE WELDING
Fusion welding
 Requires Melting of base metal
 Fillers is added to provide bulk & add strength to
weld join
 Without fillers is called autogenous weld
 Eg, arc welding( AW ), oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
Solid state welding-Joining by application of pressure
or a combination of heat & pressure
 If heat is used temp us BELOW tm of the metal
 No filler metal is added in SSW
 Eg, friction, ultrasonic, resistance current, explosive
POWER Density (desirable to melt metal with
minimum energy but high heat densities)
PD=P/A, P=power, A = surface area which energy is
entering
Unit energy for melting (Heat required to melt a unit
vol of metal) SUM OF (heat raised from room temp to
Tm) + (solid to liquid)
2 −6 (𝐾)
𝑈𝑚 = 𝐾𝑇𝑚 𝑘 = 3.33 × 10 𝑇𝑚 (𝐾)
Heat transfer Eff (f1) - From heat source to work piece BRAZING & SOLDERING
(waste by heating surrounding air, u will feel hot)-
depends on welding process & capacity to convert
power to usable heat at work surface(LOW PD=Low
f1)
Melting Eff (F2) - in work piece how much is used for Strength depends on the design of joint
melting (surrounding metal get hot)- depends on
welding process but also influenced by thermal
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properties of metal, joint configuration & work
thickness
𝐻𝑤 = 𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐻 = 𝑈𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 Hw (net heat available
for melting), H (Total heat generated by welding
process),
𝐻𝑅𝑤 = 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝐻𝑅 = 𝑈𝑚 𝐴𝑤 𝑉 = 𝑈𝑚 (𝑊𝑉𝑅) 𝑈m(unit
energy J/mm3), V(welding speed), WVR= welding
volume rate(mm3/min)
Oxyfuel gas welding- Fusion welding ops that burn
various fuel mixed with oxygen & oxyacetylene (C2H2)
(most popular as it can reach up to 3480 deg)
Torch – Acetylene value (Left hand thread, painted
red) open first, gas is lighted then oxygen (right hand
thread, painted green) is open
2 stage chemical reaction
1. C2H2 + 02 ⤃(exothermic) 2CO +H2 (inner cone)
2. 2C0 + H2 +1.502 ⤃ 2C02 +H2O (g)outer
envelope
Max temp happen at inner cone & f1= 0.1 to 0.3
Arc Welding – reach up to 5500 deg (hot enough to
metal any metal) – electric arc- discharge of current
across gap in a circuit sustained by an ionized column
of gas (plasma)through which the current flow
Arc shielding- @ high temp metal are chemical
reactive to surrounding gas causing mechanical
properties of joint to be seriously affected = Arc must to give the required shape, dimension & surface finish Change tool when flank wear land width VB as 0.4 mm
be protected
Gas used argon, helium, CO2 or flux
Role of flux- stabilize arc
 Prevent formation of oxidise and other
contaminating in welding
 Provide protective atmosphere
 Reduce splattering
Application of flux- pouring of granular flux or tubular 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝛾 =
electrode
2 Basic types of AW electrode
 Consumable – welding rod/ weld wire along with
filler material are consumed
 Non consumable- made up of tungsten to resist
melting(Shielding gas must be provided)
Shielded Metal Arc welding (SMAW)
Submerged arc welding – due to high current arc
holder is submerged to be more efficient
Gas tungsten Arc welding (TIG) - needs cooling water
to cool tungsten as it reach high temp
Solid state welding no filler metal is added
Success factor- surface very clean & very close
physical contact
Advantage- no melting – no Heat affected zone
- Bonds Entire surface & use to bond dissimilar
material without concern
Ultrasonic- limited to lap joints on soft material such
as Al & copper
Friction welding zone- amount of heat, thermal
conductivity & mechanical properties
Resistance welding – localised heat due to large
electrical resistance 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 Ω𝑡 time(sec) i=Current (A)
↑ Current due to faster melting if not heat will be
dissipated away.
- Poor weldability & dissimilar metal to be joined
- Damage of internal component
- Geometry not suitable to weld
- High strength not required
Advantage- Any metal can be joined
- Can be performed quickly & consistently
- Multiple joint can be brazed together
Less power is required
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Use of capillary action allows to reach in accessible areas
Limitation – Joint strength is less than welded joint
- High service temp will weaken the joint
- Colour of brazing metal may not match
Desirable brazing metal characteristic
- Low surface tension in liquid phase for good wettability
- High fluidity to penetrate
- Avoid chemical & physical interaction with base metal & High
contact angle no go low contact angle good
Brazing – temp above 450 deg (hard soldering)
Soldering – below 450
Characteristic of good flux
- Low Tm & facilitate wetting
- Low viscosity to be displaced by filler metal
- Protect joint until solidification
Advantage of adhesives
- Wide range of material can be applicable
- Bonding over all the surface
- Low temp to prevent damage
- Doubles as a seal
Disadvantage of adhesive bonding
- Not very strong
- Adhesive must be compatible
- Service temp is limited
- Surface must be cleaned
- Curing take time – wastage of production rate
- Inspections of bonds are difficult.
Defects in Weld joint – porosity, slag inclusion & incomplete
fusion & penetration
Cracks in weld joint- cools too fast without giving time to shrink
causing to fracture
- Thermal stress due to temp
- Variation in composition
- Hydrogen embrittlement & inability to contracttool material
Solution – change design
Detection- USE ultrasonic or radiation detection
MACHINING- removable of material from a work piece - Nose radius wear & notch wear
Advantage- Good dimensional accuracy & surface
finish, cheaper producing by machining
Disadvantage- Waste material (chip), generally take
longer time, adverse effect on surface quality.
𝑡 sin 𝜙 𝑉𝑐
𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑟 = 𝑡𝑜 = cos(𝜙−𝛼) = 𝑉
𝑐
𝑟 cos 𝛼
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 , tan 𝜙 = 1−𝑟 sin 𝛼
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝑂 𝑂𝐵
= = + Conductivity altered by adding impurities (dopants). Abundance
𝐷 𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶
𝛼 𝛽
Merchant Eq 𝜙 = 45𝑑𝑒𝑔 + 2 − 2 α= rake angle
β= Frictional angle. As α↓ or β↑,φ↓=y ↑
𝜏 𝑤𝑡0 cos(𝛽−𝛼)
Cutting force 𝐹𝑐 = sin 𝜙 cos(𝜙+𝛽−𝛼)
Importance of Knowing cutting force
- Selection of machine tools
- Tools to be properly design
- Workpiece must withstand cutting force
on 07-14-2022 11:34:00 GMT -05:00
fs shear force, fn normal force
𝛽 = 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 , 𝑁 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝜇 =
𝐹 DRILLING – boring- enlarge hole made from previous
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽, 𝜇~0.5 𝑡𝑜 2
𝑁 -Taping- make internal thread in W/P
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝑠
𝑤𝑡0
𝐴𝑠 = , W= width
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
Power = FcV=FsVs + FVc - to shear material &
𝑚𝑚 3
overcome friction 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑤𝑡0 𝑉𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝑒𝑐
Specific energy = Power (FV)/MRR
Heat generation – shear zone & friction
AS vel ↑ heat dissipation↓ & temp ↑
Max temp is half way up tool chip interface
Chips remove heats v↑ higher % of heat is carried
away
Adverse effect of temp rise
- Cutting tool- strength↓, hardness↓ &wear
resistance↓
- Workpiece – uneven dimensional change hard to
control accuracy
- Machine tools- difficult to control dimension
Cutting tool subjected to- high localised stress,↑temp,
sliding of chip along rake face – sliding of tool along a
freshly cut surface
Tool wear –flank wear – rubbing of tool along
machined surface & high temp effecting properties of
Crater wears – temp at tool too high- chemical affinity
between tool & w/p – diffusion mechanism
Surface finish become badly or ↑cutting force & temp
Taylor’s tool life equation 𝑉𝑇 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 V=cutting
speed (m/min), T = tool life (min),n<1
Extended Taylor tool 𝑉𝑇 𝑛 𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 d depth
of cut (mm) f= feed rate (mm/rev)
Chip significant- surface finish of workpiece, cutting
operation
4 types of chip
- Continues chip – ductile material @ high cutting speed- good
surface finish, tend to be entangled so ops have to be
stopped( remedy; change machining parameter & chip
breaker to ↓ the radius of chip
- Discontinuous chip- Brittle material , cannot handle high
shear strain or contains hard inclusion or impurities (cutting
force varies during cutting
- Built up Edge(BUE)- due to chemical reaction workpiece is
attached to tool>↓surface finish
- Serrated (segmented chip)- semi continuous chip with large
zone of shear strain & small zone of high shear strain – ALSO
found in metal with low thermal conductivity & strength that
decrease sharply with temp e.g. titanium.
2 2
𝑓 𝑓
Arithmetic mean value 𝑅𝑎 = ⁄32𝑅 𝑅𝑡 = ⁄8𝑅
2 type of vibration forced & self- excited vibration
Positive + Rake angle- Lower cutting force – lower
temperature rise, weaker cutting edge
Negative – rake angle – strong cutting edge- both side
of tools insert can be used
Tools characteristic- hot hardness- cutting temp must not reach
plastic deformation
-Thermal shock- withstand rapid temp cycle
-Wear resistance & chemical stability or inertness
Uncoated tungsten- for cast iron & abrasive non-ferrous material
Reason for using cutting fluid
- reduce friction & wear, cool cutting zone, reduce force & power
consumption, wash away chips, protects machined surface from
corrosion
Limitation – recycling become difficult & corrosion
𝑚𝑚 3
TURNING - 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑑𝑓𝑉( ) f= feed rate mm/rev
sec
d- depth of cut- (Do-Df)/2, V=pi((Do+Df)/2)N
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡(𝑚𝑚) 2) Drive in heat treatment (hotter faster diffusion) got gradient of
𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑓𝑁 material flow (limitation)
Ion Implantation – vaporized impurity ion accelerated by an
electrical field and directed at silicon substrate
𝜋𝐷 2 -Control of depth by accelerating voltage & mass ion
Velocity of drill=fN 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = ( 4 ) × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Advantage – can be accomplished at room temp & provides
Cutting time same as turning... exacts doping density.
Power = Torque (Nm)x N(in rad/sec) LITHOGRAPHY- process by which geometric pattern of die is
Climb (Down) Milling- transferred to substrate surface.
1. Starts off with max chip thickness Photo resist spin coating- to obtain pattern from mask first then
2. Need downward component to hold W/p transfer to substrate- speed, time ,viscosity, thickness & seed
3. Not suitable for surface treated layer(to help attach the photo resist to stick to substrate )
4. High impact force( rigid set up is required) “back lash” must typically runs at 1200- 4800 rpm for 30 to 60 sec to give 0.5 to
be eliminated 2.5 µm thickness
Conventional (UP) milling – more common Exposure – use light to expose the coating of photo resist on the
-Max chip thickness at end, tools may chatter upwards (need to surface if the wafer.
have proper clamp) - surface hardness won’t be in the way. Positive resist- change from insoluble to soluble by UV light
(pattern us exactly copied)
Negative resist- changes from soluble to insoluble – forms the
inverse of mask.
Exposure techniques – Contact printing- high accuracy but mask
will be contaminated and effect the pattern needs regular
cleaning
-Proximity printing (mask does not touch w/p) got gap leading
poor resolution due to light going thru gap.
Grinding- high dimensional accuracy& fine surface finish -Projection Printing- Use adverse to project image down using 2
(Al203,SIC) Highly negative rake angle, each grain remove small lenses.
chip, abrasive to bond together ETCHING- removal of surface material.
Type of bond- Vitrified bond – upon heating become glass like Wet etching- immersing the wafer in liquid solution (acid),
material, commonly used, strong stiff porous & resistant to oil, isotropic- all direction etching is same (effecting depends on)
acid & water
etchant transport to the surface, a chemical reaction, transport
- resinoids bonds- more flexible then vitrified bond of reaction product away from the surface, ability to stop the
-Rubber- most flexible- very thin wheel can be made like saw, use etching process rapidly
as cut off blade Isotropic etchants etch at the same rate in every direction
MICROFABRICATION
IC- contains large number of microscopic electronic device (in 0.5
mm thick x 5 to 25mm side)
Layers are altered to get transistor properties
Clean room- 21 deg @ 45 % relative humidity(depends on IC size
finer the chip the less contaminates it should have) Process
sequence for silicon IC
1) Sand (SiO) is reduced to very pure form then shaped into
wafer
2) IC fabrication- change process layer by layer each change
properties add or remove material. Widely used for removing damaged surface, sharp corner reduce
3) Ic packaging- wafer is tested, cut and packaged.
roughness. Etch rate 100>110>111
Semiconductor lies between conductor and insulator
in earth so cheap. SiO have large energy gap= ↑maximum
operating temperature
Typical microfabrication process- prepare surface> apply
resist>soft bake>align mask & expose>develop resist>hard
bake>etch>strip resist Dry etch method- very reliable as it can control depth
Diamond type FCC structure- wafer are made from single crystal Sputtering(ion Milling or ion beam etch – frequent used – atom
whose unit cell is oriented in a certain direction and must be cut are removed individually so more control – heated inert is
in desired planar orientation injected in vacuum and accelerated by magnetic field, hotter
(Czochralski Process) single crystal boule is pulled from a pool of more reactive
molten silicon in an inert environment . Dry chemical etch- gaseous form chemical injected & exposed to
Wafer slicing. – ring shaped saw with internal diamond grit (0.5- surface. Reaction happen and by-products are gaseous form
0.7mm thickness) to minimized kerf loss. Reactive Ion Etch (RIE) combination of physical and chemical
etching. Advantage- Anisotropic profile, high etches rate, higher
selecting ratio than physical etch, smaller feature size possible.
Deep reactive ion – high aspect ratio, vertical sidewall use of
passivation techniques. Uses of fluorine based plasma to etch,
stop for a while pour in fluorocarbon polymer, give coating then
Layering process in IC fabrication – adds, alter or remove region restart the etch etching example.
defined by photolithography Processing step- wafer testing, chip separation, die bonding, wire
Thermal oxidation of silicon –in an oxygen or steam environment bonding, package sealing, and final testing.
Wet oxidation Wafer testing- use of multiprobe- done in wafer (save cost &
Si+2H2O→SiO2+2H2 convenient- fails wafer are inked (not packaged)- fully automatic
Chip separation- cut using thin diamond saw blade, before an
(dry oxidation – Si+ O2→ SiO2) adhesive tape is attached to chip so that it won’t move after
Metallization process
cutting.
Physical vapour deposition (no chemical changes)- material is
Die bonding- to bond the chip to the packing substrate- eutectic
converted to its vapour phase in vacuum chamber & condensed die bonding (ceramics) suitable for high temp usage.
onto substrate surface as a very thin film
Epoxy die bonding – for plastic packages
Chemical vapour deposition (<1µm)- mixture of gas & heated
Wire connection- electrical connection are made between output
surface substrate causing chemical decompositions of some of
pad and on chip and package
the gas constituent & formation of solid film.
Final testing- to see if have been damaged during package.
Electroplating (give more thickness)- something to be plated
I/O terminal =𝑛𝑖/𝑜 = 𝐶𝑛𝑐𝑚 nc number of circuit in the IC
connect to negative (workpiece = cathode) & anode (plating
Design issue- (Packaging to protect – humidity & corrosion,
metal connect to positive terminal)
temperature, vibration & mechanical shock), heat dissipation,
To alter electrical properties of silicon by introducing impurities
cost, performance, reliability, service life & electrical connection
into selected region of the surface called doping (Boron,
Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony)
to external circuit
Thermal diffusion – atoms migrates from region of high
concentration into a region of lower concertation
2 steps= 1) preposition- dopant is deposited in wafer