applied

sciences
Article
Analytical Model for Angular Distortion in
Multilayer Welding under Constraints
Woo-Jae Seong , Sang-Cheol Park and Hee-Keun Lee *
Industrial Application R&D Institute, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering Co., Ltd., 3370, Geoje-daero,
Geoje-si, Gyeongsangnam-do 53302, Korea; wjseong@dsme.co.kr (W.-J.S.); gonausa2005@dsme.co.kr (S.-C.P.)
* Correspondence: zetlee@dsme.co.kr; Tel.: +82-10-3581-8043




Received: 12 February 2020; Accepted: 4 March 2020; Published: 7 March 2020


Abstract: We propose an analytical model for the fast prediction of angular distortion that is caused
by practical multilayer (or multi-pass) butt welding under constraints. To this end, the relationships
between angular distortion, bead size, thickness, and degree of constraint are derived by analyzing
the welding deformation mechanism and considering the bead-on-plate welding experimental
results. Prediction curves are then obtained while considering the geometry of the butt welding
joint. We verify the formulas through experiments under various constraint conditions, with different
welding joint geometries, heat inputs, and thicknesses. The proposed model can not only predict
angular distortion in butt joints of various shapes, but also allows for providing restraint methods
and welding sequences for minimizing distortion.

Keywords: analytical model; angular distortion; multi-layer welding; multi-pass welding; butt
welding; degree of constraint; prediction curve; restraint

1. Introduction
Welding large structures is essential in constructing ships, heavy machinery, nuclear power plants,
platforms, among others. For structures whose mechanical parts require precision work, including
rack and pinion jacking systems and large platforms as representative examples, strict criteria should
be satisfied during construction. For structures supporting compressive loads, the presence of initial
out-of-plane deformation can cause buckling and lead to collapse in the worst case. Deformation
in the welding of thick structures is largely due to transverse angular distortion, but is controllable.
Therefore, it is necessary to predict and minimize the distortion before construction.
The application of welding technology to industries has been derived in many studies on the
relationships between welding conditions and deformation. Okerblom [1] proposed a formula for
predicting the angular distortion through a bead-on-plate experiment. The obtained angular distortion
was proportional to the heat input and melting efficiency, and inversely proportional to the square of
thickness. The heat input is expressed as the product of current and voltage divided by the travel speed.
Moreover, Okerbłom found that, when penetration in the base metal exceeds 0.6 of its thickness, the
base metal under the fusion region fails to provide sufficient constraints, and angular distortion rapidly
decreases. Satoh and Terasaki [2] analyzed the relationships between material, heat input, thickness,
and deformation. They theoretically determined that the angular distortion is proportional to the heat
input and inversely proportional to the square of thickness, and then experimentally verified these
results. A common conclusion of the abovementioned studies is that angular distortion first increases
in proportion to the division of heat input by the square of thickness, and it gradually decreases
after a threshold. Many researchers verified this relationship afterwards, being widely applied across
industries. Mochizuki and Okano [3] recently found that this relationship differs, depending on the
welding process, and that the factor that actually affects angular distortion is the mechanical melting

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848; doi:10.3390/app10051848 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 2 of 17

region, whose temperature corresponds to that at which the stiffness of the material sharply decreases.
Through finite element analysis, they also found that angular distortion is proportional to the width
and depth of the region and inversely proportional to the square of thickness, and then confirmed the
applicability of these relationships to various types of welding processes.
Besides studies on basic principles, angular distortion has been investigated during multilayer
welding. Kihara and Masubuchi [4] determined that angular distortion, which is small at the beginning,
increases in the middle section, and then decreases again during multilayer welding of a double-V
groove in a ring-type structure. They investigated the effect of the groove shape on the angular change
and found the optimal groove height ratio. In addition, they found that back chipping causes a
small deformation. Satoh and Terasaki [5] found that angular distortion during multilayer welding
depends on the specific deposited heat and derived a formula for predicting deformation from the
number of beads based on an existing bead-on-plate welding formulation. They concluded that the
number of beads affecting the distortion a function of thickness, heat input, bevel angle, wire density,
and specific deposited heat. Kim et al. [6] calculated the angular distortion during the multi-pass
welding of stainless steel in the vacuum and cryostat vessel of a fusion reactor by introducing the
effective bending rigidity, and proposed a method for minimizing deformation during X groove
welding. Ha and Choi [7] derived an analytical formula for estimating angular distortion during
V groove multilayer welding while using inherent strain calculation. In addition, they proposed a
simple method for predicting the final distortion by considering the measured weld deposition rate.
Adamczuk et al. [8] proposed a method for predicting the angular distortion of V groove welding by
using curve fitting from the experimental results of butt multi-pass welding. They derived relationships
between heat input, geometry, and distortion. Okano et al. [9] conducted a simplified distortion
analysis by applying an inherent strain database to improve the efficiency of multi-pass welding
analysis and considered the effect of residual stress on existing beads. Seong [10] aimed to apply
the characteristics of angular distortion during bead-on-plate welding to multilayer butt welding
joints and then proposed a numerical approach while using the geometric principle of weld groove.
Consequently, the prediction of angular distortion per pass without using finite element analysis was
achieved. Seong et al. [11] introduced the concept of offset and constraint to develop a geometric
based algorithm. The angular distortion of 145 mm thick X-groove joint welding was predicted and
compared with the finite element analysis results. The optimum welding sequence was provided
through the assessment procedure they proposed.
Most of the structures are subject to unknown constraints that are caused by gravity or surrounding
structures. Various studies on the degree of constraint and distortion have been conducted to consider
these phenomena. Leggatt [12] obtained the constraint strength in terms of thickness, free span of the
plate, and experimental constant when both ends are fixed and welded at the middle. A function
for estimating angular distortion was derived by dividing the existing angular formula by the
restraint factor. Masubuchi and Ich [13] proposed a method for calculating the degree of constraint
through computer analysis for various joint configurations. The method might be used for predicting
deformation and cold cracking. Ma et al. [14] verified the deformation reduction according to the
jig constraint position and pitch through experiments and theoretical analysis, and they addressed
longitudinal and transverse shrinkage as well as angular distortion, which were significantly reduced.
Kung et al. [15] showed the deformation of SUS304 steel according to the number of jigs using finite
element analysis and proposed the optimal location of jig fixtures. Park et al. [16] derived the constraint
coefficient through various welding experiments and analyses, obtaining the actual degree of constraint
of a ship block and devising the optimal welding sequence. Kim et al. [17] proposed an equivalent
strain method while using inherent strain containing functions of the degree of constraint to improve
the efficiency of welding deformation analysis for actual ship fabrication, as experimentally verified.
Overall, studies on multilayer welding and the degree of constraint have provided substantial
advances. However, few tools have been reported for efficiently predicting angular distortion during
multilayer welding while considering the degree of constraint. In fact, it is difficult to reflect unknown
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 3 of 17

constraints, although they may be designed in advance through laboratory experiments. Finite element
analysis has been the mainstream for predicting angular distortion, but its long computational time
ranges from a few hours to days, because thermo-elastic-plastic analysis must be conducted for over
a few hundred passes. Moreover, the results rely on the experience or intuition of researchers and
specialists if analytical methods are not available. In this paper, we propose a method for predicting
the angular distortion of a structure under unknown constraints during multilayer welding through a
mathematical approach. To this end, a formula on the degree of constraint is derived by analyzing
the distortion behavior of bead-on-plate welding. In addition, an analytical formula is derived by
applying the first formulation to multilayer welding joint geometry. The calculation of the analytical
formula is completed within a few seconds.

2. Methods

2.1. Mechanics of Welding Distortion

Arc welding uses thermal energy that is converted from electrical energy. Once the molten wire
is placed on a base metal, its heat is transferred to the base, and the weld pool cools down, with the
base metal undergoing both heating and cooling. The shrinkage of the weld pool is determined by
subtracting the tensile plastic strain that is induced by surrounding constraints from the thermal strain
during cooling. On the other hand, the shrinkage of the base metal is determined by subtracting
the tensile plastic strain that is caused by cooling from the compressive plastic strain induced by
surrounding constraints during heating. The constraining effect disappears if the elastic region is
removed from the cooled welding joint, and the final contracted strain in the pure plasticity region,
known as inherent strain [18], can be obtained. Physically, the inherent strain corresponds to subtracting
the elastic strain from the total strain and it equals the sum of the plastic strain and thermal strain if the
strain due to phase transformation is negligible, as in low-carbon steel. As the inherent strain at the
welding joint includes plasticity, the plastic region is identical to the region where the inherent strain is
distributed, and the inherent strain region can be considered as the plastic region.
Angular distortion occurs by the inconsistency between the location of contraction and the neutral
axis of the plate. In this study, we aimed to predict angular distortion under constraints due to a
connection to surrounding structures. Therefore, a mathematical model for the contraction of the
welding joint was devised and experimentally verified. Figure 1 shows the free body diagram of the
area where bending occurs due to weld-induced contraction. The figure depicts the force that is caused
by contraction in the plastic region, reaction force, and geometrical dimensions. The inherent strain that
causes contraction in the bead and base metal is assumed to have a rectangular shape with a uniform
distribution. Force F represents the force by contraction, Fr is its reaction force and Mr is the reaction
moment by self-equilibrium of the plate without any constraint or external force. When the target
structure is connected to other structures and both ends are constrained, Mc is the resulting reaction
moment. Thus, the reaction moment that is caused by the equilibrium of force due to the contraction
of the welding joint is expressed as the sum of Mr and MC . As we address angular distortion, only the
constraints that are caused by the moment in the out-of-plane direction are considered, disregarding
the compressive and tensile loads in the in-plane direction. Although the in-plane reaction force at
the constraining sides might affect the angular distortion of the welding joint, it is negligible with
respect to out-of-plane moment Mc . If no constraint by surrounding structures exists, Mc becomes
zero, and only the reaction moment by the self-equilibrium, Mr , should be considered.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 4 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

Figure 1.
Figure Freebody
1. Free bodydiagram
diagramofofwelding
weldingdistortion
distortion(𝑡:(t:plate
plate thickness,
thickness, a: a: height
height of plasticity
of plasticity area,
area, 𝐿:
L: width
width of of plasticity
plasticity area, 𝜌:ρ:curvature,
area, curvature,𝐹:F:force
forceby
byweld
weld shrinkage, Fr:: reaction
shrinkage, 𝐹 force, M
reaction force, 𝑀r :: reaction
reaction
moment of
moment of base plate, M
base plate, 𝑀c :: reaction
reaction moment
moment by by surrounding
surrounding structures,
structures, including
including external
external moment).
moment).

From Figure
From Figure 1,
1, the
the equilibrium
equilibrium equations
equations can
can be
be expressed,
expressed, as
as follows:
follows:
𝐹F =
= 𝐹Fr−− 𝑃P =
= 𝐹Fr−
−𝐹F=
= 00
X
(1) (1)

X𝑀 = 𝑀 𝑀 −𝐹𝑧 =0 (2)
M = Mr + Mc − Fr z = 0 (2)
The load 𝐹 due to shrinkage and the reaction force 𝐹 against the plastic region beyond the
yieldThe
strength
load F are in equilibrium.
due to shrinkage Weighting
and the reaction 𝑤 isFadopted
factorforce r againstfor thethe yieldregion
plastic strength of the the
beyond welding
yield
joint. The inherent strain that is generated by welding is inhomogeneous in terms
strength are in equilibrium. Weighting factor w is adopted for the yield strength of the welding joint. of distribution and
size due to heat
The inherent transfer
strain distribution,
that is generated strain hardening,
by welding dilution in
is inhomogeneous withtermswelding materials,
of distribution anddegree
size dueof
constraint, and residual
to heat transfer stress,
distribution, but hardening,
strain it is higher than the with
dilution yieldwelding
strengthmaterials,
of the material.
degreeTherefore, we
of constraint,
introduce
and residual thestress,
weighting
but it factor
is higherto quantify thesestrength
than the yield uncertainties. The ratio Therefore,
of the material. of the reaction moment the
we introduce by
weighting 𝑀 , to
constraints,factor to the pure reaction
quantify moment byThe
these uncertainties. plate,of𝑀the
the ratio , isreaction as 𝐾 − 1.
definedmoment byWhen 𝐾 equals
constraints, Mc ,
1,
to the pure
constraints
reactionare removed,
moment by thebecause
plate, M𝑀r , is
becomes
definedzeroas K and, whenK𝐾equals
− 1. When is above 1, constraints
1, the the degreeare of
constraint increases.
removed, because Mc becomes zero and, when K is above 1, the degree of constraint increases.
Equation (3) (3)can
canbebeobtained
obtained by by calculating
calculating Equations
Equations (1) (2)
(1) and and for(2)
thefor the and
elastic elastic and regions.
plastic plastic
regions.
P R t R t R t
M = 2t EεzdA + (K − 1) 2t EεzdA + t 2 wYzdA
−2 − 2 −a
𝑀 = R 2t𝐸𝜀𝑧  𝑑𝐴  𝐾 − 1R t 2𝐸𝜀𝑧 𝑑𝐴 𝑤𝑌𝑧𝑑𝐴 (3)
= E t εN − ρ zdz + t wYzdz = 0
z 2
−2 2 −a (3)
𝑧
where σz = − Ez =𝐸 𝜀 − 𝑧𝑑𝑧 𝑤𝑌𝑧𝑑𝑧 = 0
ρ , εN − ρ = ε, E : elastic modulus, ε : 𝜌elastic strain, εN : elastic strain at neutral axis,
z

ρ : curvature, w : weighting factor, Y : yield strength, and K : degree of constraint, K = M c

Mr + 1.
where 𝜎 =integral
Solving the − , 𝜀of−Equation= 𝜀, 𝐸: (3),
elastic obtain , 𝜀: elastic strain , 𝜀 : elastic strain at neutral axis ,
we modulus
𝜌: curvature, 𝑤: weighting factor, 𝑌: yield strength, and 𝐾: degree of constraint, 𝐾 = 1.
KEt3
ρ =
Solving the integral of Equation (3), we obtain (4)
6wYab
Geometrically, this can be expressed as the 𝐾𝐸𝑡
𝜌 =angular distortion that is given by (4)
6𝑤𝑌𝑎𝑏
L 3wεY bAp
θ = as the
Geometrically, this can be expressed =angular distortion that is given by (5)
ρ − 2t Kt3 − 3wεY abt
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 5 of 17

where εY : strain at yield strength, Y/E, Ap : plasticity area.

We assume that the plate is much thicker than the size of the plastic region. Thus, 3wεY ab is much
smaller than the square of thickness t2 and Equation (5) can be expressed as

3wεY Ap
θ≈ (6)
Kt2

where b ≈ t  a, Kt2  3wεY ab, which indicates that the angular distortion is proportional to the area
of the plastic region and inversely proportional to the square of thickness. The direct relationship
between plastic region and angular distortion has been determined in studies on welding and laser
forming [2,18,19]. The plasticity of a material is likely to occur at high temperatures between 500 and
800 ◦ C, which produce a sharp stiffness drop. Therefore, the plastic region can be estimated from
the distribution of the peak temperature field inside the material during heating and cooling. As we
consider a thick plate, the equation of the peak temperature field by the point heat source on the
semi-infinite plate is defined, as follows, according to the derivation in [20]:

2Qnet 1
πr2 = ∝ Ap (7)
cp λe Tmax

where r: distance from point heat source Qnet : effective heat input, cp : specific heat, λ: density,
Tmax : maximum temperature experienced, with r representing the area within an isotherm, because
it is the distance from the center of the heat source to a specific temperature. If plasticity occurs at a
specific temperature between 500 and 800 ◦ C, the area of plastic region Ap is proportional to the heat
input, according to Equation (7).
The wire melting rate is expressed as the sum of the wire resistance heating and the arc heat,
which also originate from electrical energy. Thus, for typical arc welding, the bead area is proportional
to the heat input. As the plastic region and bead area are determined by the heat input, the angular
distortion can be obtained from the bead area, as follows:

CA
θ= (8)
K t2

where A: bead area, C = 3wεY ·Ap /A.

Equation (8) indicates that the angular distortion by welding is proportional to the bead area
and inversely proportional to the square of thickness and degree of constraint only for materials with
sufficient thickness when compared to the heated part. Here, the degree of constraint K must be 1
or above, and constant C depends on the material properties of the base metal and wire, the wire
diameter, and the welding process. This constant includes errors while deriving Equations (1) through
(8), and its value can be experimentally obtained through bead-on-plate welding for K = 1 without the
external constraints. In this study, we maintain the same material and welding process to keep the
constant C unchanged.

2.2. Bead-on-Plate Welding Experiment

We conducted an experiment of bead-on-plate welding to verify the validity of Equations (1) to
(8) while considering various assumptions. Low-carbon steel AH32 was used as the base metal, and
E81T1-K2C flux cored wire with 1.2 mm in diameter and meeting the American Welding Society (AWS)
Standards was used as welding material. The shielding gas was 100% CO2 . Welding was performed
at two trisection lines in a 1500 × 1000 mm specimen with different thicknesses without constraints,
as shown in Figure 2. The thicknesses of the bead-on-plate welding specimen were determined in
consideration of the bead-formed thickness generated during the multilayer welding. The width
was larger than the length along the welding direction to minimize the influence of longitudinal
distortion. The specimen size and measurement method were adopted, as in the previous study [10].
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 6 of 17

Constant current and voltage were maintained, but the welding speed was varied to achieve different
Appl. input
heat Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER
conditions. REVIEW
Table 1 lists the experimental conditions. 6 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17

Figure 2. Bead-on-plate welding and measurement (unit: millimeters) [10].

Figure 2. Bead-on-plate welding and measurement (unit: millimeters) [10].
Figure 2. Bead-on-plate
Table weldingfor
1. Welding conditions andbead-on-plate
measurementwelding
(unit: millimeters)
experiment.[10].
Table 1. Welding conditions for bead-on-plate welding experiment.
Thickness (mm) Voltage
Table 1. Welding (V)
conditions Current (A)
for bead-on-plate Travel Speed (cm/min)
welding experiment.
Thickness (mm)
11.5, 12, 19.5, 45 Voltage
29 (V) Current285 (A) Travel Speed (cm/min.)
25, 30, 40, 60
Thickness (mm)
11.5, 12,2819.5, 45 Voltage29 (V) Current 285 (A) Travel25,
Speed
30, (cm/min.)
29 285 25, 30 60
40,
11.5, 12,2819.5, 45 29
29 285
285 25, 30,
25, 40,
30 60
28 29 285 25, 30
We
Weperformed
performedmulti-pass
multi-passwelding
weldingupupto totwo
twolayers
layersto toincrease
increasethe
themeasurement
measurementaccuracyaccuracyofofthe
the
bead We performed
bead cross-sectional multi-pass
cross-sectional area area and welding
and height. up to
height. Welding two
Welding was layers
was performed to increase
performed twice the
twice permeasurement
per condition,
condition, and accuracy
and the of the
the angular
angular
bead cross-sectional
distortion
distortion was
was measured area and
measured for height.
for each
each passWelding
pass of
of the waslayer.
thefirst
first performed
layer. For twice per
For angular
angular condition,
distortion,
distortion, theand
the the angular
average
average values
values
distortion
were
wereobtainedwas
obtainedat measured
atthree
threepointsfor each
points(A1, pass
(A1,A2,
A2,A3 of
A3 orthe
or B1, first
B1, B2, layer.
B2, B3 B3 in For
in Figureangular
Figure 2) distortion,
2) while the average values
while using a digital angle gauge.
were
Metalobtained
Metal cubes
cubeswere at three
were usedpoints
used to (A1, A2,
tofacilitate
facilitate A3 or B1, B2, B3 in Figure 2) while using a digital angle gauge.
measurements.
measurements.
MetalFigure
cubes33were
Figure shows
shows usedthetobead
the facilitate
bead measurements.
cross-section
cross-section after
afterwelding.
welding. The The bead
bead cross-sectional
cross-sectional area
area stacked
stacked onon
the Figure
the base
base metal3 shows
metalwas the
wasobtained bead
obtainedby cross-section
bycalculating
calculatingthe after welding.
thenumber
numberof The
ofpixels. bead
pixels. The cross-sectional
The maximum
maximum and area
and minimumstacked
minimum bead on
bead
the basewere
heights
heights metalobtained
were was obtained
obtained by by calculating
by creating
creating curves the number
curves parallel
parallel to theofdeformed
to the pixels. The
deformed maximum
geometry
geometry of andbase
of the
the minimum
base metal,bead
metal, with
with
heights
their were
average obtained
being by creating
considered to curves
be the parallel
bead
their average being considered to be the bead height. height. to the deformed geometry of the base metal, with
their average being considered to be the bead height.

Figure 3. Magnified image of welded sample for welding at 285 A, 29 V, and 30 cm/min.
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Magnified
Magnifiedimage
imageof
ofwelded
weldedsample
samplefor
for welding
welding at
at 285
285 A,
A, 29
29 V,
V, and
and 30
30 cm/min.
cm/min
Figure 4 shows the measured angular distortion for varying thicknesses of the base metal. In a
baseFigure
metal 4with
shows the measured
constant angular
thickness, distortion
the angular for varying
distortion thicknesses
linearly of with
increases the base metal.
the metal.
number In of
a
base metal
metal
passes. with
As with
the constant
constant
base thickness,
metalthickness,
thickness the the angular
angular
increases, distortion
distortion
the angular linearly
linearly increases
increases
distortion with
reduces with
the
and, the the
number
hence, number of
ofangular
passes.
passes.
As the As
base the base
metal metal
thickness thickness
increases,increases,
the the
angular
distortion per pass is constant at a given thickness. angular
distortion distortion
reduces reduces
and, and,
hence, thehence, the
angular angular
distortion
distortion
per pass isper pass isatconstant
constant at a given thickness.
a given thickness.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 7 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Angular
Angulardistortion
distortionaccording
accordingto
tonumber
number of
of welding
welding passes.
passes.

Figure 5.
Figure 5 shows
shows the cross-sectional area
the measured bead cross-sectional area and
and square
square of
of bead
bead height
height per
per pass,
pass,
according to
according to the
the heat
heat input.
input. AsAsthethe heat
heat input
input increases,
increases, the
the bead
bead area
area and
and height
height proportionally
proportionally
increase. We
increase. We assumed
assumed that
that the
the bead
bead heights
heights that
that were
were obtained
obtained during
during multilayer
multilayer welding
welding were
were the
the
same as
same as those
those measured
measured in in this
this experiment
experiment under
under the same conditions.

Figure5.
Figure Beadcross-sectional
5.Bead cross-sectionalarea
areaand
andsquare
squareof
of height
height according
according to
to heat
heat input.
input.

Figure 6 shows the relationship between the ratio of bead area to the square of base metal thickness
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the ratio of bead area to the square of base metal
and angular distortion. The angular distortion increases proportionally to the ratio, but decreases
thickness and angular distortion. The angular distortion increases proportionally to the ratio, but
after a threshold, which was found to be approximately 0.375. The threshold seems to occur as the
decreases after a threshold, which was found to be approximately 0.375. The threshold seems to occur
center position of the contracted load becomes closer to the neutral axis. The data above the threshold
as the center position of the contracted load becomes closer to the neutral axis. The data above the
produce low measurement accuracy of angular distortion due to in-plane shrinkage, and they exhibit
threshold produce low measurement accuracy of angular distortion due to in-plane shrinkage, and
nonlinearity [2,3]. If the center position of the shrinkage load agrees with the neutral axis, the angular
they exhibit nonlinearity [2,3]. If the center position of the shrinkage load agrees with the neutral axis,
distortion becomes zero, and shrinkage reaches its maximum. Reverse angular distortion might occur
the angular distortion becomes zero, and shrinkage reaches its maximum. Reverse angular distortion
if it is located below the neutral axis. The reason is that if the thickness under the beads is not sufficient,
might occur if it is located below the neutral axis. The reason is that if the thickness under the beads
the temperature gradient can be reversed, depending on the ambient cooling conditions. In addition,
is not sufficient, the temperature gradient can be reversed, depending on the ambient cooling
the reverse distorted shape generated during heating might be maintained until being completely
conditions. In addition, the reverse distorted shape generated during heating might be maintained
cooled down. Xie et al. [21] has reported that the distortion direction can be affected by the asymmetry
until being completely cooled down. Xie et al. [21] has reported that the distortion direction can be
of the cross-sectional profile along the thickness direction and even pores generated by insufficient
affected by the asymmetry of the cross-sectional profile along the thickness direction and even pores
flow of the molten pool. Consequently, it is almost impossible to quantitatively predict the amount and
generated by insufficient flow of the molten pool. Consequently, it is almost impossible to
direction of deformation above the threshold. Therefore, we only address cases in which the distance
quantitatively predict the amount and direction of deformation above the threshold. Therefore, we
between the load position and neutral axis is sufficiently long, as assumed in Equation (6). Thus,
only address cases in which the distance between the load position and neutral axis is sufficiently
we used data that were below the threshold (dashed line in Figure 6). When all of the the welding
long, as assumed in Equation (6). Thus, we used data that were below the threshold (dashed line in
passes are completed at the same heat input, the third layer or beyond results in welding within
Figure 6). When all of the the welding passes are completed at the same heat input, the third layer or
this range.
beyond results in welding within this range.
 Without external constraint, the calculated value of 𝐶 in the linear section below the threshold
was 4.75 from Figure 6. Hence, we verified the relationship between bead area and angular distortion
in Equation (8). The relationship between heat input, bead area, and angular distortion, as shown in
Figures 5 and 6, implies that heat input is proportional to plastic area as in Equation (7), which is
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10,
proportional to1848
angular distortion shown in Equation (6). 8 of 17

Figure 6. Relationship between angular distortion and ratio of bead area to square of thickness.
Figure 6. Relationship between angular distortion and ratio of bead area to square of thickness.
Without external constraint, the calculated value of C in the linear section below the threshold
was 4.75 from Figure 6. Hence, we verified the relationship between bead area and angular distortion
2.3. Multilayer Welding Considering Degree of Constraint
in Equation (8). The relationship between heat input, bead area, and angular distortion, as shown
We derived
in Figures 5 and the relationship
6, implies between
that heat inputthe bead area andtoangular
is proportional distortion
plastic area through a(7),
as in Equation mechanical
which is
approach
proportionalandtoexperiments, as shown
angular distortion shownin the previous (6).
in Equation sections. We also aimed to obtain the analytic
solutions for practical butt welding joints. As multilayer welding is a repetitive process, the welding
2.3. Multilayer
conditions Welding
do not Considering
notably Degree layers
change across of Constraint
and, hence, we assumed a uniform amount of weld
deposition. As the
We derived theaccumulation of beadsthe
relationship between increases
bead area theand
thickness,
angular it complicates
distortion distortion
through across
a mechanical
layers. The bead area and thickness for a heat input can be calculated while using
approach and experiments, as shown in the previous sections. We also aimed to obtain the analytic the relation that is
shown in Figure
solutions 5. Thus,
for practical the
butt angularjoints.
welding distortion can be predicted
As multilayer weldingifisthe geometryprocess,
a repetitive of the welding joint
the welding
is known. The total angular distortion at a layer can be obtained from the total
conditions do not notably change across layers and, hence, we assumed a uniform amount of weld bead area, as the
angular distortion linearly increases with the number of passes at a given thickness
deposition. As the accumulation of beads increases the thickness, it complicates distortion across (Figure 4).
Equation
layers. The(9)bead
is obtained
area and bythickness
applyingfor
Equation (8) to can
a heat input a V be
groove welding
calculated joint,
while as shown
using in Figure
the relation that7.is
shown in Figure 5. Thus, the angular distortion 𝐶 can be predicted𝐶if the geometry of𝐶the welding joint is
known. The𝜃total= 𝜃
angular ∆𝜃 = 𝜃 at a layer can
distortion ∆𝐴 be=obtained
𝜃 from|𝑦the|∆𝑧 total bead area, |𝑦 |∆𝑧 (9)
as the angular
𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡
distortion linearly increases with the number of passes at a given thickness (Figure 4). Equation (9) is
obtained by applying𝜃 Equation
where : total angular groove welding, joint, as𝜃shown
(8) to a Vdistortion : initialinangular
Figure 7. distortion ,
∆𝜃 : angular distortion by layer 𝑖 , 𝑖: layer number after initial thickness , 𝑛: total number of layers ,
n +1 n+1 n+1 n +1
𝑡: thickness , ∆𝐴 : area of X layer 𝑖 , 𝑦 , 𝑦 X C equations ofX
: linear rightC and
 left bevelX C   respectively ,
groove,
θtotal = θ0 + ∆θi = θ0 + ∆A i = θ 0 +  yR ∆z +  yL ∆z (9)
∆𝑧: thickness of layer, heat height. Kt2 Kt2 Kt2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
In Equation (9) with Figure 7, 𝜃 and ℎ are the initial angular distortion and initial thickness,
where
respectively. The initial θtotal : totaldistortion
angular angular distortion,
is the angle at the initial thickness, θ0 : initial
and angular
the values distortion,
should
∆θ : angular
be determined
i distortion by layer i, i: layer number after initial thickness ,
after welding at least two layers. In typical weld groove joints, rather than welding n: total number of layers,
t: thickness,
onto the base ∆Amaterial,
i : area of the i, yR , yL : linear
layeraccumulation of equations of right
beads (layers) and left
creates the bevel groove, The
thickness. respectively,
angular
∆z: thickness
distortion of first
at the layer,andheat height.
second layers cannot be accurately predicted, because the layers belong to
In Equation
conditions above (9) thewith Figure as
threshold, 7, θ 0 and h
shown in0 are the 6.
Figure initial angular distortion
In addition, and initial
some distortions occurthickness,
during
respectively.
initial settingThe
andinitial
fit-up.angular
Hence,distortion
the initialisthickness
the angleandat the
its initial
angular thickness,
distortion andshould
the values should be
be considered
determined
to include theseafter welding
errors, but at least two layers.
the purely In typical
predicted welddistortion
angular groove joints, ratherthe
excludes thaninitial
welding onto
angular
the base material, the accumulation of beads (layers) creates the thickness. The angular distortion at
distortion.
the first and
Layer second 𝑖layers
number is zero cannot
at thebeinitial
accurately
angularpredicted,
distortion, and 𝑛thedenotes
because layers belong
the total to number
conditionsof
above the threshold, as shown in Figure 6. In addition, some distortions
layers stacked up to the thickness of the base material. This thickness is obtained by subtracting the occur during initial setting
and fit-up.
initial Hence,
one from that the
ofinitial
the base thickness
material andanditsdividing
angular distortion
it by the bead should height. 𝑛 1 wastoset
be considered include these
by adding
aerrors,
layer,but thesurface
as the purely of predicted
the finalangular
bead layerdistortion
must be excludes
higher thanthe initial
the base angular
metaldistortion.
thickness. The width
Layer number i is zero at the initial angular distortion, and n denotes the total number of layers
stacked up to the thickness of the base material. This thickness is obtained by subtracting the initial
one from that of the base material and dividing it by the bead height. n + 1 was set by adding a layer,
as the surface of the final bead layer must be higher than the base metal thickness. The width of a layer,
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 9 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
   
yL a+layer,
 of |𝑦 | |𝑦 |,the
 yR , represents length from
represents the the left from
length to right
thebevel surfaces,
left to as shown
right bevel in Figure
surfaces, 7. The
as shown in width
Figure
can be geometrically obtained from the linear equation of each bevel surface in the
7. The width can be geometrically obtained from the linear equation of each bevel surface in they–z plane. The bead
y–z
area
plane.of layer
The beadi is then of layer 𝑖byismultiplying
areaobtained then obtained theby
width by layer the
multiplying height ∆z.by layer height ∆𝑧.
width

Figure 7. Geometry of V groove welding joint ( f : root face, gL , gR : left and right root gaps, respectively,
Figure 7. Geometry of V groove welding joint ( 𝑓 : root face, 𝑔 , 𝑔 : left and right root gaps,
hn : thickness of base metal, h0 : initial thickness, θL , θR : left and right bevel angles, respectively).
respectively, ℎ : thickness of base metal, ℎ : initial thickness, 𝜃 , 𝜃 : left and right bevel angles,
respectively).
The angular distortion after the initial one can be calculated, as follows:

The angular distortion

+1
nP after theinitial one can be calculated, as follows:
C 
2 yL + yR  ∆z
𝐶 i=1
Kt
|𝑦 𝑦 | ∆𝑧 +1
nP (10)
𝐾𝑡 =C C
[tan θ ·(z − f ) + g + tan θ ·(z − f ) + g ]∆z
K Kz2 R L L R
i=1 (10)
𝐶 𝐶
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ∙ 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ∙ 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑔 ∆𝑧
where h0 : initial thickness, y𝐾 R = tan 𝐾𝑧θR ·(z − f ) + gR , yL = tan θL ·(z − f ) + gL , t = z.
Substituting Equation (10) into Equation (9), the total angular distortion of a V groove can be
where ℎ : initial thickness, 𝑦 = tan 𝜃 ∙ 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑔 , 𝑦 = tan 𝜃 ∙ 𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑔 , 𝑡 = 𝑧.
obtained, as follows:
Substituting Equation (10) into Equation (9), the total angular distortion of a V groove can be
obtained, as follows: n+1
C X [tan(θR )i + tan(θL )i ]·[(h0 + (i − 1)∆z − f ) + gL + gR ]
θtotal = θ0 + ·∆z (11)
𝐶 K i=1tan 𝜃 tan 𝜃 (∙h0 ℎ + (i −𝑖1− )∆z1 )∆𝑧
2 −𝑓 𝑔 𝑔
𝜃 =𝜃 ∙ ∆𝑧 (11)
𝐾 ℎ 𝑖 − 1 ∆𝑧
where z = h0 + (i − 1)∆z.
where 𝑧 = ℎ (11)𝑖 −
Equation 1 ∆𝑧.
represents the sum of the initial measured angular distortion and the predicted
Equation (11) represents
angular distortions at all subsequent the sumlayers.of the Angular
initial measured
distortion angular distortion
decreases and the
as constant C, predicted
root gap,
angular distortions at all subsequent layers. Angular distortion decreases
and bevel angle decrease, and the degree of constraint K, initial thickness, and root face increase. as constant C, root gap, and
bevel
The angle distortion
angular decrease, and duringthe Vdegree
grooveofwelding
constraint 𝐾, initial
depends thickness, parameters,
on geometric and root faceexceptincrease.
for two The
angular distortion during V groove welding depends on geometric
factors, namely, bead height ∆z, which is determined by the heat input (Figure 5), and constant C, parameters, except for two
factors,
which is namely, bead height
experimentally ∆𝑧, which
determined (Figureis determined
6). by the heat input (Figure 5), and constant 𝐶,
which is experimentally
Figure determined
8 shows the angular (Figure
distortion 6).
prediction curves that were obtained from Equation (11).
Figure 8 shows the angular distortion
The position of the starting point of the curve and its slopeprediction curves
must that
be were obtained
determined forfrom Equation
a prediction (11).
curve
The
to be position
determined.of theThe
starting
startingpoint of the
point curve and
is obtained its initial
from slope must be determined
thickness h0 and initialforangular
a prediction curve
distortion
to be determined. The starting point is obtained from initial thickness
θ0 , whereas the slope is obtained from degree of constraint K, which requires another point after the ℎ and initial angular
distortion
starting 𝜃 , whereas
point. In Figurethe slope
8, the is obtained
initial thicknesses fromofdegree
curves of A constraint
and B are x2 𝐾,and
whichx1, requires
and theiranother
initial
point after
angular the starting
distortions are y1point. In Figure
and y2, 8, the initial
respectively. Although thicknesses
curves Aofand curves A and
B have B are initial
different x2 andangular
x1, and
their initialand
distortions angular distortions
thicknesses, theyare
arey1almost
and y2, respectively.
parallel with the Although
initial andcurves
final A and B have
differences in different
angular
distortion being the same. In practice, this results from the distortion by fit-up, presetting, andand
initial angular distortions and thicknesses, they are almost parallel with the initial final
welding
differences
up in angular
to the second distortion
layer. Curves being
B and the same.
C have In practice,
the same startingthis results
point, from theslopes.
but different distortion
Theby fit-up,
slope of
presetting, and welding up to the second layer. Curves B and C have the
the curve becomes steeper as the degree of constrain reduces and the root gap or bevel angle increases same starting point, but
different
with slopes.root
decreasing Theface.
slopeUnder
of thethecurve
same becomes
geometry, steeper
curveasCthe hasdegree
a lowerofdegree
constrain reduces and
of constraint K than the
root gap
curve A or B.or bevel angle increases with decreasing root face. Under the same geometry, curve C has a
lower degree of constraint 𝐾 than curve A or B.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 10 of 17
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Figure 8. Prediction curve of angular distortion based on Equation (11).

Figure 8. Prediction curve of angular distortion based on Equation (11).
In addition, we considered that the angular distortion of each layer reduces the bevel angle.
In the
Hence, addition,
amountweof considered that the angular
deposition decreases distortionlayer,
at the subsequent of each
whichlayer reduces
further the bevel
decreases angle.
the angular
Hence, the The
distortion. amount of deposition
predicted decreasesand
angular distortion at the subsequent
bevel angle at thelayer, which
previous further
layer must decreases the
be subtracted
angular
to obtaindistortion. The predicted
the bevel angle at a layer,angular
as showndistortion and(12).
in Equation bevelThis
angle at the
is used asprevious
the bevellayer
anglemust
termbe
in
subtracted to obtain the bevel angle at a layer, as shown in Equation (12). This is used as the bevel
Equation (11).
θR )i = (θR )i−1 − (∆θR )i−1 , (θL )i = (θL )i−1 − (∆θL )i−1
angle term in Equation ((11). (12)

where (θR )i : right bevel𝜃 angle

= 𝜃 at layer − ∆𝜃 i, , 𝜃 (∆θR=)i−1𝜃: angular
− ∆𝜃distortion at layer i (12)
− 1,
(θL )i : left bevel𝜃angle
where at layer
: right (∆θL )at
beveli, angle : angular
i−1layer 𝑖 , distortion
∆𝜃 at layer i − 1.distortion at layer 𝑖 − 1
: angular ,
Equation (11) for predicting
𝜃 : left bevel angle at layer 𝑖, ∆𝜃 the angular distortion has three
: angular distortion at layer 𝑖 − 1. unknown variables, namely, θ0 ,
h0 , and K. Initial
Equation thickness
(11) for h0 and
predicting corresponding
the angular distortion angular distortion
has three unknown θ0 variables,
can be determined
namely, 𝜃 from, ℎ ,
measurements
and 𝐾 . Initial atthickness
the desired ℎ layer,
and but at least two layers
corresponding angular should be stacked.
distortion 𝜃 can Thebedegree of constraint
determined from
K can be obtained
measurements by desired
at the measuringlayer,thebut
angular distortion
at least two layers of the additionally
should be stacked.accumulated
The degreelayer after the
of constraint
first
𝐾 measurement
can be obtained (the starting point
by measuring the in Figuredistortion
angular 8). For calculation, we increase
of the additionally K by 0.01 from
accumulated 1.0after
layer and
adopt the value that agrees with the measurement after two or more layers
the first measurement (the starting point in Figure 8). For calculation, we increase 𝐾 by 0.01 from 1.0have been accumulated
after adopt
and the firstthe
measurement. Alternatively,
value that agrees with theit can be directly obtained
measurement after two when the angular
or more layersdistortion
have been is
known after only
accumulated afterone
thelayer is stacked at theAlternatively,
first measurement. first measurement,it can be using i =
by directly 1 in Equation
obtained when (11) and the
the angular
following expression for K:
distortion is known after only one layer is stacked at the first measurement, by using 𝑖 = 1 in
Equation (11) and the following expression for 𝐾:
C (tan θR + tan θL )·[(h0 − f ) + gR + gL ]∆z
K= (13)
𝐶 tan 𝜃 ∙ −
tan 𝜃h2 (θ ℎ θ−
0)
𝑓 𝑔 𝑔 ∆𝑧
𝐾= 0 1 (13)
ℎ 𝜃 −𝜃
Once K is determined, it can be used to predict the angular distortion at all subsequent layers.
Once 𝐾 is determined, it can be used to predict the angular distortion at all subsequent layers.
However, K must be recalculated following the abovementioned procedure if the constraint condition
However, 𝐾 must be recalculated following the abovementioned procedure if the constraint
changes during welding.
condition changes during welding.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Validation of Estimation
3.1. Validation of Estimation
We conducted V butt welding experiments to examine whether the predictions that are based
We conducted
on Equation V butt
(11) agree withwelding experiments
experimental values.toThe
examine
size ofwhether the predictions
the specimen was 500 ×that
1000aremm based
and
on Equation (11) agree with experimental values. The size of the specimen was 500 ×
its thickness was 28 mm, as shown in Figure 9. Temporary hexahedron members were fit-up by tack 1000 mm and
its thickness
welding was 28where
at points mm, as shownstarted
welding in Figure
and9. ended.
TemporaryThe hexahedron
joint groovemembers wereroot
had a 4 mm fit-up
gapbyand
tacka
◦
welding
50 groove at points
angle. where welding
Multi-pass started
welding wasand ended.
then The joint
performed, groove
and had a 4 mm
the thickness and root gapdistortion
angular and a 50°
groove
were measured at each layer. One strongback was installed in the center of the specimen, andwere
angle. Multi-pass welding was then performed, and the thickness and angular distortion two
measured
at each endatwhere
each layer. Oneheat
transient strongback
transferwas
andinstalled in the
deformation centerThe
occurs. of the specimen, were
experiments and two at each
performed
end where transient heat transfer and deformation occurs. The experiments were performed with
and without strongback, while the other conditions were the same as those for the bead-on-plate
welding experiment.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 11 of 17

with and without strongback, while the other conditions were the same as those for the bead-on-plate
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
welding experiment.

Figure 9. Specimen for V butt welding experiments (unit: millimeters).

Figure 9. Specimen for V butt welding experiments (unit: millimeters).
In this experiment, the thickness that was generated up to the second layer was adopted as initial
valueInhthis experiment,
0 , and the thickness
the corresponding thatdistortion
angular was generated up as
was set to initial
the second θ0 . They
valuelayer was adopted as initial
were determined
value ℎ , and the corresponding
by measurement. The degree of angular
constraintdistortion was set as
K is calculated frominitial
the value
angular 𝜃 .distortion
They wereofdetermined
the second
by measurement.
measurement, but,The degree
in this of constraint
section, we derived 𝐾 the
is calculated
K value thatfrom
bestthe angular
matches alldistortion of the data
of the measured second
for
measurement,
the verificationbut, in this
of the section,
equation. we derived
Table the
2 lists the 𝐾 value that
parameters best matches
for prediction all of the measured
by Equation (11). Figuresdata
10
for
andthe11 verification of the equation.
show the prediction curves and Table 2 lists theresults.
experiment parameters for prediction
In Figure 10, the value by ofEquation
K in the(11).
free
Figures 10 and 11condition
(unconstrained) show thewas prediction
calculatedcurves
to beand
1.09experiment
(close to 1.0).results. In Figurethe
We minimized 10, contribution
the value of to𝐾 the
in
the free (unconstrained)
restraint increase, as temporarycondition
pieceswas
were calculated
tack-weldedto be 1.09 ends
at both (closeand tothe
1.0). We minimized
grooves were cut inthethe
contribution
same way as to the restraint
specimens. Whenincrease, as temporary
constrained by a 10 mm pieces were tack-welded
strongback, K was calcucated at both ends Figure
to 10.5. and the 11
grooves
shows the were cut for
results in the same strongback
different way as specimens. When
thicknesses. constrained
The by a 10 mm
degree of constraint 13.5 for a 𝐾20was
strongback,
K was mm
calcucated
strongback.toAlthough
10.5. Figure
the 11 shows of
thickness thethe
results for different
strongback doubled,strongback
the degree thicknesses.
of constraint The degree of
increased by
constraint 𝐾 wascompared
1.3 times. When 13.5 for ato20the
mm strongback.
case Although the
with no strongback, the change
thickness of the strongback
in angular doubled,
distortion decreased
the degree
to 1/11 of mm
for 10 constraint increased
strongback by 1.3
and 1/13 fortimes.
20 mm. When compared
Hence, we found to that
the case with no
the fixture strongback,
itself the
had a greater
change
effect oninthe
angular distortion
increase decreased
in the degree to 1/11 for
of constraint 10 mm
than strongback
the fixture and 1/13 for 20 mm. Hence, we
thickness.
found that the fixture itself had a greater effect on the increase in the degree of constraint than the
fixture thickness. Table 2. Input parameters for angular distortion estimation.

Strongback Strongback
Parameter No Strongback
Table 2. Input parameters for angular distortion estimation.
10t 20t
θ0 0.05 0.3 Strongback 0.1 Strongback
Parameter h0 No strongback
8.7 10 9
10t 20t
K 1.09 10.5 13.5
𝜃 0.05 0.3 0.1
ℎ 8.7 10 9
K 1.09 10.5 13.5
 Strongback Strongback
Parameter No strongback
10t 20t
𝜃 0.05 0.3 0.1
ℎ 10, 1848
Appl. Sci. 2020, 8.7 10 9 12 of 17
K 1.09 10.5 13.5

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

Figure 10. Comparison of experimental and predicted values in free (unconstrained) and constrained
Figure
states for10. Comparison
welding of experimental
conditions and
of 285 A, 29 V, predicted
and values
30 cm/min. in free
(ST10t: (unconstrained)
strongback with 10 and
mm constrained
thickness).
states for welding conditions of 285 A, 29 V, and 30 cm/min (ST10t: strongback with 10 mm thickness).

Figure 11. Comparison of experimental and predicted values under constraints for welding conditions
Figure 11.29Comparison
of 285 A, of experimental
V, and 30 cm/min and predicted
(STxxt: strongback with xx mmvalues under constraints for welding
thickness).
conditions of 285 A, 29 V, and 30 cm/min. (STxxt: strongback with xx mm thickness).
These results indicate that once the appropriate degree of constraint is determined from the
These resultsatindicate
values measured that once
a layer after initialthe appropriate
thickness, degree of angular
the subsequent constraint is determined
distortion from the
can be accurately
values measured
predicted. Thus, at
wea verified
layer after
theinitial thickness,
applicability the subsequent
of Equation angular distortion
(11) regarding can be
the constraint accurately
effects.
predicted. Thus, we verified the applicability of Equation (11) regarding the constraint effects.
3.2. Applications
3.2. Applications
We applied the proposed prediction method to a plate with 50 mm in thickness. The current
and Wevoltage
appliedweretheset to 280 Aprediction
proposed and 30 V,method
respectively, andwith
to a plate the 50
groove
mm inangle and root
thickness. Thegap wereand
current set
to 35 ◦ and 5.7 mm, respectively. The thickness and angle were measured at each layer. The other
voltage were set to 280 A and 30 V, respectively, and the groove angle and root gap were set to 35°
experimental
and 5.7 mm, conditions
respectively. were Thethethickness
same as those
and for the V
angle groove
were experiment
measured (Section
at each 3.1).The
layer. For other
travel
speed of 25 cm/min, thewere
initial thickness ◦ , respectively,
experimental conditions the same as andthoseangular
for the distortion were 13 mm
V groove experiment and 1.93.1).
(Section For travel
upon of
speed the25completion
cm/min., the of the second
initial layer. and
thickness The angular
measured angular were
distortion distortion
13 mm after
andwelding of the third
1.9°, respectively,
layerthe ◦
wascompletion
3.35 . For aofwelding speed of 60 cm/min, the angular
initial thickness and angular distortion were
upon the second layer. The measured distortion after welding of the third
13 mm and ◦ after third layer with four passes, respectively, and the measured distortion at the
0.15For
layer was 3.35°. a welding speed of 60 cm/min., the initial thickness and angular were
next layer ◦ . In this case, the change of the angular distortion was so small at the beginning
13 mm andwas0.15°1.23
after third layer with four passes, respectively, and the measured distortion at the
that layer
next the measurement
was 1.23°. Inwas this started
case, the from the third
change of thelayer. In these
angular two cases,
distortion was soK small
was directly calculated
at the beginning
that the measurement was started from the third layer. In these two cases, 𝐾 was directly calculated
while using Equation (13), because the results before and after welding one layer were known, with
the respective
while values being
using Equation 1.14 andthe
(13), because 1.47.
results before and after welding one layer were known, with
Figure 12values
the respective showsbeingthe prediction
1.14 and 1.47.curves, including subsequent layers. No strongback constraint
was Figure
considered in both
12 shows the specimens, but the including
prediction curves, calculatedsubsequent
degree of constraint
layers. No was above 1.0.
strongback Hence,
constraint
was considered in both specimens, but the calculated degree of constraint was above 1.0. Hence, some
constraints were applied to the welding joint. Specifically, the constraining effect by self-weight
seems to have acted on the welding joint. The 50 mm thick test specimen was 1.8 times heavier than
the 28 mm thick test plate above. Moreover, the thick temporary pieces that were attached to the
starting and ending points of welding may have partially contributed to the increase in degree of
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 13 of 17

some constraints were applied to the welding joint. Specifically, the constraining effect by self-weight
seems to have acted on the welding joint. The 50 mm thick test specimen was 1.8 times heavier than
the 28 mm thick test plate above. Moreover, the thick temporary pieces that were attached to the
starting and ending points of welding may have partially contributed to the increase in degree of
constraint. A small heat input due to fast welding exhibited a higher degree of constraint than a
large heat input. The constraining effect by self-weight seems to have been larger when the amount
of weld deposition was smaller due to the smaller heat input. Murakawa [18] defined the degree of
constraint as the ratio of stiffness of the surrounding structure to sum the stiffness of the welding joint
and the surrounding structure through the bar-spring model, which is commonly used as a welding
mechanism. In summary, when the bead is small due to small heat input, the degree of constraint
increases by the relatively small stiffness of the welding joint when compared to the stiffness of the
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10,structure,
surrounding x FOR PEERasREVIEW
confirmed in this study. 13 of 17

Figure 12. Comparison of experimental and predicted values of V butt welding experiment with 50
Figure 12. Comparison of experimental and predicted values of V butt welding experiment with 50
mm thickness for welding conditions of 280 A, 30 V, and varying travel speed.
mm thickness for welding conditions of 280 A, 30 V, and varying travel speed.
The two prediction curves in Figure 12 were obtained by using the initial angular distortion,
The two
thickness, andprediction
degree of curves in Figure
constraint. Although12 were obtained
the curves by using
suitably agreethewith
initial
the angular distortion,
experiment results,
thickness, and degree of constraint. Although the curves suitably agree with
the measured values showed smaller distortion than the predicted values over a bead that formed the experiment results,
the measured
a thickness ofvalues showed smaller
approximately 40 mmdistortion
for a travel than the predicted
speed of 25 cm/min.valuesTheover a bead that
prediction formed
curves were a
thickness
calculatedoffrom
approximately
experimental40data mmbefore
for aandtravel
after speed of 25
welding cm/min.
only TheConsequently,
one layer. prediction curves
even were
small
calculated from experimental data before and after welding only one layer.
measurement fluctuations may cause a large error for estimating the degree of constraint. All Consequently, even small
the
measurement
experimental datafluctuations
of angular may cause a in
distortion large error10–12
Figures for estimating the degree
show fluctuations, of constraint.
possibly All the
by measurement
experimental data of angular
errors or differences distortion
in the amount of in Figures
weld 10–12 show
deposition due fluctuations,
to arc changes possibly
duringbywelding.
measurementThus,
errors or differences in the amount of weld deposition due
the prediction accuracy can be improved by acquiring more measurement points. to arc changes during welding. Thus, the
prediction
The Xaccuracy
groove, or can be improved
double-V groove,by has
acquiring more measurement
a symmetrical shape with twopoints.
V grooves about the weld
The X groove, or double-V groove, has a symmetrical shape
root. When one-sided welding at the bottom is completed, as shown in Figure 13, with two V grooves about distortion
the angular the weld
root. When one-sided welding at the bottom is completed, as shown
on the upper side can be calculated while using Equation (11) by defining the filled thickness in Figure 13, the angular as
distortion on the upper side can be calculated while using Equation (11) by defining
initial thickness h0 and setting it equal to root face f . Initial angular distortion θ0 is adopted as final the filled
thickness
value afterasfilling
initialthe
thickness ℎ and side.
bottom (lower) setting
Theitnegative
equal toangular
root face 𝑓. Initialisangular
distortion distortion
given when welding 𝜃 the
is
adopted as final value
opposite (upper) side. after filling the bottom (lower) side. The negative angular distortion is given
when welding the opposite (upper) side.
 The X groove, or double-V groove, has a symmetrical shape with two V grooves about the weld
root. When one-sided welding at the bottom is completed, as shown in Figure 13, the angular
distortion on the upper side can be calculated while using Equation (11) by defining the filled
thickness as initial thickness ℎ and setting it equal to root face 𝑓. Initial angular distortion 𝜃 is
adopted
Appl. as 10,
Sci. 2020, final value after filling the bottom (lower) side. The negative angular distortion is14given
1848 of 17
when welding the opposite (upper) side.

Figure13.
Figure 13.Geometry
Geometryof
ofX-groove
X-groovebutt
buttwelding
weldingjoint.
joint.

Figure
Figure14 14shows
showsaadiagram
diagramofofthe
thespecimen
specimenforforthe XX
the butt welding
butt weldingexperiments.
experiments.WeWe
considered
considered a
welding
a welding current
currentof of
285285
AA and voltage
and voltageofof
2929
VVatat
varying
varying travel
travelspeeds.
speeds.The
Theroot
rootgap
gapwas
was44mm
mmand and
Appl.
the Sci. 2020,
theroot
root face10,
face wasx FOR
was PEERFor
00mm.
mm. REVIEW
For the
thewelding
weldingsequence,
sequence,thetheupper
upperside
sideininFigure
Figure14
14was
waswelded
weldedand 14filled
and of 17
filled
first,
first,and
andthethelower
lowersidesidewas
waswelded
weldedafter
afterone
onepass
passwaswasremoved
removedby byarc
arcgouging.
gouging.The
Theother
otherwelding
welding
conditions were
conditions werethe the same
same as those
as those forprevious
for the the previous experiments.
experiments. The distortion
The angular angular distortion was
was measured
measured
for each layer. for each layer.

Figure 14. Diagram of specimen for X butt welding experiments.

Figure 14. Diagram of specimen for X butt welding experiments.
The prediction model assumed that welding was resumed after removing one pass one layer
by gouging when the
The prediction beadassumed
model thicknessthat
exceeded
welding18was
mm, as it is not
resumed afterpossible
removing to predict
one pass theone
amount of
layer by
gouging.
gouging whenFigurethe15 shows the experiment
bead thickness exceededand prediction
18 mm, asresults.
it is notWhen the bead
possible thickness
to predict theincreased
amount of to
18.8 and 18.2 mm for travel speeds of 30 and 60 cm/min, respectively, it was reduced
gouging. Figure 15 shows the experiment and prediction results. When the bead thickness increased once to 14.9 and
15.4 mm
to 18.8 due
and to gouging,
18.2 respectively,
mm for travel speeds of corresponding to one layer
30 and 60 cm/min., height. The
respectively, it wasinitial thickness
reduced once and its
to 14.9
angular ◦ and 0.15◦
and 15.4distortion
mm due measured
to gouging, were 11 mm andcorresponding
respectively, 0.1 for weldingtospeed of 30 height.
one layer cm/min,The andinitial
7 mm thickness
for
and60itscm/min,
angularrespectively. The degree
distortion measured of constraint
were 11 mm and was0.1°
calculated by inputting
for welding speed ofthe 30angles thatand
cm/min., were7
measured
mm and 0.15° before
forand after the third
60 cm/min., layer, being
respectively. The1.04 for 30
degree of cm/min
constraint andwas
1.45calculated
for 60 cm/min. The degree
by inputting the
of constraint increased with decreasing heat input, as with the prediction results
angles that were measured before and after the third layer, being 1.04 for 30 cm/min. and 1.45 for 60 for the V groove
without
cm/min.strongback.
The degree of When compared
constraint to the with
increased conventional
decreasing V groove, thereaswas
heat input, witha the
large prediction
prediction error
results
of
forthe
thefinal angular
V groove distortion
without after gouging,
strongback. but the slope
When compared was
to the similar for the
conventional X groove.
V groove, thereThis
wasmight be
a large
due to the amount of gouging, which is difficult to predict. Still, the overall trends
prediction error of the final angular distortion after gouging, but the slope was similar for the X suitably agreed,
indicating
groove. This thatmight
accurate prediction
be due can be expected
to the amount whilewhich
of gouging, usingisthe proposed
difficult method Still,
to predict. for thicker plate
the overall
welding under small
trends suitably change
agreed, in distortion
indicating by gouging.
that accurate prediction can be expected while using the proposed
method for thicker plate welding under small change in distortion by gouging.
cm/min. The degree of constraint increased with decreasing heat input, as with the prediction results
for the V groove without strongback. When compared to the conventional V groove, there was a large
prediction error of the final angular distortion after gouging, but the slope was similar for the X
groove. This might be due to the amount of gouging, which is difficult to predict. Still, the overall
trends
Appl. Sci.suitably agreed, indicating that accurate prediction can be expected while using the proposed
2020, 10, 1848 15 of 17
method for thicker plate welding under small change in distortion by gouging.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 17

height (bead size) decreased, and the angular distortion was notably reduced to 91% (initial height:
10 mm) and 80% (initial height: 4 mm).
Higher heat Figure
Figureinput
15. increases the
15. Comparison bead size (height)
of experimental
experimental and and reduces
and predicted
predicted values
values ofthe final
of 28t
28t angular
XX butt
butt welding.
welding.distortion due
to the increase in initial thickness for a fixed initial angular distortion under the same number of
3.3. Effect
layers. Onof Bead Sizehand,
and Initial
if theThickness on Angular Distortion
3.3. Effect ofthe other
Bead Size and Initial initial thickness
Thickness on Angularis the same, reducing the heat input to reduce the
Distortion
bead Weheight should reduce
investigated the angular
the multilayer distortion.
welding According
characteristics whileto using
our previous studymodel.
the proposed [10], the angular
Prediction
We investigated the multilayer welding characteristics while using the proposed model.
distortion decreases as the heat input increases during multilayer welding. In
curves of angular distortion with varying initial thickness and bead thickness were obtained. The target this case, the difference
Prediction curves of angular distortion with varying initial thickness and bead thickness were
in initial thickness
thickness was 50 mm, haswhereas
occurred, thebecause
root gap theandsame welding
root face were setconditions
to 4 and 0were
mm, applied to allThe
respectively. passes. In
groove
obtained. The◦ target thickness was 50 mm, whereas the root gap and root face were set to 4 and 0
other
angle words,
was 50when and the
the initial
initial thickness was twicewas
angular distortion the bead
set toheight
zero in (triangular
all cases. and circular
Figure marksthe
16 shows in
mm, respectively. The groove angle was 50° and the initial angular distortion was set to zero in all
Figure 16), the final angular distortion decreases by the influence of the
corresponding results, where the initial thickness corresponds to the origin of each curve. The bead initial thickness. Overall,
cases. Figure 16 shows the corresponding results, where the initial thickness corresponds to the origin
increasing the constraints
height is related to the beadreduces
size, and angular distortion.
it is given by eachAlternatively,
interval between applying high heat
consecutive marks input at
on the
of each curve. The bead height is related to the bead size, and it is given by each interval between
welding onset for at least two layers for high initial thickness and then decreasing
curves. When the initial thickness changes from 4 to 10 mm, the angular distortion was substantially the heat input for
consecutive marks on the curves. When the initial thickness changes from 4 to 10 mm, the angular
small
reduced beadtoheight
61% (beadcan also reduce
height: angular
5 mm) anddistortion
45% (bedduringheight:multilayer welding. ThisWhen
2 mm), respectively. corresponds to
the initial
distortion was substantially reduced to 61% (bead height: 5 mm) and 45% (bed height: 2 mm),
the case where
thickness was thethe same,
initial angular
the angular distortion is zero.
distortion wasThe initialasangular
smaller the bead distortion is difficult
height (bead size) to predict,
decreased,
respectively. When the initial thickness was the same, the angular distortion was smaller as the bead
but it is desirable to minimize deformation during fitting, setting, and welding
and the angular distortion was notably reduced to 91% (initial height: 10 mm) and 80% (initial height: to the second layer
through
4 mm). increased constraints.

Figure 16. Prediction of angular distortion at different bead heights and initial thicknesses.
Figure 16. Prediction of angular distortion at different bead heights and initial thicknesses.
Higher heat input increases the bead size (height) and reduces the final angular distortion due to
4.
theConclusions
increase in initial thickness for a fixed initial angular distortion under the same number of layers.
On the
Mostother
of hand, if the initial
the structures for thickness
assemblyisarethewelded
same, reducing the heat input
under unknown to reduce
constraints. In the
thisbead height
study, the
should reduce
angular the angular
distortion mechanism distortion. According
of welding joints to
was ouranalyzed,
previousand
studyan[10], the angular
analytical distortion
formula for its
decreases as
prediction theregards
with heat input increases
to the degreeduring multilayer
of constraint welding. InExperiments
was developed. this case, theunder
difference in initial
varying heat
thickness has occurred, because the same welding conditions were applied to all
input, thickness, and groove shape demonstrated suitable prediction accuracy. The main conclusionspasses. In other
words,
of when can
this study the initial thickness was
be summarized, twice the bead height (triangular and circular marks in Figure 16),
as follows:
1. The bead area was introduced instead of the heat input, and its relationship with angular
distortion was determined and evaluated. The angular distortion is linearly proportional to the
ratio of the bead area to the square of thickness, and it decreases after a threshold.
2. An analytical formula for efficiently and accurately predicting angular distortion during
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1848 16 of 17

the final angular distortion decreases by the influence of the initial thickness. Overall, increasing
the constraints reduces angular distortion. Alternatively, applying high heat input at welding onset
for at least two layers for high initial thickness and then decreasing the heat input for small bead
height can also reduce angular distortion during multilayer welding. This corresponds to the case
where the initial angular distortion is zero. The initial angular distortion is difficult to predict, but it is
desirable to minimize deformation during fitting, setting, and welding to the second layer through
increased constraints.

4. Conclusions
Most of the structures for assembly are welded under unknown constraints. In this study, the
angular distortion mechanism of welding joints was analyzed, and an analytical formula for its
prediction with regards to the degree of constraint was developed. Experiments under varying heat
input, thickness, and groove shape demonstrated suitable prediction accuracy. The main conclusions
of this study can be summarized, as follows:

1. The bead area was introduced instead of the heat input, and its relationship with angular distortion
was determined and evaluated. The angular distortion is linearly proportional to the ratio of the
bead area to the square of thickness, and it decreases after a threshold.
2. An analytical formula for efficiently and accurately predicting angular distortion during multilayer
butt welding was derived based on the above linearity and geometrical principle of the
welding joint.
3. For the prediction curve, the initial thickness and corresponding initial angular distortion should
be obtained by the first measurement, and the degree of constraint by the second measurement.
4. According to the prediction formula, the angular distortion decreases as the degree of constraint
and root face increases and as the root gap and groove angle decrease.
5. The degree of constraint significantly increased with strongback when compared to the free
(unconstrained) condition. The difference in degree of constraint due to that in thickness of
strongback was relatively small.
6. Although no fixture is installed, the degree of constraint increases for small bead size. Fixtures
can be used to increase the degree of constraint, increase the heat input up to at least two layers
at welding onset, and subsequently keep a low heat input to minimize angular distortion in
multilayer welding.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.-J.S.; methodology, W.-J.S., S.-C.P. and H.-K.L.; investigation, W.-J.S.,
S.-C.P. and H.-K.L.; Validation, W.-J.S. and S.-C.P.; Formal analysis, W.-J.S.; software, W.-J.S.; data curation, W.-J.S.;
writing—original draft preparation, W.-J.S.; writing—review and editing, W.-J.S.; visualization, W.-J.S.; Project
administration, H.-K.L.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge K. H. Yun in DSME Welding R&D Engineering Department for
active support of the research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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