SCIENCE

FORCE, MOTION and ENERGY

● Electromagnetic Spectrum

➔ The Electric and Magnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are created by accelerating

electrons. Electric and magnetic fields combine to form these
waves. An electric field changes when a magnetic field changes,
and a magnetic field changes when an electric field changes.
Accelerated electrons create a wave's electric field, and the
wave's magnetic field is created by the changing electric
field. Both the magnetic and electric fields oscillate
perpendicular to the propagating wave's direction and to each
other.

The wave speed, frequency, and wavelength are related by the following equation:
➔ The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Is a continuum of electromagnetic waves arranged

according to frequency and wavelength. It is a gradual
progression from the waves of lowest frequencies to the waves
of highest frequencies.

EM spectrum includes: radio waves, microwaves, infrared,

visible light, ultraviolet, X- rays and gamma rays. These does
not have an exact dividing region.

The different types of electromagnetic waves are defined by the

amount of energy carried by /possessed by the photons. Photons
are bundles of wave energy. The energy of a Photon is given by
the equation:
E = hf

Where h is the planck’s Constant and f is the frequency of the

EM wave. Value of the planck’s constant in 6.63 x 10 to the
power of -34 joules per second.
➔ Radio Waves

Have the longest wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum.

They are used to transmit sound and picture information over long
distances.

Radio waves have a very wide range of wavelengths. The whole

region waves is divided into smaller region or wavebands.

➔ Microwaves
Have smaller wavelengths than radio waves. Used in
satellite communications, radar, television transmission and
cooking.

Satellite Communication
 Microwaves signals are transmitted by an
antenna to a satellite which amplifies and re -
transmits the signal to an antenna in other parts of
the world. This is how we communicate with the rest
of the world.

Radar (radio detection and ranging)

➔ DNA( DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID )

is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around

each other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the
development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms
and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid are nucleic acids.

➔ PURPOSE

DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop,

survive and reproduce. To carry out these functions, DNA sequences must be
converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins, which are
the complex molecules that do most of the work in our bodies.

DNA Types
There are three different DNA types:
● A-DNA: It is a right-handed double helix similar to the B-DNA form.
Dehydrated DNA takes an A form that protects the DNA during extreme
conditions such as desiccation. Protein binding also removes the
solvent from DNA, and the DNA takes an A form.
● B-DNA: This is the most common DNA conformation and is a right-handed
helix. The majority of DNA has a B type conformation under normal
physiological conditions.
● Z-DNA: Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the double helix winds to the
left in a zig-zag pattern. It was discovered by Andres Wang and
Alexander Rich. It is found ahead of the start site of a gene and
hence, is believed to play some role in gene regulation.

➔ Who Discovered DNA?

DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss biologist

Johannes Friedrich Miescher in 1869 during his research on white blood
cells.
The double helix structure of a DNA molecule was later discovered through
the experimental data by James Watson and Francis Crick. Finally, it was
proved that DNA is responsible for storing genetic information in living
organisms.

➔ DNA Structure
The DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted ladder. This structure
is described as a double-helix.
The basic building blocks of
DNA are nucleotides, which are
composed of a sugar group, a
phosphate group, and a
nitrogen base. The sugar and
phosphate groups link the
nucleotides together to form
each strand of DNA. Adenine
(A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G)
and Cytosine (C) are four
types of nitrogen bases.
These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair
together in the following way:
A with T, and C with G. These
base pairs are essential for
the DNA’s double helix
structure, which resembles a
twisted ladder.

Among the three

components of DNA structure,
sugar is the one which forms
the backbone of the DNA
molecule. It is also called
deoxyribose. The nitrogenous
bases of the opposite strands
form hydrogen bonds, forming a
ladder-like structure.