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Anthology of Leadership
Prof Dr C.Karthikeyan
Copyright © Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan, 2021
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Paperback ISBN: 978-93-91145-73-6
First Published in May 2021
Published by Walnut Publication (an imprint of Vyusta Ventures LLP)

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USA
6834 Cantrell Road #2096, Little Rock, AR 72207, USA
India
#722, Esplanade One, Rasulgarh, Bhubaneswar – 751010, India
#55 S/F, Panchkuian Marg, Connaught Place, New Delhi - 110001, India
UK
International House, 12 Constance Street, London E16 2DQ, United

Kingdom
About the Author
Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan is a professor, and an alumnus of IIM-

A, and currently Director for leading B-Schools with 25 years of
Industrial and Academic experience. He received his doctorate
in the HR area and was a full-time Director for the leading B-
Schools in Kerala. He presently is the Principal, T. John Institute
of Management Science, Bangalore, as well as Director of IQAC,
T. John College. He pioneered to start of a Research Centre
named TJCASSR (T. John Centre for Advanced Social Sciences
Research) under the ages of T. John Group of Institutions. He is
passionate about the Modern and Contemporary Education
System, and as IQAC director, leads on the qualitative
upliftment of the institutions, in the area of academics and
governance of quality initiatives for growth and development
of the regulatory system in the college. He had introduced
various systemic upgrades for smooth and effective work
culture, which has helped the institution to move towards
autonomous for the upcoming academic year, and he leads as
the chairperson for the autonomous committee for the
i
institution. His innovative process developments in the area of
the teaching-learning process and research in the institution are
instrumental in streamlining quality education in the
Institution. His hunger to improve quality and selfless actions
to create awareness on the importance of the National
Education Policy 2020, has made stakeholders of the institution
work towards the upliftment of quality consciousness among
the students and faculty members of TJGI group Bengaluru. He
is also a leading specialist in Institutional development and
strategist for quality accreditations. He had been a strategic
advisor to services related companies in various parts of the
country. He is a research guide for 7 different universities in
India and had been a consultant to many industries in the area
of strategic alliances and Strategic HR. 5 PhDs are in progress
under his able guidance and a couple of research scholars are
awarded PhD under his guidance. He has received honours and
awards for his contribution to the growth of institutions under
his leadership and had been leading as an example in terms of
strengthening the institutional quality. He has been awarded
as Best Performer for his academic contributions as well as star
performer certificates which showcased his efficiency levels. He
has various publications in international journals and is also a
reviewer, editor and board member for various journals of
repute, is in the pub lots, and prominent journals like JLS,
Psychological Reports and IGI global to name a few. Writing in
various areas including books, journals and other publications
of international repute, including blogs had been his passion,
and he has already authored around 100 International Journal
articles, and 18 Books, with 2 general books and others in the
subject areas of management for the benefit of management
practitioners and students. His management books are well
ii
received with 1000s of downloads through academia.edu, and
all the books are to the next stages of the 2nd edition to be
released shortly.
He is now Principal and the Director of the reputed institution

in Bangalore, and a Director for the quality assurance of one of
the reputed T. John group of Institutions in Bangalore,
Karnataka. Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan, Alumnus of IIM-A., with 25
yrs. of experience in HRM Industry and Academia is a
Ph.D.(HR)., triple masters in Management Programme from
Reputed Universities, and Institutions with M.B.A in (Human
Resource Management and International Marketing)., M.B.A.,
in (Education Management)., M.B.A (International Business).,
besides 4 other Masters in M.Sc. (App Psy)., M.S.,
(Psychotherapy)., M.Com., and Post Graduate Diploma in
Guidance and Counselling PG.DGC besides being a pioneer
information of the HRIS team in the government sector. He has
authored around 130 research articles related to HR, Social
Psychology and Organizational Behaviour, with 18 books
completed and another 6 books to be released shortly. An avid
researcher in the areas of social sciences, and is an expert in the
area of Personal Profile Analysis as certified by Thomas UK. He
volunteers for many social causes and educates professionals
and students on the same. Keynote speaker for many national
and international conferences, and is now convening a couple
of international conferences in the form of webinars, where
people from vagaries of professions across the world
participates. He is passionate about the areas of social
development and human resources development. He connects
his majority of writing towards human development and
iii
connects globally the industry-academia platforms with his
writing since he is a leading strategist in Education too.
He is now initiating series of webinars to bring in avid Industry

Professionals of all the ranks especially the CEOs and VPs of
various industrial belts to manifest their research skills to
contribute effectively to decision making. He is active members
of various editorial boards, research boards of universities and
now passionate about strategies to improvise skills in the
Industrial go-getters towards improving their research
capabilities so that the industrial stalwarts from all sectors can
improve their research skill in the era of AI and Big Data. He
had trained around 90 CEOs in Kerala on research which
comprised of 3 batches. His upcoming webinars for research
skills development is on the topic "manifesting your research
skills for better productivity". He is known as a recognized
Journal Reviewer of highly reputed international journals like
the American Journal of Psychological Reports, USA, and
Journal of Leadership Studies USA, and other International
Journal of Repute in India as well. He has authored extensively
in reputed journals, including Scopus and other reputed UGC
recognized journals with impact factor ranging from 5 to 7+ and
a very active member of the various research bodies. He has
already completed Books of various genres, which are under
production stages with reputed publishers in India and is
passionate about writing and publishing in the areas of social
issues about India, and has a very high readership in
Academia.edu, Research Gate and other reputed citation bases.
He is also the chairperson of the UBA (Unnath Bharath

Abhiyan) programme for the college, a scheme promoted by
MHRD, and heading the research committee of the college
iv
besides taking charge of the innovative training program of
teachers under CTL, Centre for Teaching and Learning under
the aegis of T. John College. His upcoming book on Algocratic
HR is highly sought after in the publishing circles, and recently
approved of writing on Cyberbullying Chapters for IGI global,
which is about to be released, where he has successfully
established 3 handbook chapters, and in another project for the
protection of children from cyberbullying along with an author
of from A& M Texas University.
His previous books are,
Algocratic HRM, Business Ethics
Customer Relationship Management
Human Resource Management
Organisation Culture
Organisational Theory
Principles of Management
Challenges are Disguised Opportunities
Magical Moments of Happiness
Advances in Strategic Management
Entrepreneurship Development
Industrial Relations
Crowd funding
v
Leadership Development
Situational Leadership
Techno-Business Leadership and few more to be released shortly
Author can be contacted at ddprofkarthik@gmail.com
vi
Preface
This book SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP prepares management

professionals who are growing as leaders in their respective
field and who are specializing in HR specialization to
understand leadership development process in a professional
way can be benefitted out of this book since its entire work is on
various situations which the leader faces in real life. The book
also caters to the HR practitioners and other students of
management who specializes in Commerce, Entrepreneurship
Management, BBA, MBA, or Business Strategy related subjects,
Entrepreneurial practitioners, and includes the dynamic
concepts of newer Entrepreneurial Strategies happening across
the world, and also caters to the syllabus for BBA and MBA of
all the leading Indian Universities specifically to Bangalore
University, Anna University, Bharathiar University, Kerala
University, Calicut University, and other Indian Universities.
These concepts in this book will prepare all Entrepreneurial
professionals who are evolving into higher level professionals
who can use this book for their challenging and rewarding
career. The readers can apply these concepts in their day to day
management strategy functions to have effective practical
advancements in their career.
Who will benefit from this Book?

All management professionals with leadership potential to
grow up the ladder and the students and practitioners of HR
management specialization, Students of Law, and for students
studying strategic management and executives practicing in
corporate and MBA students of various universities at various
vii
levels, and in any kind of organization will benefit from
learning to manage strategic areas in management. This
includes all the students, faculties in colleges and universities,
and those who already have strategic management as a subject
and want to become more effective and other professionals who
want an improved understanding of strategic management.
This book also fits to the non-business organization like the non-
government organizations (NGOs), Government Organizations,
Health Care Administrative HR Professionals, and non-profit
enterprises. The strategic functions though occasionally are
dynamic as well intriguing, the basics remain the same related
the Human nature. The dynamics of strategic management are
now more globalized in nature as the culture and work
practices are almost multicultural and multinational in nature,
and hence updating of newer and practically evolving Strategic
practices are required for every kind of managers, and this
Advances in Strategic Management will definitely fit in. The
dynamism in the newer paradigms will soon become the
secondary skill for the practicing as well as budding strategy
management specialists.
Organization of the Book

This book contains 09 very deep and interesting chapters with
a strong research background and is an anthology of the
leadership articles published in various journals, and had very
good citations, downloads and reviews from the Research Gate
and Academia.edu. This book on anthology of leadership traits,
with the opening chapter as HR leadership situations, in which
the entire chapters discusses in depth the issues related to
SHRM, which is very important area of knowledge any HR
leaders or any other leader needs to learn, since the transition
viii
stages are very clearly explained in the chapter, backed with
research literature which supports with evidences the
contemporary leadership practices across the world in the
SHRM area. This chapter comes with the leader qualities
required for the inducing commitment in the people and how
to create high performance work systems in various kinds of
organizations with suggestions, and it concludes with
suggestions for further research.
The second chapter alters the thought process of a

reader to take up the leadership as a challenge and not as a mere
function to control. The challenge that a leader faces in the work
behavior of the people and to keep them motivated despite the
problems. It comes with a detailed explanation of what is
Leadership Challenges against the CWBs which is raising in the
contemporary world, and is backed with statistical evidences
that is required for broader understanding. It also explains the
different types of CWBs present in the present digital world of
work, and explains the 14 factors of CWBs and the required
control measures that the leader has to take. The chapter
proceeds with various research literatures gathered from
various researches across the world to support the theoretical
developments of the issue of CWBs, and conclude with
suggestive measures to tackle CWBs in the modern digital
world for which leaders across the world are struggling to.
The third chapter will entirely alter the mood of the

reader with the introduction of what is Leadership
Neuroplasticity, and how is it important for a leader to explore
him or herself. The advancements and applications of
Neuroplasticity in leadership development and its importance
for every leader to firstly know about it. The functional
ix
understanding broadens when the reader can read the
examining and evaluating methods of improving
neuroplasticity. The readers shall understand the application
areas neuroplasticity in leadership development as well as it
concludes with suggested measures for the leaders to make
their leadership skill more effective.
The Fourth Chapter deals with conflicts and conflict

resolution, which any leader will be interested to learn, which
has ample research literature from across the world to make the
reader understand what is the importance of learning the skill
of conflict resolution. The chapter explains in depth with
diagrams the culminators of the conflict in an organization and
what are those bad factors that contributes, and how to identify
and retrieve them are explained in lucid manner, which can
make any reader understand its importance.
The Fifth chapter is full of interesting facts about a point

that many leaders get stressed out is the they need to be always
right, no it cannot, and this comfort statement is what the entire
chapter deals about. This chapter opens up with the research
literature gained from across the world which is very
interesting that, leaders cannot be always right, and a detailed
explanation for what the problems are and how problems with
always being right is not possible. The chapter discloses the 3
biggest mistakes that every leader makes and how important is
the evaluation of the level of activities that the confident leaders
do and never demands to be right always. This book concludes
with the suggestions of the importance of how rational leaders
should be.
x
The Sixth chapter deals with the Leadership Skills. As an
example to deal with real life situations, this chapter addresses
certain leaders dealing in the real time markets and how tough
it is in real life situations. The chapter deals with the leadership
skills to conceptualize characters through colors and the
research literatures related to colors and its characters, with
detailed explanation of how leaders can learn and nurture
marketing skills, and this color as a powerful marketing tool is
very important for learning customer personalities or any
general color preferences that keeps merchandising attractive
etc., hence this chapter is included as a skill development
exercise for every leader with special reference to the leaders
dealing with colors for marketing and advertising.
The seventh chapter is another interesting dimension of

leadership development, and here again it starts with the
toxicity that a leader should be in a position to understand and
act accordingly since it impacts the organization negatively. The
chapter starts with the research literature from the
contemporary world and it also extends its explanation on what
are the toxic leaders’ traits and the impact of toxic leaders in
organizations. The chapter examines in detail the toxic leader
personality and their roles in creating toxic organization is dealt
in detail. The attraction that happens towards the toxic leaders
at times is also discussed and how to identify to avoid toxicity
is explained in detail. The remedial measures for the
organizations with the policy options for creating skills in the
leadership levels to identify the toxic leader is very key for
success of the organization is what the chapter concludes with.
The penultimate chapter starts with a new uncovered area and

that is under serious research across the world for its
xi
uniqueness, is the leadership blind spots, and how is it
important for the leadership development. Every leader in this
world suffers from blind spots, and he or she is never in a
position to identify the same, and how to do so is what is
explained in the chapter. The chapter also discusses the
conversational intelligence and the reality gaps with the
developments in scientific methods to identify the ways in
which the leadership blind spots shall be conquered. The
chapter concludes with an examination of the past history how
these issues were dealt with and also the suggestions are
provided to improve the conversational capacity in a leader is
given in detail.
The ultimate chapter handles a very important area for the

leadership development and it is about the leadership
communication paradox, and paradox is always interesting to
read and this paradox is about the harmful paradox that a
leader has to explore and analyze while in communications. The
chapter also goes to explain that vital steps for effective
listening and the most indispensable part of communicating,
with all the prevailing verification process that a leader has to
do. The most indispensable part of communicating can be
improved upon on the usage. This chapter can be an eye opener
for all the professionals who wants to improve their
communication skills as well as become an effective leader who
can succeed to next higher levels.
Learning Assistance
The dynamics and newer paradigms, that has led to the
advances in Leadership traits that is quintessential for the
overall personality development is the main theme on which
xii
this book surrounds The book will assist in learning unique
concepts with contemporary research evidences that were
published in the reputed international journals for the past 4
years are collated as an anthology for leadership traits. Most of
the articles that are converted as chapters are well read across
countries and are very popular for download from the Research
Gate and Academic.edu that are prominent for research and
readership of eminent people. , Industrial Relations and Rules
regulations connected to Industrial relation, and its associated
model on the inside of the book cover gives an overview of the
book content. Each chapter begins with learning objectives and
concludes with a summary, key ideas, and concepts for review,
and discussion questions. The purpose of the new section
“Exercises/Action Steps” is to elicit readers’ involvement.
In every chapter preface is added to incite interest as well as to

caution the reader not to miss the important elements of the
chapter. Since most of the chapters are new to the readers as far
as the concepts are concerned, and since this book will be highly
useful for the researchers and scholars pursing higher
education in the area of leadership.
The book also has various diagrams created for in-depth

understanding on the concepts and its applications and certain
diagrams that shall explain the steps in the sequel for entire
process to complete, will give clarity to the readers.
The books has various suggestions for further research as part

of the conclusion and in some of the papers huge reviewed
literature research is added before the introduction for the
researchers in this area to explore further from the references.
xiii
Vast reference sections with bibliography is added at the end of
the book to support the readers to refer and do further
improvised research or take up reading.
Hope I have put my best efforts to keep the readers engaging to

the context of the book and as far as possible will match the
reality since it has a huge research back up, and will be happy
to receive the feedback from the readers at
ddprofkarthik@gmail.com
xiv
Acknowledgements
After completing almost two and half decades with interaction

with different kind of human beings, by virtue of travelling
across the country and working in various kinds of
organizations with various work cultures, I first of all thank the
almighty for having blessed me in giving those coveted learning
trails in life, as life itself is a journey of experiences and so is this
book coined and not simply meant for reading for examination.
I am indebted to so many persons that a complete

acknowledgement would become encyclopedic.
Many scholars, writers, and managers are acknowledged

through references in the text. Many HR leaders with whom I
worked have contributed by their contributions and leading by
example. Thousands of employees in various states in various
capacities have honored me with their ideas and cooperating
with me to experiment and train during their tenure with me as
an employee as well as colleagues in the executive training
classes and lectures of mine. To all the HR executives with
whom I had the privilege to work as Director /or Heading a
Project was very vital for contributing ideas to formulate it as a
book. Many colleagues, scholars, managers, students of Ph.D.,
M.B.A, and other executive training had sharpened me and my
thinking to contribute those as ideas and later into a book. I am
indebted to my wife, son, father and mother in law, sisters,
brothers, cousins and other friends who had been consistent in
inspiring me to write.
xv
To the reviewers and the publishers who reviewed and made
many valuable suggestions in many important ways whom I
could not name here, and their contributions have been
important for this edition.
At times we forget in the speed of life, who is assiduously

supporting us, even in the subtle matters that may not even
anywhere related to our work or completed task, but they
would have been the silent pillars of life to keep you peaceful
and happy to complete the work, and I do not want to fail in
acknowledging their contributions to my life and making my
life meaningful, is none other than my lovely kid and wife.
My love Radhi and Rajieth.
Prof. DR. C. Karthikeyan
xvi
Contents
Chapter One: HR Leadership Situations (1-18)

 Preface
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Learning Objectives:
 Research Literature:
 Measuring Outcomes of the SHRM as an important component of
SHRM
 Transition of SHRM from theory to practice
 Importance of Developing Research based SHRM Practices
 Developing high commitment HRM and high performance work
systems
 Conclusion
Chapter Two: Leadership Challenges against Counter

Productive Work Behavior (Cwbs) (19-47)
 Preface
 Abstract
 Introduction: Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)
 Research Literature
 Learning the different types of CWBs present in the organizations
and particularly rampant in India
 14 Factors of CWBs and its Control Measures
 Identifying CWBs
 Conclusion
Chapter Three: Leadership Neuroplasticity (48-73)

 Preface
 Abstract
 Introduction
xvii
 Explore the advancements and applications of Neuroplasticity in
Leadership Development
 The functional understanding on Neuroplasticity
 Examine from the review of literature research the future of
Neuroplasticity
 Evaluate the methods of improving neuroplasticity
 Understand the application areas of neuroplasticity in leadership
development
 Conclusion
Chapter Four: Leadership in Conflict Resolution (74-97)

 Preface
 Abstract
 Introduction
 How to effectively and successfully make Conflict Resolution
 The culminators of Conflict in an organization due to Leader’s Bad
Practices Contributing to Conflict in organization
 Conclusion
Chapter Five: Leadership Cannot Be Always Right (98-139)

 Abstract
 Learning Objectives
 Evaluate what are the problems on trying to be always right the
Problem with Always Being Right
 The Three Biggest Mistakes the leader makes
 Evaluate the level of activities the Confident Leaders do and Never
demand to be right always:
 Conclusion
Chapter Six Leadership Skills to Conceptualize Characters (140-163)

 Abstract: Colors are always special
 Learning Objectives
 Introduction
xviii
 Misconceptions around the Psychology of Color
 The Color as a powerful marketing tool
 Findings
 Conclusions
Chapter Seven: Toxic Leadership (164-188)

 Preface
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Explore who are Toxic Leaders and their Traits
 The impact of Toxic Leaders in an Organization
 Examine the nature of Toxic Leader Personality and their roles in
creating toxic organizations
 The fatal attraction towards Toxic Leaders
 Remedial measures to identify and avoid toxicity in Organizations
 Organizational policy options
 Conclusion
Chapter Eight: Leadership Blind Spots (189-206)

 Abstract
 Conversational Blind Spots
 Five Types of Conversational Blind Spots
 Conversational Intelligence & Reality Gaps
 Developments in Identifying Blind Spots
 Psychological blind spots
 Heuristics is a psychological term that describes the mental
shortcuts
 8 Ways to Conquer Your Leadership Blind Spots
 Examining the past history
 Improving Conversations
 Conclusions and Suggestions
Chapter Nine: Leadership Communication Paradox (207-241)

 Abstract
 Introduction
xix
 Paradox
 The harmful Paradox- While Communicating
 Explore the paradox in Leader Communication
 Analysis on the latest techniques of Effective Communicating
Leaders
 The recent developments in leadership Communication.
 The vital 9 Steps for effective listening
 Most indispensable part of communicating
 Verification of existence of Leader Communication Paradox
 Suggestions
 Conclusion
References (242-338)
xx
Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan HR Leadership Situations
Chapter One
HR Leadership Situations
Preface: This chapter will address the importance of

conceptualizing what is situational leadership, which this
whole book is about and this particular chapter will highlight
the importance of developing leadership skills and understand
the concepts of the contemporary management situations that
can be handy while facing real life situations. This chapter in
particular will address the leadership situations related to
SHRM aspects of any organization and what a leader has to do
while facing the same is explained with research evidences. This
chapter was a research article years back written by the author
and was well received and cited, and now converted as
anthology of leadership book series. These HR leadership
situations are descriptive about why is it important for a leader
to understand all the practices of SHRM practices for leadership
development across the world including India, and bringing in
the conceptual differences in using SHRM techniques of
leadership development on how mindful leadership allows
leaders to achieve professional and personal success. It also
touches the important issues the leader has to measure, and
how HR skills facilitate the leader. The chapter also has various
concept diagrams to explain various stages of leaders learning
mindfulness. It has very specified learning objectives and
explains important issues surrounding the challenges of a
leaders in developing high level commitment in the work
systems in organizations.
1
Abstract: Strategic Human Resource Management (Strategic

HRM), now in the globalized world is evolving as the fulcrum
of modus operandi, in long term planning, adopted to achieve
profitability for any kind of Organization, be it production,
service or even the charity organization. SHRM operates
primarily with two forms of resources. The first resource is an
organization's human capital—the knowledge, skills, and
abilities of its employees. The second resource is an
organization's systems specifically HR policies and practices
that serve to support the development of human capital. Core
research in strategy is concerned with identifying both the
external and internal factors that enable firms to shape a
competitive advantage and achieve superior performance
(Harrison & Enz, 2005). With the support of technological
advancements SHRM is now a much sought after planning tool
for any operating organization in any corner of the world be it
big or small.
Key Words: Strategic, Human Resource, Challenges, Employees,

Competitive Advantage, Technological Advancements, First
Resource, Second Resource
Introduction: The challenge for HR strategic decision makers is

to transform human capital into a firm capability that is
valuable, rare, and difficult to imitate (Amit & Shoemaker, 1993;
Barney, 1991). SHRM is shaped by four primary challenges, in
the era of globalized operations of business and service
organizations, with the first challenge is to bring out the
intellectual and skill-based prowess of a company's employees,
and utilize the KSA (Knowledge, Skill and Aptitudes) set to the
organization's best advantage. Several researches around the
world in SHRM are finding employees as a source of human
2
capital and develop this valuable resource into a firms

‘capability that creates competitive advantage. The second
challenge is to turn an organization's HR infrastructure or HR
initiatives and development initiatives into a source of
competitive advantage. This happens through setting
procedures, which supports the firm's human capital to
appreciate in value. The third challenge is to determine a firm's
HR initiatives that supports the overall firms‘ strategy, and
reflects its results in the way of return on investment (ROI), in
short-term and long-term financially based trade-offs. The final
challenge is to apply HR tools, such as metrics and analytics,
to aid in strategic decision making. These challenges are
emerging as major challenges across the world in every kind of
organization.
Second Challenge Third Challenge

Overall Firms
HR infrastructure
Strategy and its
And Initiatives
Results in ROI
For Development
First Challenge Fourth Challenge

Bring out Metrics and
Intellectual The Four Analytical
And Skill based Primary Tools for Strategic
Powers Of Challenges of Decision Making
Employees SHRM
Figure I: The Four Primary Challenges of SHRM: Concept

Graphic Design: Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
3
Learning Objectives
 Is SHRM contribution measured and why Strategic HRM
is not practiced in all organizations
 Analyze the importance of SHRM in organizations in
general
 Examining any developments in understanding SHRM in
India
 Evaluate the scholarly literatures versus the practice of
SHRM practices and to find whether SHRM practices are
still an utopia for Indian organizations
Research Literature
Research in professional service firms reveals, on the value
employees bring to their organizations as human assets (i.e.,
Hitt, Bierman, Shimizu, & Kochhar, 2001; Kannan & Akhilesh,
2002; Sherer, 1995; Zucker, Darby, & Brewer, 1998), very little
research on the value of employees performing low-skilled
service work, such as those hired for hotels, restaurants, and
other types of hospitality service organizations. The common
management practice to curtail investments in employees, still
prevails as the thought that employees will soon leave the
organization.
Hired for Hotels/Restaurants Hired for Construction Helpers
Low Skilled Service
Hired as Hostel Wardens WorkHired in Hospitality industries
Figure: 2: Low Skill Service Work and the Nature of Workers

Involved: Graphically Designed by Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Research reveals that human capital have knowledge, skills,

and abilities that can be applied to their work to generate "rents"
or value for the organization (Becker, 1962; Bontis, 1998; Bontis,
4
Crossan, & Hullard, 2002; Coff, 1997). When they are highly
competent and performing their jobs well, they are able to
attend to a task at a skill level that is almost instinctive and does
not require a great deal of planning or conscious thought. Such
employees collectively create an organizational system or
routine that is so efficient it becomes a source of advantage or
firm capability that other companies cannot replicate (Argote &
Ingram, 2000; Coff, 1997; Hall, 1992; Lado & Wilson, 1994;
Nelson & Winter, 1982; Nonaka, 1994; Teece, Pisano, & Shuen,
1997). HR decision makers have long tried to argue on the
investments made on human capital that provides a substantial
return with questions of what return do they bring. What is the
potential risk if employees leave the firm and bring their capital
over to the competition (Coff, 1997)? Recent research has
suggested intangible assets add approximately 0% to a firm's
market value (Ulrich & Smallwood, 2005). The logical
questioning also arise like what shall be the relationship
between HR initiatives and firms’ value and the HR
investments that make a difference. Researchers argue that
investments in the HR infrastructure, such as hiring, training,
and performance management systems, create "invisible assets"
that enhance firm capabilities (Becker & Gerhart, 1996). These
sorts of investments (1) teach and encourage employees to
improve their knowledge, skills, and abilities; (2) motivate them
to exert greater effort on behalf of their organizations; and (3)
improve their overall productivity (Delaney & Huselid, 1996;
Youndt et al., 1996). Initiatives can include job rotation
schedules, "empowerment programs, the use of participative
decision making, and various forms of compensation strategies.
In fact, the initiatives that appear to have the greatest impact on
5
human capital are the presence of intensive and extensive

training, competitive pay, and promotion- from-within policies.
Motivate them to
Exert greater
effort on Behalf
of Organizations
Teach and
Encourage Improve
Employees to their
improve their OVERALL
knowledge and Productivity
Skills
Investments
In HR
Infrastructure
Figure 3: Investments in HR Infrastructure: graphical display by

Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Re-evaluating SHRM: Research reveals that not all
organizations are either capable or will fully agree to process
SHRM, or becomes a usual practice used in all organizations,
and professionals differ in explanation of the process.
Reevaluating SHRM of a company at any level is extremely
time-consuming and end up reconsidering their approach as a
whole when they attempt to brainstorm for an HR plan, tying
up time and resources for months and potentially years. The
present organizations are turning ―people-centered‖ to be make
critical business decisions, and therefore cannot be considered
as sales, marketing, etc. A company needs to come out from
stereotype completely to proceed with every employee in the
company having faith in the HR department, or else the
possibility for failure is very real (Sihna).This study seeks to
address how HR managers and the management in
6
organizations interpret and apply SHRM practices described

and recommended in scholarly literature available across the
world. To what extent are managers adopting and
implementing SHRM, to obtain a competitive advantage, does
it impact on RBV, and does it suits methodological guidelines
set out by Yin (2003), the scholarly literature concerning these
questions has been reviewed and several research propositions
have been formulated as a framework for the study. SHRM
literature is based on the premise that organizations adopt
certain practices, and based on deductive reasoning.
Measuring Outcomes of the SHRM as an important

component of SHRM
Rogers and Wright (1998) questioned the use of stock price and
bottom line measures in studies examining the relationship
between HRM and organizational performance. As a remedy,
they proposed a performance information markets (PIM)
system. PIMs allow researchers to assess the extent to which the
firm satisfies stakeholders in different sorts of markets and
allow stakeholders to evaluate both the organizational
objectives and how well the organization is achieving them.
Similar to a balanced scorecard approach (Kaplan & Norton,
1996). Way and Johnson (2005) proposed a different framework
for examining the impact of SHRM. They asserted that
organizational outcomes are a product of the interaction
between the actual behaviors of human resources (HR
outcomes) and the other functional resources and inputs
deployed and used by the organization. Wright et al. (2001)
presented data from three additional studies that examined the
impact of measurement error on the measurement of HR
practices. Results of all three studies provided additional
7
evidence that single respondent measures of HR practices

contain large amounts of measurement error. While this debate
was not resolved—and may never be resolved—it does
highlight that SHRM research involves choices, both strategic
and tactical, and that these choices have implications for the
interpretation of results and the accumulation of knowledge
(Sackett & Larson, 1990). Wright, Snell, and Dyer (2005) used
data from 45 business units and correlated HR practices with
past, concurrent, and future operational performance measures.
They found that correlations with performance measures at all
three times are both high and invariant, and controlling for past
or concurrent performance nearly eliminated the correlation of
HR practices with future performance. Their results provided
cautionary evidence to SHRM researchers about making causal
inferences regarding the relationship between HR practices and
organizational performance. Wright and Haggerty (2005)
further encouraged SHRM researchers to consider time, cause,
and individuals in future theorizing. They noted the temporal
lag between when HR practices are implemented and when
results are realized as one issue that should be incorporated in
SHRM theories. Regarding causality, they noted their own
research which suggests possibilities for reverse causation (i.e.,
organizational performance causes HR systems) that should be
considered. And, finally, regarding individuals, they suggested
more multi-level (individual, group, and organizational)
theories of the relationship between HRM and economic
performance (e.g., Ostroff & Bowen, 2000). Arthur and Boyles
(2007) as well as Kepes and Delery (2006) who noted that a
significant problem in SHRM research investigating the
relationship between HR systems and organizational
performance is in how researchers measure HR systems.
8
Growth stages of SHRM; the period 2000–2005 saw advances in

many fronts supported by empirical studies. Theoretical
extension account for leadership styles and organizational
subcultures with concepts of fit and flexibility. The SHRM
practices with desired employee contributions and person–
environment fit as key determinants of HR philosophy and
policies are at present is in reality in well established firms
across the world. The human capital now acts as a mediator
between HR systems and organizational performance and
leveraging human capital could be amplified in order to
positively affect organizational performance is coming into
practice in India too.
Transition of SHRM from theory to practice: First, research in

SHRM, advocates that there is significant relationship between
SHR systems and organizational performance in the present
globalized era and is fast spreading across the world. Secondly,
phenomenology of traditional and developing SHRM in
countries with emerging economies are being proactively taken
up since technological developments like HRIS and other HR
systems getting more analytical oriented with big data available
for sharing and evaluating, and finally to decide on the course
of action. Thirdly, attention is being paid to corporate level HR
strategies, with a focus on arriving at best P-O Person
Organization fit than a random utilization of HRM in modern
organizations. Fourth, SHRM practices are more on
implementation issues than resting as a board meeting or policy
agenda. SHRM practices are evaluated with results involving
HR practices and organizational performance. Fifth, SHRM in
knowledge-based competition is continuing to be examined
and explored by combing intellectual capital (human capital,
9
social capital, and organizational capital) with organizational

learning to develop models and frameworks for understanding
SHRM. Sixth, human capital issues in human capital
investments, distinguishing between investments in core and
support personnel, supports in better understanding of how
human capital diversity affects organizational performance,
and more importantly from a complex phenomenon to simple
practice. Empirical evidences for future practices; Empirical
SHRM research published to date can be described as coupling
(Webb, 1968), and while it is potentially useful, it is not as likely
to lead to breakthrough insights. Coupling research involves
extending previous work by (a) using a different subject
population, (b) using a different operationalization of one or
more variables, (c) including different levels of a variable than
were studied previously, (d) simultaneously examining two
variables that have in the past only been studied independently,
(e) including potential mediating and moderator variables, or
(f) extending previous work in a variety of other ways (Sackett
& Larson, 1990). But more attention should be paid to
qualitative research, of just how organizations link HR systems
to strategies would be invaluable. Breakthroughs in this area
likely will result from direct contact with organizations rather
than studying existing literature. Contact with HR
professionals also keeps the field of SHRM grounded and
sensitive to the changing needs of practitioners (Cascio &
Aguinis, 2008). Kepes and Delery (2006, 2007) have identified
multiple internal fits that they propose must be achieved for
horizontal alignment. Are all of them critical? And, as with
other areas of SHRM research, studying internal fit may require
distinguishing between intended and realized—in this case HR
system components. An organization may have policies,
10
programs, and practices that appear to fit from an objective,

outside-observer perspective. However, how they are actually
implemented may not be congruent with their intended
purpose. Another SHRM attention is corporate level strategy, it
refers to the overall strategy for a diversified company with the
mix of businesses and the ways in which strategies of individual
units should be coordinated and integrated. So integrating by
what are the implications for related diversification versus non-
related diversification? How can SHRM contribute to crafting
the underlying commonalities that enable diversified firms to
leverage their infrastructures and create synergies across
products and markets? And one promising new area of SHRM
research is that of leveraging human capital (e.g., Hatch & Dyer,
2004; Hitt et al., 2001; Kor & Leblebici, 2005). Leveraging human
capital represents ameans bywhich organizations can achieve
competitive advantage through their human resources (Sirmon,
Hitt, & Ireland, 2007). Prahalad and Hamel (1990) as translated
into HR by Dess and Pickens (1999) identify six leveraging
strategies: (1) concentrating—providing a strategic focal point
for the efforts of individuals, units, and the entire organization,
(2) accumulating— expanding and extending an organization’s
reservoir of experience and expertise, (3) complementing—
blending and balancing resources that enhance their mutual
value, (4) enhancing—augmenting resources by investing in
their development and broad application, (5) conserving—
recycling, co-opting, and shielding resources so that their value
is leveraged to achieve economies of scope, and (6) recovering
expediting the rate at which benefits are experienced. Research
to date has explored only one facet of the leveraging construct
complementing; research examining the other facets is needed.
The ethical implications of SHRM emphasize the strategic and
11
the resource factors in SHRM activities, at times it appears that

the ‗human ‘element has been neglected. More study is needed
to assess the impact of diversified HR practices for distinct
groups of employees, the fatigue effects associated with a focus
on continuous learning and continuous improvement, seeing
employees as resources to be leveraged rather than resources to
be nurtured, and a number of other related concerns that arise
from a limited understanding of the boundaries for popular
SHRM practices. Finally, multilevel theory seems particularly
appropriate for studying SHRM issues. Ostroff and Bowen
(2000) proposed an interesting model that to date has not been
tested. Ployhart and colleagues (Ployhart, 2006; Ployhart,
Weekley, & Baughman, 2006) have demonstrated how staffing
strategies can be examined across multiple levels. Additional
research like theirs should shed light upon the more complex
interactions that take place within organizations leading to
effects on organizational performance.
Importance of Developing Research based SHRM Practices;

from the above it is evident that, Indian Organization other than
public sector rarely touch upon the developments happening
around and also the serious developments through research
from theory to practice which never has a count. Faced with
such a wealth of theory and information, far beyond any
individual‘s ability even to monitor let alone to evaluate, how
do practicing managers respond? To what extent are they trying
to implement practices that are recommended in the literature,
to demonstrate the inconsistent and sometimes mutually
exclusive descriptions and prescriptions which confront
practicing managers? These practical problems underpin a
series of propositions occur in organizations between strategy
12
and people is clear. People are not like inanimate resources that
can be acquired, modified and disposed of in the same way as
other elements in the production of goods and services.
Organizations can employ people but the amount and quality
of the work that those people do is not something that can be
controlled. Managers have to devise and implement practices
that produce the desired behavior on the part of employees as
well as to influence employees ‘behavior, of intentions to
produce, the type of customer which the organization will try
to attract, sources of capital, relationships with regulatory
authorities and so on. An alternative perspective is that strategy
and HRM practices are interdependent and cannot be
considered to be in any kind of hierarchical relationship. A
rational approach to strategy underpins SHRM, with its
assumptions that strategy is something developed and
implemented by a small group of senior managers. In the
SHRM model, an HR manager is part of that senior
management group. Employees should be managed in ways
that match outcomes to the objectives driving corporate and
business strategy (Becker & Huselid, 1998: 55).
Developing high commitment HRM and high performance

work systems with scientific evaluations systems; the need of
the to manage HR investments strategically—similar to ways
companies manage their financial assets and their products—it
is necessary to gather information and use appropriate analytics
to guide decision making. This requires the development of HR
metrics and the use of HR decision-making models. We review
some basic tools at hand. HR metrics Boudreau and Ramstad
(2003), identified three categories of metrics that can aid in the
understanding and evaluation of HR investments: efficiency,
13
effectiveness, and impact (see Exhibit 27.2 for a summary). First

kind is the Metrics of efficiency ascertain how well the HR
function performs its basic administrative tasks and include
items such as absence rate, vacancy rate, time-to-fill positions,
cost per hire, training cost per employee, etc. These metrics are
the easiest to collect and provide useful information on the
effectiveness of HR administration. Regrettably, they do not
provide insight into how HR practices help improve
organizational performance.
The second kind of metric captures effectiveness. These metrics

help reveal if HR programs have the intended effect on the
people whom they are supposed to influence. For example,
training programs should be evaluated on more than just
participation or cost (efficiency measures); they should be
evaluated on the sort of capabilities (i.e., knowledge, skills,
abilities) gained by participants. Staffing programs should be
evaluated by the effectiveness of new hires provided by the
program. Whereas an efficiency measure of staffing may
consider time to hire and turnover rate, effectiveness measures
should capture the quality of stayers versus leavers, if
dysfunctional turnover is decreasing, and if the hiring system is
providing employees with the competencies needed to deliver
the company's service or product.
The third type of metric helps determine if HR systems are

developing and optimizing the capabilities of the company.
Lawler et al. (2004) described this sort of metric as allowing one
to demonstrate "a link between what HR does and tangible
effects on the organization's ability to gain and sustain
competitive advantage" (p. 29). Ultimately, the "holy grail" for
HR management is to demonstrate the effectiveness of HR
14
programs on the bottom line. The creation of this sort of metric,

though, is not a simple process. Relevant numbers cannot be
easily looked up in an information system or captured through
an employee or customer survey. Rather, one must employ
statistical techniques and/or experimental approaches. It is
only through this sort of research-based approach, a process we
label here human resource analytics, can a decision maker
attempt to understand the effects caused by the implementation
of HR programs.
This concept of linking employees with customers leads to our

final insight. We believe the area of greatest potential for service
organizations lies in understanding the crucial ways employees
create value for the purchasers of the organization's product.
More recent research in marketing examines the lifetime
potential revenues customers bring to an organization, as well
as the value of maintaining customer relationships (Duffy, 2000;
Gupta & Lehmann, 2003). It is widely understood that frontline
service employees play crucial roles in the reproduction of
intangible service experiences or products (Bowen, 1986). The
wild cards in the equation are the customers, who often are not
even cognizant of their own service expectations let alone their
satisfaction with service experiences—or their own role in
shaping those experiences. We understand that service
encounters are complex and variable and as a result, often
difficult to script. What should be understood are the financial
ways employees contribute to the lifetime value of loyal and
repeat customers? Broadly, employees can contribute through
communicating customer needs to preferred-customer databases,
to learning various ways customers wish to reproduce service
experiences, and to being such an efficient and recognizable
15
part of the service experience that loyal customers are willing to

pay price premiums for the ease and predictability of the service
encounter (Reichheld, 1996). These types of behaviors turn what
is termed "encounter-based" service experiences into
"relationship-based" service experiences that add value to the
firm. The customer switches from doing business with an
organization to doing business with people who represent the
organization (Gutek & Walsh, 2000). Research suggests that the
customers who form relationships with their service
organizations actually appreciate in potential value, quite
similar to the investments in employees (Reichheld, 1996). What
is not known is how to measure the specific ways employees
contribute to the long-term potential of an established customer
base, as well as help attract a new one. Numerically linking
these contributions to long-term revenue brings home the
crucial ways employees contribute to any successful service
business. Human capital—-and its associated HR investments—
represent intangible assets that have remarkable potential to
enhance both current and future firm value.
Conclusion: What do these insights suggest for future research

and practice is not difficult to realize in a business, how crucial
employees, especially frontline employees, are to an
organization's success. HR research and practice should begin
with these employees. In other words, when determining the
return on investing in and developing a hospitality firm's
human capital, both research and practice should begin with
the crucial customer-employee interaction. More specifically,
"touch points" or encounters with employees, on the data
embedded in these encounters. What are specific employees
specifically doing to manage the service encounter in ways that
16
the most valuable, repeat customers appreciate? Or

alternatively, how do these employees create efficiencies
around the work they do that are reflected in high-volume
exchanges with satisfied customers and clients? How efforts
such as these are reflected in additional revenues or cost
savings? With an understanding of data such as these in hand,
HR decision makers can then assess not only what outstanding
performance "looks like" in terms of bottom-line impact, but
they can also determine the routines that outstanding
employees enact, that can be embedded in the organization's
processes. At a broader level, decision makers can conduct
similar analyses examining the impact of past and current
investments in various employee groups (reflected in the wages
and benefits required to obtain them) on the revenue stream
and even profitability. Ideas such as these are aimed at applying
financial modeling to understand the impact of human capital
at both the individual and group level. The same type of
analyses would be useful to analyze the impact of different HR
investments. HR policies and practices become aligned to not
only support and develop these high-performing employees
but also to encourage others to adopt similar behaviors.
Practices such as these would help create and sustain a high-
performing work culture. In addition, the success of HR
initiatives could be calibrated against how well employees are
succeeding in managing those crucial customer linkages that
help generate repeat business. The linkages between customer
and employees represent one leverage point from which our
ideas could be directly applied to practice. Connecting
employee performance to what matters most to accurately
strengthen and measure this connection through HR processes,
metrics, and analytics pose exciting opportunities for decision
17
makers. The impact of human capital and HR initiatives is

obviously critical to any business. Understanding the financial
depth of this impact likely represents an opportunity and offers
a greater understanding of the strategic value of HR.
Applying metrics and adopting a financial decision-making

framework will help all decision makers—whether HR or
operational—examine the return associated with human capital
investments and HR initiatives. The key lies in understanding
ways these assets appreciate in value to the organization. The
business leaders who can best leverage their human capital will
be the ones contributing to the long-term strength of their
companies. SHRM is no exception.
18
Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Leadership Challenges against
Counter Productive Work Behavior
Chapter Two
Leadership Challenges against Counter

Productive Work Behavior (Cwbs)

conceptualizing what is situational leadership, which this
whole book is about and this particular chapter will highlight
the importance of developing leadership skills and understand
the concepts of the contemporary management situations that
can be handy while facing real life situations. This chapter in
particular will address the leadership situations related to
CWBs (Counter Productive Work Behaviors) happening in any
organization and what a leader has to do while facing the same
is explained with research evidences. This chapter was a
research article years back written by the author and was well
received and cited, and now converted as anthology of
leadership book series. This HR leadership situations like the
CWBs are descriptive about why is it important for a leader to
understand all the issues related to CWBs and the leadership
practices required for leadership development across the world
including India, and bringing in the leadership strategies to
control CWBs. The chapter also handles 14 factors that are
prominent among the CWBs across the world and the
techniques to identify the CWBs using leadership techniques to
control the CWBs and utilize these challenges of leadership in
personality development on how these kinds of challenges can
improve mindful leadership that allows leaders to achieve
professional and personal success. It also touches the important
issues the leader has to measure, and how HR skills facilitate
the leader. The chapter also has various concept diagrams to
explain various stages of leaders learning mindfulness.
19
Abstract: Counter Productive Work Behavior (CWBs) are

activities that are against productivity, which are engaged
either accidentally or unintentionally. CWB averts employees
from successfully completing a task. CWBs evolves as an
accident, at times due to avoidance of the safety rules that
triggers accident is also a form of CWB. Earlier research around
the world categorize CWB as a variable that leads employees
behave negatively to prevent and manage the situation which
remains pervasive to even entire organizations, that project
negative company image to the public, stakeholders of the
organization and to its own professional counterparts.
Keywords: Counterproductive; Employee; Obsolescence;

Employees; Absenteeism; Sabotage.
Introduction: Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)

refers to intentional behavior by employees who harms or
intends to harm an organization or the people in it, including
employees and customers. Kelloway (2010) views (CWB) as a
protest inside the organizations, stemming from having a high
degree of identification with a victim of injustice. (CWB) can be
both individually and collectively enacted. Collective (CWB)
would be like work-slow campaigns, work to rule, bullying,
and collective acts of violence that occur in the context of labor
dispute. Individually (CWB) goes against the legitimate
interests of an organization which harm organizations or
people, clients, customers, or counterparts as well. Research
around the world finds negative impact due to CWB and their
persistence in the workplace are increasing, simultaneously
pressing the need for qualitative research as well. This
qualitative study will be based on classification of CWBs,
predicting counterproductive behaviors, and furthering the
20
theoretical framework of CWBs with the objective to explore,

understand and interpret the impact due to (CWB) in Indian
conditions.
Learning Objectives
 Exploring the concept of (CWB) and its presence in the
organizations.
 Examining the impact of (CWB) in organizations.
 Learning scientific literature the implications of
(CWB) components in work and workers.
 Evaluating the linkages of (CWB) from global scenario
to Indian Scenario, and learn from indirect damages to
organizations.
Need for the Study: The impact of CWBs are widely spread in
different forms in every sectors or every organizations in
India, despite many tools to check are in vogue, hence,
analysis on the developmental research on counter
balancing the CWBs are necessary for every Human
Resources Department in the world.
Let us explore the concept of (CWB) and its presence in

organizations.
Counter Productive Work Behavior (CWB) in the present
scenario as stated by Robinson and Bennett. Production
deviance, involves behaviors like leaving early, intentionally
working slow, or taking long breaks. Property deviance,
involves sabotage of equipment, theft of property, and taking
kickbacks. Political deviance, involves showing favoritism,
gossiping, or blaming others. The cumulative effect of all the
above may lead to Personal aggression, that I involves
n
harassment, verbal abuse, and endangerment, and CWBs
evolves from these factors or might factor out of these
elements.
21
Working Slow
Production Taking Long
Deviance
breaks
Sabotage
Showing
Property
Theft of Deviance Political Favoritism
Property Deviance Blaming
Figure 1: Snowball effect of Production deviance, Property

Deviance and Political Deviance. Source: Prof Dr. C.
Karthikeyan (impact of CWB).
The above dimensions clearly indicates that every country with

all kinds of culture faces the above aspects of CWB, but with
reference to India, it usually is viewed multi-dimensional, while
technology is able to resolve issues like leaving early, taking
breaks, as networking through e- platforms is connecting the
worker in the work loop which makes them happy to certain
extent, as employees do the best possible despite being at home
solving domestic chores and spending time with family. The
millennial (new age work force) loves being on the loop of work
to know or at times even resolve problems from home, and to
people of very senior leadership positions it‘s evoking positive
feelings. Cities like Hyderabad, Bangalore, Delhi, Bombay and
Metros are now into these working norms, but still, leaving
early from work is considered a sign of CWB, though its
actually not, as productivity at the end of the day matters rather
than the time spent, since the new age organizations look upon
the resultant output rather than the throughputs used for
making the output, and with the technology of Skype with the
22
facilities of document sharing, and other livewire methods are

replacing the thought process of the working hours spent at
the spot of work, unlike the service sectors like teaching,
hospitals and transport sectors, rest of all is totally changing in
India.
The two-dimension model of CWB organizational versus

person ,legal v. illegal dimension, a hostile v. instrumental,
task-related v. a non-task-related dimension like the figure
below is impacting on CWBs, since the technology is making
itself a great variable, as once a work which required human
presence is replaced by machines, especially in the service
sector. Person- Organization Fit (P-O Fit), P-O Fit defines the
compatibility between people and organization which the two
factors share similar fundamental characteristics like either
supplementary or complementary perspective. In every
profession this holds true.
P-O Fit
• Task
P-O Fit Related
• Legal Vs. • Hostile Vs. • Vs.
• Illegal • Instrumental • Non-Task
Related
P-O Fit
Figure: 2: Two Dimensional Models of CWB: Concept by

Kristoff (1996) P-O Fit: Graphically Designed by: Prof Dr. C.
Karthikeyan
While (CWB), is not on volition, like the inability of the

employee to complete a component of work due to less skill or
23
accident, but nevertheless the act of purposeful avoidance of the

safety rules does represent a CWB. The pervasive behavior of
this kind, would cost a lot to the organization, like wise many
of the variables in P-O Fit boxes represents a possibility
component of Person-Organization Fit. Many variables at times
though obvious, in terms of knowledge, but still gains entry like
the legal vs. illegal, as this dimension differs from country to
country and cultural implications can factor in, and what is
hostile in one kind of organization may not be so in another and
what is task related in one profession may not be task related in
another, hence P-O fit itself is now, is inconsistent to paradigms
of Indian Profession.
NEGATIVE
NEGATIVE
EFFECT
EMOTION
PERVASIVE
Counter Productive
Work Behavior
Figure 3: CWBs and Its Interrelated Factors: Graphical

Design by author Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan (for
Let us have start from examining the simplest of the CWB for
example unplanned absenteeism, James Thomas, of management
firm Kronos, states unplanned absenteeism is depleting India‘s
economic growth. The unplanned absenteeism is a growing
24
challenge in India across sectors that costs Indian companies up

to 35 percent approximately cited by many research firms. Ten
percent payroll costs is impacting globally while in India is
about 15 to 20 percent which puts out of a 100 almost 20 people
are making unplanned absence from work. The nature of
absenteeism with large number of women employees on rolls
and particularly in unorganized sectors in India makes three
times that of the global numbers. The Indian employers believe
12 percent of absence is not genuine and that these absentees
claiming to be unwell amount to 21 million lost days every year.
An Indian survey stated that 2 percent of India‘s corporate staff
are engaged in self-destructive lifestyles and that 29 percent
smoke, leading to frequent illnesses. Sleep disorders caused by
stress also lead to chronic absenteeism. Nearly one-fourth of
India‘s corporate employees sleep less than six hours per night.
The resultant cost in terms of lost productivity, the study
estimated, it is as high as 80 billion in INR. Professor Lant
Pritchett of Harvard's Kennedy School of Government, a senior
economist at the World Bank, encapsulated India‘s economic
woes as nearly every routine service there is rampant
absenteeism, indifference, incompetence and corruption.
Counter
Productive
Productive
Graphical display 4: Source; developed by author Prof Dr. C.

Karthikeyan; graphical explanation on the basic concept of
CWBs impacting organizational balance.
25
Research Literature: Megargee, (1966), Megargee, Cook, &

Mendelsohn, (1967), developed a typology of control to
theorize the relationship between aggression and personality.
Chronically over controlled individuals are prone to rigidly
inhibit their reactions to provocations, whereas appropriately
controlled types are generally restrained, except when
assertiveness is perceived to be justifiable. Under controlled
individuals lack the ability to inhibit aggressive and antisocial
impulses. Cropanzano and Baron (1991) links injustice to
emotions and workplace conflict. Cropanzano, Howes,
Grandey, and Toth (1997) relate CWB to high levels of job
tension, somatic tension, fatigue, and burnout. Spector (1997)
presents a meta-analysis of 12 early studies that related to
experienced frustration included lack of autonomy,
interpersonal conflict, organizational constraints, role
ambiguity, role conflict, and workload. Behavioral and other
outcomes that were correlated with experienced frustration
included job satisfaction, work anxiety, physical health
symptoms, employee withdrawal behavior (e.g., intention to
quit, but not absence), aggression, hostility, and sabotage.
Skarlicki and Folger (1997) summarize research linking
employees‘ perceptions of unfair treatment with negative
emotions such as anger, outrage, and resentment and in turn to
behavioral responses that we would call CWB and they call
ORB (organizational retaliatory behavior). Fox and Spector
(1999) also found that both experienced frustration and job
satisfaction mediated the positive relation between employees
‘experience of situational constraints (events frustrating their
achievement of organizational and personal goals) and CWB
(both personal and organizational). Skarlicki et al. (1999)
fournd conscientiousness and agreeableness both predicted
26
deviant behavior such as theft and substance use, whereas

employee turnover was explained by all five personality traits,
with Emotional Stability showing the strongest negative
relationship to turnover. Skarlicki et al., (1999) found negative
affectivity was also examined as a possible predictor of
retaliation A similar three-way interaction was found which
demonstrated that individuals who may be characterized by the
trait of negative affectivity (feelings of discomfort,
dissatisfaction, and distress, with a generally negative
orientation toward life) are more likely to retaliate when both
distributive and interactional justice are low. Fox & Spector,
(1999) suggested that individual differences do not necessarily
independently explain acts of workplace violence or aggression
but instead require theoretical frameworks to model the joint
effects of situational factors and individual differences in order
to understand CWB. Individuals prone to trait anxiety are those
with a stable tendency to experience elevated feelings of tension
and apprehension across a multitude of situations. Melissa L.
Gruys (1999) has conducted research on the dimensionality of
deviant employee behavior in the workplace. The study
investigated the dimensionality of deviant employee behavior.
The study has indicated eleven categories of deviant behavior
like theft and related behavior, destruction of property, misuse
of information etc. Spector and Goh (2001) in a meta-analysis,
found anger and anxiety to be related to a variety of stressors,
with mean correlations ranging from. (Anxiety and role
conflict) to (anger and organizational constraints).
Lee and Allen (2002) examined the relative contributions of

cognition and affect on different types of ―workplace deviance
behavior‖ (WDB). They noted that discrete emotions may exert
27
different effects on peoples‘behavior: guilt may reduce WDB

while anger may increase it. Glomb (2002) collected in-depth
data about specific incidents of workplace aggression,
demonstrating linkages among various antecedent, individual
difference, and behavioral variables; these studies assessed
more chronic exposure to stressors and negative emotional
states rather than investigating specific incidents. Douglas and
Martinko (2001) and Hepworth and Towler (2004), trait anger
emerged as a prominent predictor of workplace aggression.
Trait anger, as noted earlier, is described as an individual
affective disposition to experience chronic feelings of anger
over time and across Emotions, Violence, and
Counterproductive Work. Numerous personality traits have
been examined for their association with CWB. Salgado (2002),
with meta-analysis found association between the Big Five
personality factors and CWB—defined as absenteeism, accident
rate, deviant behavior, and turnover—also supported the
influence of personality characteristics as predictors of CWB.
Domagalski & Steelman, (2004), states that with higher levels
of trait anger have reported engaging in a greater incidence of
aggressive and antisocial behaviors such as doing or saying
things to purposely harm others (Douglas & Martinko, 2001;
Hepworth & Towler, 2004), striking out at the source of their
anger, slamming doors, and using sarcasm. Although
employees who possess angry dispositions are inclined to
display CWB more so than those who are low in trait anger, the
observed relationship becomes more complex when self-control
is introduced. Douglas & Martinko, (2001), and Marcus &
Schuler, (2004), states self-control is the individual tendency to
assess the long-term consequences of one‘s behavior when self-
control is low, individuals lack the ability to effectively manage
28
their frustrations. Instead, they lose their inhibitions by reacting

impulsively or aggressively to provocations.
Hepworth & Towler, (2004); Marcus & Schuler, (2004) found

impulsive and uninhibited tendencies of individuals who lack
self-control in the face of potentially detrimental consequences
figure prominently in the display of CWB such as theft, fraud,
sabotage, and aggression. In addition, aggressive and
counterproductive workplace behaviors occur more readily
when individuals with low self-control also possess high levels
of trait anger Douglas & Martinko, (2001). Marcus & Schuler,
(2004) found the combined effects of two distinct dispositional
tendencies, trait anger and self-control, have been found to
jointly influence negative work behavior; however, the
distinction between low self-control over control has not been
examined in the organizational literature and thus limits the
ability to establish whether workplace violence and highly
aggressive acts are performed by over controlled personalities
rather than individuals with low self-control. Colbert and her
colleagues (2004) found that agreeableness moderates the
relationship between perceived organizational support and
interpersonal deviance, whereas Conscientiousness moderates
the relationship between perceptions of an organization‘s
developmental environment and the behavioral outcome of
withholding effort.
E. Kevin Kelloway et al (2010) conducted research on

Counterproductive work behavior as protest. As per the study
counterproductive work behaviors can be viewed as a form of
protest in which organizational members express
dissatisfaction with or attempt to resolve injustice within the
organization. Incorporating the three key predictors (injustice,
29
identity and instrumentality), from the protest literature leads

to propose that counterproductive behaviors can be both
individual and collective. Marissa S. Edwards and Jerald
Greenberg (2010) in their article on What Is Insidious
Workplace Behavior? Writes that researchers should assess the
number of exposures during each time period (i.e., frequency)
when investigating deviant behavior. Greatest impact would be
expected under conditions in which a high frequency of deviant
acts occurs over long periods of time. Associated Chambers of
Commerce and Industry of India (with a survey in 2010),
suggested that smoking, drug abuse and alcoholism play a large
role in workplace absenteeism. On the whole, Indian
corporations report absenteeism rates as high as 20 percent,
meaning one in five call in sick for various reasons. Nisha Nair,
Deepti Bhatnagar (2011) performed research on understanding
workplace deviant behavior in non-profit organizations toward
an Integrative Conceptual Framework. They say non-profit
organizations also experience deviance, and due to their unique
characteristics. They say poor structure, lack of accountability,
little punitive action, individual factors such as low
commitment and identification, or organizational factors such
as high organizational control and poor ethical climate
contribute to deviance in any non-profit organization.
Faridahwati Mohd. Shamsudin et al (2011) conducted research

on Investigating the Influence of Human Resource Practices on
Deviant Behavior at Work. The study revealed four distinct
dimensions of HR practices i.e. job description; employment
security, internal career opportunities, and result-oriented
appraisal are significant predictors of workplace deviance.
Azlina Binti Yassin (2011) investigated the relationship
30
between ethical climate and workplace deviant behavior; to

investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and
workplace deviant behavior; to investigate the relationship
between job attributes and workplace deviant behavior. Muafi
(2011) conducted research on Causes and Consequence found
the causes and consequence of deviant workplace behavior.
This study was conducted for operational staff in SIER
(Surabaya Industrial Estate Rungkut), Indonesia. The results
show that: (a) intent to quit, dissatisfaction and company
contempt have positive effect on deviant workplace behavior,
(b) Acme Intellects
Learning the different types of CWBs present in the
organizations and particularly rampant in India.
First Factor: Production deviance: Production deviance is
ineffective job performance that is done on purpose, such as
doing tasks incorrectly or withholding of effort. Such behaviors
can be seen in disciplinary actions and safety violations.
Incorrect
Task
Withholding
Incorrect job
Effort to
Performance
Improve
31
Graphic Display 5: Production Deviance; Elaborating from

minimum to maximum when unchecked; Source; Author
Supplementary fit is when a person has characteristics, such as
values and attitudes that are similar to those of the
organization. Complementary fit is when a person brings
unique characteristics to an organization that make the
organization more ―whole. If the fit between person and the
organization has poor P-O Fit leads to job dissatisfaction which
in turn leads to turnover. Second Factor; Psychological
Contract Violation (PCV): Psychological contract can be
defined as employee‘s belief, mutual obligations between the
employee and the employer (Rousseau, 1989). The expectations
of the employee like the safe working conditions and if
organization fails to live up to one or more of its promises, loses
psychological contract. Transactional contracts are promises
that can be characterized as a more economically oriented
exchange, which happen in a short term (e.g. competitive
wages; Rousseau, 1990).
Third Factor: F3 Cyber loafing: The term ‗cyber loafing‘was

coined by Tony Cummins (1995) and in New York‘s daily
news. The term grew notoriety when it was used in a 2002 paper
by Lim (National Singapore University) which was published
in the Organizational Behavior Journal (Selwyn, 2008). Cyber
loafing consists of two parts. Firstly, ‗loafing’ is extracted from
loafer which means a person who wastes his/her time. Cyber
loafing can be defined as surfing the web in any form of non-
job- related tasks performed by the employee. Cyber loafing is
a slang term used to describe employees who surf the Internet,
write e-mail or other Internet- related activities at work that are
not related to their job. Cyber loafing has emerged as more and
32
more people use computers at work. One survey showed that

64 percent of workers use the internet for personal tasks at
work. It has been suggested that cyber-loafing is responsible for
a 30-40 percent decrease in employee productivity and was
estimated to have cost. The term cyber loafing‘ has been said to
have been derived from the term ‗goldbricking‘ which is
basically another work for slacker, or something that appears to
possess value, but in reality is worthless.
On line
Entertaining
Online
What Sapp/
Shopping
Facebook
Social
On line
Networking
Job search
With friends
Figure: 6: Cyber Loafing in Organizations carried out in

different ways: Concept Design: Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Employees who cyber loaf are involved with a number of

different activities which fall into two general categories
entertainment and personal business, people tend to spend time
on social media websites, playing online games, video
33
watching, streaming and viewing live events and using instant

messaging applications to chat with family and friends. Cyber
loafing drains productivity. It put companies in legal trouble
when employees conduct illegal activity or unacceptable
behavior like viewing pornography on workplace computers.
According to John Urgin and John Pearson after surveying
office workers and university students, the researchers
discovered both older and young workers waste time on the
Internet but in different ways.
Fourth Factor; F4; Absenteeism: Absenteeism is typically

measured by time lost (number of days absent) measures and
frequency (number of absence episodes) measures. It is weakly
linked to affective predictors such as job satisfaction and
commitment. Absences fit into two types of categories. Excused
absences are those due to personal or family illness; unexcused
absences include an employee who does not come to work in
order to do another preferred activity or neglects to call in to a
supervisor. Absence can be linked to job dissatisfaction. Major
determinants of employee absence are employee effect,
demographic characteristics, organizational absence culture,
and organization absence policies.
Absenteeism is defined as the lack of presence of an

employee for a planned work (Johns, 2002, Kristensen, Juhl,
Eskildsen, Nielsen, Frederickson, Bisgaard, 2006). Absenteeism
is a perennial problem in industry. Various studies have
revealed that relatively a few workers are responsible for
substantial portion of absenteeism in any plant (Bhatia, 1980).
One of the factors affecting optimum utilization of human
resources is absenteeism. It is an industrial malady affecting
productivity, profits, investments, and the absentee workers
34
themselves. Its consequences are alarming, as a day lost is a

resource lost, deprived of being invested. As such, an increasing
rate of absence adds considerably to the cost of production of
an industry and saps industrial progress. The economic and
social loss occurring from absenteeism cannot be determined
accurately (Bhatia, 1984). Absenteeism is, however, too.
Absenteeism is, however, too complex and an elusive concept
to permit exact remedial measures. There is no magic formula
available to work as panacea for absenteeism in various
organizations operating under different circumstances and
conditions of work. With so many factors affecting absence
rates, it would be unrealistic to expect to find one simple answer
to the problem of industrial absenteeism (Bhatia, 1984).
Sixth Factor: Abuse against others like acts of aggression by

members of an organization, committed in organizational
settings are considered as workplace violence. While most
researchers examine overall workplace aggression, there is a
line of research that separates workplace aggression according
to its targets, whether interpersonal or organizational. In this
model of workplace aggression, trait anger and interpersonal
conflict have been found to be significant predictors of
interpersonal aggression, while interpersonal conflict,
situational constraints, and organizational constraints have
been found to be predictors of organizational aggression. Other
factors significantly linked to aggression are sex and trait anger,
with men and individuals with higher levels of trait anger
showing more aggressive behaviors.
35
Abuse
Trait Ange
Interpersonal
(basically a
conflict
Quality present Interpersonal
Dut to various
beyond Aggression
reasons
Control of the
Beyond
individual)
Explanation
Figure: 8: Concept of Abuse of Others (co employees): Concept:

Dr. C. Karthikeyan.
Seventh Factor: Bullying: workplace bullying consists of
progressive and systematic mistreatment of one employee by
another. It includes verbal abuse, gossiping, social exclusion, or
the spreading of rumors. The terms 'bullying' and 'mobbing' are
sometimes used interchangeably, but 'bullying' is more often
used to refer to lower levels of antisocial behavior that do not
include workgroup participation. Bullying is a cascading
problem that needs to be curtailed in its earliest stages. The
workplace bullying Institute defines it as ―the repeated, health-
harming mistreatment of one or more persons‖ and usually
appears in the following forms like Verbal abuse like offensive
conduct/behaviors (including nonverbal) which are
threatening, humiliating, or intimidating, work interference,
sabotage, which prevents work from getting one.
36
Social
Exclusion
or
Spreading
of
Rumors
gossiping
Bullying
Figure 9: Workplace Bullying and its methods: Concept Design:

Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Workplace bullying has been linked to higher turnover rates,
lost productivity, motivation to perform and tend to take more
sick days due to stress-related illnesses. The problem with
workplace bullying is that many bullies are hard to identify
because they operate surreptitiously under the guise of being
civil and cooperative. Seventh Factor: Incivility: Incivility at
workplace is disrespectful and rude behavior in violation of
workplace norms for respect. The effects of incivility include
increased competitiveness, increases in sadistic behavior, and
inattentiveness. A study of cyber incivility showed that higher
levels of incivility are associated with lower job satisfaction,
lower organizational commitment, and higher turnover rates.
Two factors that seem to be associated with becoming a victim
of incivility are low levels of agreeableness and high levels of
neuroticism. Forms of Incivility are often prompted by
thoughtlessness rather than actual malice. Think of the
37
manager who sends e-mails during a presentation, or the boss

who ―teases‖ direct reports in ways that sting, or the team leader
who takes credit for good news but points a finger at team
members when something goes wrong. Such relatively minor
acts can be even more insidious than overt bullying, because
they are less obvious and easier to overlook—yet they add up,
eroding engagement and morale. The stress of ongoing hostility
from a manager takes a toll, sometimes a big one. In some cases
an entire department is infected. The hostile atmosphere
included door slamming, side conversations, exclusion, and
blatant disregard for people‘s time.
Subtle Incivility Connect

Inappropriate
DEMANDING
OUTPUT OR
Hostility
REPLY IN A DOOR SLAMMING
CRUCIAL
HOUR
Stress
BLATANT DISREGARD
TAKING
CREDIT FOR HOSTILITY
GOOD NEWS
BUT POINTS Exclusion
FINGER AT STING OPERATION Side
TEAM conversations And loss of
MEMBER •THREAT MAILS productivity
ABOUT EXCLUSION
Figure 9: Workplace Incivility at workplace: Concept

designed: Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
The Costs of Incivility: Many managers would say that

incivility is wrong, but not all recognize that it has tangible
costs. Targets of incivility often punish their offenders and the
organization, although most hide or bury their feelings and
38
don‘t necessarily think of their actions as revenge. Lot of time

and energy needs to be spent to keep workplace civil,
otherwise, rudeness tends to creep into everyday interactions.
Managers can use several strategies to keep their own behavior
in check and to foster civility among others.
Eighth Factor: Lateness: Lateness is described as arriving at

work later or leaving earlier than required. Problems associated
with lateness include compromised organizational efficiency.
Tardy and late employees responsible for critical tasks can
negatively affect organizational production. Other workers
may experience psychological effects of the tardy employee
including morale and motivational problems as they attempt to
"pick up the slack." Other employees may begin to imitate the
example set by the behavior of tardy employees. Lateness costs
business more.
39
Arriving to
work late
Business Leaving
Suffers Earlier
Loss of Pick up
Productivity the
and creativity Slack
Work Place
And
Morale of the Bad
Organization Lateness attitude
goes down Tardiness of
Loss of
basic Negative
Work Affect
ethic
Loss of Productivity
Positive Goes down
culture
Figure 10: Vicious Cycle of Lateness leading to Tardiness of

Employees: Designed by: Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Workplace tardiness leads to lack of ingenuity, creativity,
problem-solving, writing, speaking, listening, coordination,
and includes Instruction, Persuasion, negotiation, Judging, and
decision-making.
Ninth Factor: Sabotage: Sabotage; sabotage are behaviors that

can "damage or disrupt the organization's production,
damaging property, the destruction of relationships, or the
harming of employees or customers." Research has shown that
often acts of sabotage or acts of retaliation are motivated by
40
perceptions of organizational injustice and performed with the

intention of causing harm to the target.
Disrupt
Production
Destroying Damaging
Relationships
Sabotage
Property
Harming
Colleagues
and co
employees
Figure 11: Employee Sabotaging Process in an Organization:

Design: Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Employee sabotage occurs when an employee intentionally

inflicts damage on the organization or one of its members,
ultimately inflicting a loss in production or profit. There is a
direct correlation between prevalence of employee conflict and
the amount of damage and theft of inventory and equipment.
Tenth Factor: Sexual Harassment; Sexual harassment is
defined as "unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual
favors, and other verbal or physical contact when (a)
submission to the conduct by the employee is either explicitly
41
or implicitly a term or condition of an individual's employment,

(b) submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual
is used as a basis for employment decisions affecting the
individual and/or (c) such conduct has the purpose or effect of
unreasonably interfering with work performance, or creating
an intimidating, hostile or offensive working environment."
Gestures Date rape Quid

proQuo
And stares (this for
that)
Sexual
Praise or
Ridicule Hostile
on Harassment
physical Environment
outlook
Sexual
Verbal vocal (Physical,
Abuse with verbal, and
vulgar actions)
words
Figure 12: Sexual Harassment in Workplace: Designed Prof

Dr. C. Karthikeyan, Author
Sexual harassment is subtle rape, or so says psychologist John Gottman.

Judging from the millions of dollars U.S. companies are being
forced to spend to combat sexual harassment, American men
have apparently become subtle rapists and sexual predators on
a scale unimaginable even to the most vocal feminists of a
decade or two ago.
42
Eleventh Factor: Substance Abuse; Substance abuse at work is

a problem that can have an effect on work attendance,
performance, and safety and can lead to other injuries outside
of work and health problems.
Addiction
Mix with
Drink Substance
During
and after Frequent and
working
Smoke hours
during Usage have (hiding
working
hours
(Always with other looking for
substance excuse to and Have
even at consume work during
Working
Figure 13: Substance Abuse in Workplace: Prof Dr. C.
Karthikeyan
Twelfth Factor: Theft: Multiple forms of workplace theft: Theft
in the workplace is not limited to stealing of money and
products, it includes even undercharging, giving un authorized
discounts to friends, altering documents or creating fictitious
ones, theft of intellectual property, fraudulent refunding,
receiving gifts or commissions from suppliers and incorrect
time recording, as well as using company time for personal
matters. Embezzlement: theft of cash or property by someone
in a position of trust, like a bookkeeper or senior executive.
Payroll Schemes by falsifying timecards to get paid for more
hours than actually worked, or writing payroll checks to
phantom employees.
43
Expense Reimbursement Schemes: padding expense reports by

adding items that were never incurred or were not business-
related. Time Theft: using company time to conduct personal
business. Information Theft: supplying proprietary information
such as customer lists or trade secrets to a competitor.
Larceny
Adjusting collection before Deposits
Adding Dubious Costs
Sales Tax
Embezzlement
and Negative
Adjustments
Deviation Time Theft
Expense Reimbursement schemes Information Theft
Data
Billing Schemes
Adjustment
Figure 14: Adjustments as abuse progressively increasing to

the level of theft: Designed: Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Thirteenth Factor 14: Employee Turnover: Turnover happens

when employees leave the organization, either voluntarily
(quitting) or involuntarily (being fired or laid off) attempts to
leave an organization when they are not rewarded for the
performance, including reasons of conditions in the external job
market and the availability of other job opportunities, and
length of employee tenure. At times the involuntary turnover
happens due to lay off or fired, or retrenchment due to business
downturn or for termination, such as theft. The cost due to
direct and indirect and includes the costs to locate, hire and
44
train a new employee to fill the position. Indirect costs like

losing sales as well as customers due to inexperienced staff or
due to short- staffed, lost and low morale of people leaving the
company.
Conclusion: With Suggestions and Strategies recommended

to curb CWBs
This study concludes with some findings of the secondary data

and analysis of various research reports a banking/finance
company, with an average employee base of 5,000, takes a hit of
about Rs. 100 crore in productivity losses a year due to stress-
related issues. In any IT/ITeS company, with an average
employee base of 10,000, the loss is about Rs 50 crore. And for a
company with an average employee base of 2,000 operating in
the travel and hospitality space, it's just over Rs 10 crore. The
companies need to have better strategies to have control and
leaders need to be aware of the actions and become a role model
can improve the situation. A systematic and sustainable
feedback system in place, despite employees won‘t always be
honest, hence a system to track instances of civility and
incivility can really make a difference. The system in place will
make employees at all levels to adjust self-behavior is an
important piece of the puzzle, and can take action across the
company as well. Encouraging and selection on the basis for
civility give the team members a say about their prospective
colleagues and with the formal interviews will help tackle
issue not just with words, but norms for civility, such as
arriving on time and ignoring e-mail during meetings. The
employees can even be trained to take the edge off and to help
one another avoid falling into occasional abrasiveness or,
incivility. Key Indicators to relate CWBs; Age; Age appears to
45
be an important factor in predicting CWBs. While age does not

appear to be strongly related to core task performance,
creativity, or performance in training, it does appear to be
positively related to organizational citizenship behaviors and
negatively related to CWBs. Older employees seem to exhibit
less aggression, tardiness, substance abuse, and voluntary
absenteeism (although sickness related absenteeism is
somewhat higher than younger employees). Some researchers
argue that the lower rate of CWBs may be due to better self-
regulation and self-control. Creating a system of delivering
organizational justice for strategies to Curb CWBs; Firstly
leaders are to understand employee perceptions and can
engage employees' involvement to thwart counterproductive
workplace behavior throughout an organization. Leaders need
to be innovative in creating a system so that the employees have
a say in their day-to-day work activities, when possible. If
employees perceive ownership in their job responsibilities, they
tend to have positive perceptions. When feasible, they can
change daily routines, so work does not become tedious.
Leaders shall become assertive without losing temper, combat
counterproductive work behaviors and facilitate, and maintain
that authority. Most importantly employees engage in
counterproductive behavior may even escalate into dangerous
situations if not monitored by the leader. Leaders need to be a
team player and teamwork seems to be the mantra of most
workplaces today. To make teams to work, the team members
shall develop a cooperative attitude, develop complimentary
skills with others on the team, make performance goals in
common with his team, get into the common philosophy about
how to reach those goals and most importantly develop mutual
accountability. Creating good public relations, by educating
46
employees from complaining about the job making them to

learn to think positive about work, it‘s probably best to refrain
from saying anything at all or, if asked, something fairly
innocuous like ―Oh, things could be better but, then again, no
job‘s perfect.
47
Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Leadership Neuroplasticity
Chapter Three
Leadership Neuroplasticity

conceptualizing what is leadership neuroplasticity, on which
this whole chapter will explain and make the readers
understand what is neuroplasticity and how is it effecting the
leadership. It is also about this advancements that this
particular chapter will highlight the importance of developing
leadership skills and understand the concepts of the
contemporary management situations that can be handy while
facing real life situations. This chapter in particular will address
the leadership situations related to applications of
neuroplasticity aspects of any leader facing the same in
leadership book series. This HR leadership situations are
descriptive about why is it important for a leader to understand
all the practices of methods to improve neuroplasticity practices
for leadership development across the world including India,
and bringing in the conceptual differences in improving
neuroplasticity techniques of leadership development on how
mindful leadership allows leaders to achieve professional and
personal success. It also touches the important issues the leader
has to measure, and how HR skills facilitate the leader. The
chapter also has various concept diagrams to explain various
48
stages of leaders understanding the application areas of

neuroplasticity in leadership development with suggestions for
further research, with a big reference section for him same to
conduct further research.
Abstract: Neuroplasticity is the process by which a brain

remembers new tasks, functions and ideas which is not a fixed
entity, a trainable managed or encouraged to greater capacity
and efficiency. Neuroplasticity, known as brain plasticity, is
an umbrella term that encompasses both synaptic plasticity and
non-synaptic plasticity and refers to changes in neural
pathways and synapses which happens due to changes in
behavior, environment and neural processes, as well as changes
resulting from bodily injury. Recent research clarifies that
Neuroplasticity helps in recognizing a person‘s inner potential
and if practiced religiously for developing self, evidences
around the world is recommending usage of neuroplasticity to
attain growth, and hence application of neuroplasticity in
leadership development does fetches results, is what this study
with the conceptual clarity obtained around the world is
revisited through this article.
Keywords: Neuroplasticity; Workplace; plastic; Leadership;

Globalk workforce; Conceptual Clarity; sensation
Introduction: Global Workforce Leadership survey, states

leadership is the hardest skill to find in employees, and
leadership training courses rely on employees to retrain their
skills and use their experience and brain to think like a leader.
Nevertheless the purpose of leadership development is yet to
be resolved as it requires a unique competitive critical skill for
their leaders and to begin, and train its employees for which
49
brain needs a specific amount of energy. Hence a proper space

to develop new thought processes, for which neuroplasticity is
now 21st century development tool and the recent consensus of
neuroscientists on the brain structure is challenged by findings
that many aspects of the brain remain plastic even into
adulthood. Research proves that substantial changes occur in
the lowest neocortical processing areas, and this profoundly
alters the pattern of neuronal activation according to
experience. Various research studies indicate the brain‘s
physical structure (anatomy) and functional organization
(physiology) promises lot of advancements in the area of
personal growth of a person, and that even leadership
development is attributable.
A prerequisite conducive environment and routine: The

organizations intending to create an environment where the
new knowledge will be used and that the brain can create
associations between background sensations that occur during
a study session and the content being engaged with. Let us
consider this situation as an example, we tend to listen to
similar music while studying if music usually plays in the office
with discomfort because by the time the brain ties information
being learned to the surroundings, and consider studying in a
variety of places to create as many connections with the
information as possible, at the same time, removes distractions
and temptations that may derail the habit-forming process.
Remedy the tiring brain by taking regular breaks: A 2015

study from the Harvard Business School identified participants
who were given a break to reflect on the given task performed
better at greater rates than participants who just practiced a
task. Hence reflection by writing down important takeaways,
50
as well as strategies and goals for the next session, sleeping

shortly after learning something new helps retain information
and improves memory, was a breakthrough finding. Similar
study also found people who work long hours tend to be less
productive. The 2015 Staples Advantage report found that 69
percent of the staff says that working long hour’s decreases
productivity, while 64 percent said adequate breaks increase
productivity.
Work filled with fun and enjoyment improves results: Any

work where there is dearth for enjoyment at that work, the
positivity disappears and productivity lowers. Prioritizing
enjoyment is now crucial to doing anything productive. The
recent innovative Wearable are engaging people in fitness in
meaningful ways -- 77 percent of those surveyed by Accenture
in 2016 said that using wearable makes them feel more engaged
with their health.
Wearable at work needs a greater consideration. The training

process are getting more creative with gamification as a part to
make training a more enjoyable and interesting and with
introduction of Apps like Lumosity are great for brain training
games that incorporate gamification and track progress. The
scientifically proven interactive programs provide results in
real time to keep motivation high. A 2015 study from Inter call
found that 56 percent of 200 employees surveyed use online
courses that encourage engagement and interaction. Since
Leaders are decisive and driven to solve problems, so focus to
develop leadership needs to go with efforts to improve the skill
called the decision-making skills and problem solving.
51
Learning Objectives
To explore the advancements and applications of
Neuroplasticity in Leadership Development
To examine from the review of literature research the future
of Neuroplasticity
To evaluate the methods of improving neuroplasticity
To understand the application areas of neuroplasticity in
leadership development (v)
Research Literature
Mintzberg (1979) found that a key feature of professional
organizations is that professionals have a large degree of
control. The ability of managers, politicians and others to
influence decision-making is more constrained within these
organizations than in others. Mintzberg calls this type of
organization a professional bureaucracy‘. An important feature
of professional bureaucracies is that they are oriented to
stability rather than change Jobs in professional bureaucracies
are highly specialized but minimally formalized (Mintzberg,
1980; Friedson, 1986). Reinertsen et al (2007) summaries a
number of these positions within their report for the IHI on
engaging doctors in leadership. In so doing, they emphasize the
complexities and difficulties in the relationship between
doctors and managers. In part, these complexities result from
the systems and structures of healthcare, and in part they stem
from the differing values, cultures and beliefs of these groups.
Reinertsen and colleagues point out that doctors tend to have
an individualized focus on patients, which may be at odds with
most managers views and improvement programs which tend
to take a more systems wide view. Reinertsen et al’s (2007)
framework for engaging doctors in quality and safety
52
initiatives. This framework comprises six primary elements,

which are made up of a range of components and is based on the
researchers ‘experience from best-in-the-world laboratories. The
framework is intended as a tool to assist hospital leaders to
develop and execute written plans to improve medical
engagement in quality and safety initiatives. Fitzgerald and
colleagues (2006) suggest that there is sufficient evidence to
demonstrate that clinical leaders can play an influential role as
promoters and inhibitors of changes (e.g. Pettigrew et al., 1992).
Fitzgerald and colleagues emphasize the potential influence of
those occupying hybrid roles, like clinical leaders, in bringing
about change, while also noting the slow development of such
roles, particularly in primary care. In comparison with previous
work, they note some modest developments in the proliferation
of clinical and medical director roles and the establishment of
the British Association of Medical Managers as a professional
association while observing that clinical managers do not yet
have a coherent work identity or credentialed knowledge base
(p. 170).
Firth-Cozens and Mowbray (2001) suggest that leaders are able

to directly affect the safety of their teams’ actions and outcomes
- which are both clearly important for quality of patient care.
The researchers cite studies from areas such as airline safety
(e.g. Chidester et al., 1991) that illustrates the importance of
leader personality type and how this impacts upon culture.
Further, there is an established evidence base from high-
reliability industries (e.g. Weick, 1987; Reason, 2000; Ojha, 2005)
which point to the role that leadership plays in forming
organizational culture, and the consequences of this for safety.
Edmonson (1996) demonstrated that in terms of medication
53
errors and quality of teamwork in nursing good teams recorded

more errors than bad teams – where the bad teams tended to be
led in a dictatorial and hierarchical manner and individuals
were afraid of reporting errors. Leadership style is also cited as
impacting upon quality of care in other ways. Firth-Cozens and
Mowbray (2001) cite a number of studies which demonstrate
links between stress of staff in teams and the quality of patient
care. The authors argue that team functioning impacts upon
stress levels and that leaders play an important role in the
production of effective teams. Corrigan et al (2000)
demonstrated these links directly in a study of leadership style
in 31 mental health teams where clients were asked to rate
satisfaction 28 with treatment programs and quality of life. The
researchers suggested that the ratings by leaders and staff
members independently accounted for about 40 per cent of
variance in client satisfaction. Blake, Strozzi-Heckler and
Haines (2010) are of the opinion that the somatic approach,
which is a more physiological than cognitive approach, is the
most direct route to developing behavioral and interpersonal
skills of leaders (Blake et al., 2010: 1). They are also supporters
of the new neuro scientific research which postulates that
neuroplasticity shows that the brain is far more malleable in
adulthood than once thought. It is also believed that although
the brain is able to change/adjust, it is also fairly resistant to
change (Blake et al., 2010: 2). The authors discussed how
behavioral tendencies are built biologically through regular
recurrence over time. Behavioral tendencies are believed to only
change in the same way, namely by engaging the whole self in
an ongoing, repeated practice (Blake et al., 2010: 4). The authors
made the connection that the limbic system mediates emotions
and the evolved neocortex is responsible for logic and reason
54
within human beings (Blake et al., 2010: 4-5). These two parts of
the brain work together in that the rational decision-making
centers of the brain (neocortex) are heavily influenced by
information from emotional and sensory centres (Blake et al.,
2010: 6). Celano (2013) summarized key concepts and
illustrated findings from neuroscience that may be relevant to
professional family practice (FP) and discussed how the
information may affect the conceptualization and interventions
(Celano, 2013: 124). This article deals with the investigation into
how brain activity is associated with emotion and behavior and
specifically neuroplasticity‘s role in brain activity (Celano, 2013:
124). The author studied how the amygdala impacts behavior
in individuals when a fear response is evoked. The author
argued for neuroplasticity as a possible tool to aid individuals
that experience anxiety as a result of fear and how the brain can
be altered through neuroplasticity in order to change their
emotional responses to one another (Celano, 2013: 124). Kets de
Vries (2013) used a case study to illustrate the exploration of the
phenomenon of the moment of coaching or as he termed it, the
tipping point (Kets de Vries, 2013: 152). Of particular interest
was his discussion on how coaching can achieve the ―tipping
point. He postulated that if this kind of coaching is done
correctly it will stimulate the creative process and help the client
achieve a deeper level of emotional intelligence (Kets de Vries,
2013: 153). He Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za
5 linked brain functioning to these ―tipping points‖ and once it
is reached has a neurological foundation. This is so because
when a person solves problems which require creative insight,
the brain activity differs from the way it behaves when a person
engages in a more linear problem-solving activity (Kets de
Vries, 2013: 156).
55
Kets de Vries (2013) discussed the connection between

emotions and neuroscience, especially regarding the function of
the amygdala in highly emotional events (Kets de Vries, 2013:
156). Through coaching towards reaching the ―tipping point‖ in
problem solving, the clients could also potentially build on their
emotional regulation competencies (Kets de Vries, 2013: 152).
Long (2006) investigated the recent developments in physical
and biological sciences and how these findings add to a new
foundation of social theory (Long, 2006: 78). The relevance of
this article was the exploration of how evolutionary paradigm
suggests that the brain develops to interpret threats and also
weigh value as an abstract concept. It was discovered that the
brain regenerates and re-programs itself throughout life in
response to both environmental challenges and the force of
attention and will. This means that it is possible to change social
behavior through the process of neuroplasticity, which is
defined as the process of where the connections in the brain get
altered through ongoing experiences (Long, 2006: 86). The
altering of the brain connections does, however, take significant
effort on the individual‘s part. The author postulated that
human beings inherent specific universal traits and in order to
change these certain behaviors require painstaking effort
through the internally generated force of will in conjunction
with external environments (Long, 2006: 83). This effort of
changing behavior or changing a habit, (the result of the process
of where an emotion and related thought repeat themselves
(Long, 2006: 90)) supports the need for coaching as a technique
for behavioral change.
Ringleb and Rock (2009) inferred that it is generally accepted

practice in both the managerial practice and in coaching in
56
general to use questioning when one wants to motivate insight

within individuals. This supports the practice of coaching for
performance (Ringleb & Rock, 2009: 2). The authors highlighted
how emotions play a crucial role in leadership development.
They also support mindfulness as a technique to create
awareness within individuals, especially when it comes to
emotional stability or emotional reactions to certain threatening
situations (Ringleb & Rock, 2009: 3). They investigated
neuroplasticity and how it is of great interest to coaches and
leadership development practitioners (Ringleb & Rock, 2009: 5).
Of particular interest is their discussion on the SCARF model
for coaching. The SCARF model was developed taking
neuroscience and especially neuroplasticity into account.
Schwartz, Stapp and Beauregard (2005) discussed a neuro-
physical model of mind brain interaction based on new
developments in neuroscience and how the brain works. It
explains Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za 6
how this model is able to represent more adequately than the
classic concepts, the neuro-plastic mechanisms relevant to
growing a number of empirical studies that looks at capacity of
directed attention and mental effort in order to systematically
alter the brain function (Schwartz et al., 2005: 1). The authors
supported the idea that with appropriate training and effort
people will be able to alter the neural circuitry in their brains
which is associated with a variety of mental and physical states
(Schwartz et al., 2005: 2). The term the authors used in order to
explain this process is called self-directed neuroplasticity.
Explore the advancements and applications of

Neuroplasticity in Leadership Development
57
The Indispensable Keys to Neuroplasticity for Personality

Development: Physical and Aerobic Exercise: Physical and
Aerobic exercise improves blood flow that increase neuron
growth and since the brain is only 2% of our body mass but it
consumes 20% of our oxygen and nutrients. Physical and
Aerobic exercise increases the volume of white and grey matter
in the brain. A minimum of 30 minutes three times a week is
recommended. Sleep: A healthy adults needs between 7-9
hours of sleep (Teens need 8.5 – 9.25 hours). During sleep our
brain has the chance to integrate learning and also combs
through information and decides what is needed and what is
not. Food; the brain needs Omega-3s (found in certain nuts,
salmon and spinach) and vitamins from foods. Healthy food
and a balanced diet is the soil in which mental seeds can grow.
Novelty; New experiences stimulate neuronal connections.
These experiences have to increase in challenge in order to
create new growth. Close Paying of Attention; The close
paying of attention (as in study and focused attention) increases
neurotransmitters responsible for creating new neural
connections.
The functional understanding on Neuroplasticity: In simple

words the ability of the brain to change itself within limits e.g.
learn to be a Leader at all levels, as a self-authoring person,
respected husband, role-model mother, successful entrepreneur
or CEO of an iconic brand. As Jack Welch said in the GE way ―if
you have a simple consistent message and you keep repeating
it, eventually that‘s what happens – that‘s how you get
through.‖ Neuroplasticity is the mode of forging new, stronger
pathways in the brain, that creates new links between neurons,
new pathways, and with each practice it grow stronger. Each
58
time a new behavior or attitude is brought into, the old ones,

weaken. Neuroplasticity occurs through three main mechanisms
myelination, synaptic connection and neurogenesis.
Myelination is the wrapping of a white coating around neurons

to speed up transmission along them, so in the business setting
this is most akin to becoming even better at something are
already good at. Synaptic connection and growth in critical
areas like making new connections between existing neurons,
and allowing the map in the brain for that particular skill to
grow (like using one language more than another, and the
disused one takes up less space in the brain and the more used
one takes over some of its space). This is applicable to the
workplace in terms of improving a skill you are already good at
and have remaining potential to grow. Neurogenesis:
Neurogenesis involves growth of new neurons from embryonic
nerve cells (progenitor cells) and often likely to develop a skill
that doesn‘t come out of a natural talent for or have never
practiced before. The one that is probably the hardest to achieve
and the unfortunate thing is it does not happen a lot in the adult
brain.
Examine from the review of literature research the future

of Neuroplasticity
The Future of Neuroplasticity: It is understood from the above
that Neuroplasticity is a process by which a brain learns or
acquires new skills, thought processes or emotions is now seen
as a primary indication of both mental capacity and future
potential. The process can be encouraged or nurtured. Hence
the interest of the Training industry has taken neuroplasticity
as the mainstream. The race is on to translate its insights into
59
practical applications at work. The neuroscience of leadership

is rapidly breaking new ground in leadership training,
deepening the thought process as how the brain works and how
it can maximize the potential to improve effectiveness at work
and build better relationships. Ultimately, better knowledge
about brain helps to inform a wide range of interpersonal skills,
as well as project planning and management practices, that
have a positive impact on organizational performance and aid
the creation of an agile learning organization. Neuroscience is
becoming indispensable tool in the management area and
leadership development area. Applications of Neuroplasticity
are making inroads in management development and
leadership development: The effects of the recession, and the
road to economic growth, happened just with a shift in
mindsets from cost avoidance to growth and profit‘.
Leadership style need to be different as they moved forward
even when things were extremely daunting, against that which
challenged even the most competent leaders. However, much
will depend on how the workforce has been led during the
period of recession. Have people been continuously aware that
this day was coming, or will it come as a surprise to them that
they are now expected to do things differently, think
differently, perhaps adopt new practices. Even unpleasant
circumstances become comfortable after a while, and people
will resist moving away from the ‘way things are’ even if they
are promised a better future. It‘s not enough to simply promise
things will get better and hope they will change. One major
reason for this, we now know, is because of the way our brains
are organized. Regular patterns of thinking and behavior
become wired ‘at the neural level. It is certainly not a trivial
matter of expecting people to one day waken up and operate as
60
if they had a different wiring pattern. Not even after the most
rousing and stirring ‘all-hands’ kick-off event. Our brains need
to have new connections created (and old connections disused
and atrophied) over a period of time in order for new patterns
of thinking and behavior to take root. New visions, positive
futures, different expectations, alternate rewards, all help
generate these new connections, and ultimately, different
behaviors.
Learning to Avoid Brain’s Negativity Bias; A simple model of

how the human brain is built up over tens of thousands of years
of evolution. The Lizard Brain: Called the old brain and very
similar in character of a reptilian brain. It alerts us in dangers.
The lizard brain is responsible for the emotional hijack when
our emotions take over and a person actually feel like they are
at the mercy of another brain. The red mist falls across our eyes
in moments of fury or fear, the lizard takes over the control. The
Mammalian Brain: is much more concerned with seeking
rewards. More sophisticated processing takes place at this layer
than in the old brain‘, although in neuroplastic terms it is still
relatively rigid. The Primate/Human Brain: concerned
primarily with attachments and relationships, the use of
communication, language, social network development and
extracted thought concerned with abstract concepts such as
philosophy, religion and science reveal amazing abilities for the
brain to change and alter shape (by creating new connections
and thickening existing connections) as a result of experiences
and repeated use. The Upstairs & Downstairs Brain: Advances
in neurosciences continue to inform our understanding of what
makes us human, and perhaps even more importantly, how we
interact with each other with popular assumptions about the
61
brain and the mind, including the tabula rasa (blank slate)
theory that humans are born void of knowledge and acquire
ideas and wisdom over time from the world in which they
operate. Synaptic pruning. Underused synapses and
connections in the brain are pruned, just like weak or dead
branches on a rose bush are cut away.
Evaluate the methods of improving neuroplasticity

Methods to increase Neuroplasticity: The neuroplasticity
allows human being to adapt, to respond, and to evolve in real
time to a changing environment. It gets rid of bad habits and
establishes good ones? It helps people to acquire a new skill? It
remains cognitively fluid and mentally limber as person ages.
Neuroplasticity contribution to leadership, means to a layman
is simply that don‘t try to become something you are not, and
that there were many people who did not believe in that sort of
ideology and ventured outside of their circumstances, their
surroundings and their family trees to become greater than
their beginnings and their supposed genetic pre-dispositions.
Leadership educators and business experts have been making
important connections between how the brain reacts to external
stimuli such as encouraging management methods and
negative management tactics. What is it that happens in the
brain when negative stimuli are received as opposed to the positive
stimuli? What is intriguing about The Neuro Leadership aspect
is that to effect change and by learning about how the brain
works (our own and others) it command our responses and our
methods in a way that can have far reaching positive effects.
The difference from the old way of thinking about the static
brain that it is what it is, and what we know today, is that the
brain has been found to have the ability to actually change itself
62
physically. This ability to change itself is called neuroplasticity. Dr. Jeffrey

M. Schwartz, M.D. asserts that neuroplasticity means rewiring
the brain to educate ourselves and understand how information
is processed and used by our brains to become better Leaders.
Changing how we process and then respond to what we receive
is the key to how we react and since we now know that the
brain ―can change itself physically then we now have the real
keys to success as managers and leaders. Learn how to use them
to turn people on‖ so as to get their brain to execute in ways that
they have not in the past. We have known this to be true for
decades and even Albert Einstein once said we cannot solve
problems with the same thinking we used to create those
problems‖. So, with new information in hand about the brain
we now can set a new course in management, based in facts,
that will help individuals, teams, educators and companies to
realize far greater results when we manage with the brain in
mind (Rock).The reason that the interest is climbing to new
levels in the Neuro Leadership field seems to be as much the
result of ongoing scientific research as it does the need for
managers to find a way to move their companies from Point A
to Point B. Without the controlled understanding of what is
happening inside of the brain and how the stimulus, whether
positive or negative, will impact an individual or Teams ability
to Execute, companies will forever be in the quandary of
trying to use their next great plan. Neuro Leadership is a stable
footing on which to build success. Learning neuroplasticity
techniques is not a leadership training program but new leaders
who are able to be adaptive and change their thinking habits
and they become continuously adaptive, and always building
to understand and reach their "peak performance".
63
Understand the application areas of neuroplasticity in

leadership development
Using Neuroplasticity to overcome procrastination: An
individual leader's greatest weakness might be anything from a
difficulty strategizing, to trouble empathizing, to frequent
procrastination. Whatever it is, the first step towards
overcoming it is recognizing that it can be overcome, Hansen
says. "Just knowing that we're not stuck with the thinking and
emotional habits that may be hindering us is the first thing,"
Hansen says. "All we need to know is that these traits are
extremely developable and we just need some tools to be able
to develop them." Once a desired change has been identified, a
goal-setting process should be followed. In addition to
"SMART" goals, which promote logical thinking but don't
necessarily engage the whole brain, Hansen uses "SAFE" goals.
"It stands for: see it, accept it, feel it and express it. Basically it
means: get the right side of the brain involved though
imagination, through visualization through emotion." Questions
such as, "How are you going to feel when you achieve that
goal?" and, "What sorts of feelings do you want to be
experiencing?" can help to promote "whole-brain thinking"
while goal-setting, she says. Next comes the "attention-density"
stage. "Changes in the brain occur from both the quality and
quantity of attention that is paid to the change," Hansen says.
"If, for example, if the goal is to improve big-picture thinking,
paying attention to big-picture thinking quality and quantity
and paying attention to it regularly. It can be paying attention to
the goal at least three times a day with some deeper thinking.
Allowing the power of subconscious processing to contribute to
goal attainment etc. will lead to positive outcome.
64
Neuroplasticity and rewiring the thinking: Leaders can also

re-wire their thinking. Drawing on the work of Dr. Jeffrey
Schwartz - a neuroplasticity expert and the author of the
recently-published book you are not your brain - Hansen explains
that many of our negative thought habits are actually
"deceptive brain messages". "One of the key things in learning
self- directed neuroplasticity is that not everything your brain
communicates is helpful in achieving your goals." Some are
deceptive brain messages that have become "hard-wired", and
"seem concrete and real". "If we repeatedly think, 'I'm not
creative' or 'I really need a drink to de-stress', or 'I can't manage
under pressure', those actual sentences can become hard-wired.
“You cannot change or deconstruct existing wiring. Leader’s
awareness of cognitive science can make them to lead and
influence mindful change: do organizational transformation by
taking into account the physiological nature of the brain, and
the ways in which it predisposes people to resist some forms of
leadership and accept others. There is a great deal of art and
craft in it. But several conclusions about organizational change
can be drawn that make the art and craft far more effective.
These conclusions would have been considered
counterintuitive or downright wrong only a few years ago.
Change is pain. Organizational change is unexpectedly

difficult because it provokes sensations of physiological
discomfort. Behaviorism doesn’t work. Change efforts based
on incentive and threat (the carrot and the stick) rarely succeed
in the long run. Humanism is overrated. In practice, the
conventional empathic approach of connection and persuasion
doesn‘t sufficiently engage people. Focus is power. The act of
paying attention creates chemical and physical changes in the
65
brain. Expectation shapes reality. People‘s preconceptions

have a significant impact on what they perceive. Attention
density shapes identity. Repeated, purposeful, and focused
attention can lead to long-lasting personal evolution. Why
Leaders feel the pain to change: Working memory fatigues
easily and can hold only a limited amount of information ―on
line‖ at any one time. Therefore, any activity conducted
repetitively (to the point of becoming a habit) will tend to get
pushed down into the basal ganglia, the habit-center part of the
brain. This frees up the processing resources of the prefrontal
cortex. After just a few months of learning to drive a car, people
can typically drive ―without thinking.‖ if they then try to drive
on the other side of the road, say in another country, the act of
driving suddenly becomes much more difficult. The prefrontal
cortex must now be used to keep track of the action. Many
travelers never want to undergo this experience. Similarly, for
those used to an automatic transmission, the first time driving
a car with a standard transmission can be a nerve-wracking
experience. (Indeed, the basal ganglia area operates like an
automatic transmission, shifting among patterns of deeply held
thought.) The same cognitive dynamics come into play when
people face other types of stressful experiences, including any
strategic or organizational change. Much of what managers do
in the workplace — how they sell ideas, run meetings, manage
others, and communicate — is so well routinized that the basal
ganglia are running the show. Trying to change any hardwired
habit requires a lot of effort, in the form of attention. This often
leads to a feeling that many people find uncomfortable. So they
do what they can to avoid change. Evidence from both clinical
research and workplace observation change efforts based on
typical incentives and threats (the carrot and the stick) rarely
66
succeed in the long run. For example, when people routinely

come late to meetings, a manager may reprimand them. This
may chasten latecomers in the short run, but it also draws their
attention away from work and back to the problems that led to
lateness in the first place. Another manager might choose to
reward people who show up on time with public recognition or
better assignments; for those who are late, this too raises anxiety
and reinforces the neural patterns associated with the habitual
problem. Yet despite all the evidence that it doesn‘t work, the
behaviorist model is still the dominant paradigm in many
organizations. The carrot and stick are alive and well.
Humanism Is Overrated called the person-centered approach,
the field was inspired by such thinkers as Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow. This school of thought assumed that self-
esteem, emotional needs, and values could provide leverage for
changing behavior. The prevailing model of humanist
psychology involved helping people reach their potential
through self-actualization — bringing forth hidden capacities
and aspirations. When someone tries to politely tell people
what they are doing wrong and phrases the criticism as a
question (even one as seemingly innocuous as, ―What made
you think that solution would work? ‖), subconscious alarm
bells ring. People can detect the difference between authentic
inquiry and an effort to persuade them. Neither the behaviorist
perspective nor the person-centered approach is sophisticated
enough to provide a reliable method for producing lasting
behavior change in intelligent, high-functioning workers, even
when it‘s in their own interest to change. It‘s time we looked
elsewhere. Focus Is Power Some of the biggest leaps in science
and industry have emerged from the integration of separate
fields. When the study of electricity and of magnetism coalesced
67
to become the science of electromagnetism, the field gave us the

electric motor and generator, which in turn sparked the
Industrial Revolution. To understand how to better drive
organizational change, we turn to another nexus, this time
between neuroscience and contemporary physics. Neurons
communicate with each other through a type of electrochemical
signaling that is driven by the movement of ions such as
sodium, potassium, and calcium. These ions travel through
channels within the brain that are, at their narrowest point, only
a little more than a single ion wide. This means that the brain is
a quantum environment, and is therefore subject to all the
surprising laws of quantum mechanics. One of these laws is the
Quantum Zeno Effect (QZE). Expectation Shapes Reality
Cognitive scientists are finding that people‘s mental maps, their
theories, expectations, and attitudes, play a more central role in
human perception than was previously understood. This can be
well demonstrated by the placebo effect. Tell people they have
been administered a pain- reducing agent and they experience
a marked and systematic reduction in pain, despite the fact that
they have received a completely inert substance, a sugar pill.
One study in 2005 by Robert C. Coghill and others found that
―expectations for decreased pain produce a reduction in
perceived pain (28.4%) that rivals the effects of a clearly
analgesic dose of morphine.‖ Donald Price of the University of
Florida has shown that the mental expectation of pain relief
accounts for the change in pain perception. The brain‘s deepest
pain centers show systematic changes consistent with changes
in experienced pain. The impact of mental maps suggests that
one way to start is by cultivating moments of insight. Large-
scale behavior change requires a large-scale change in mental
maps. This in turn requires some kind of event or experience
68
that allows people to provoke themselves, in effect, to change

their attitudes and expectations more quickly and dramatically
than they normally would. Attention Density Shapes Identity
For insights to be useful, they need to be generated from within,
not given to individuals as conclusions. This is true for several
reasons. First, people will experience the adrenaline-like rush of
insight only if they go through the process of making
connections themselves. The moment of insight is well known
to be a positive and energizing experience. This rush of energy
may be central to facilitating change: Mindful Change in
Practice How, then, can leaders effectively change their own or
other people‘s behavior? Start by leaving problem behaviors in
the past; focus on identifying and creating new behaviors. Over
time, these may shape the dominant pathways in the brain. This
is achieved through a solution-focused questioning approach
that facilitates self-insight, rather than through advice-giving.
Let’s go back to Mike, our pharmaceutical CEO. One of Mike‘s
direct reports, Rob, has hired only three of his targeted six new
team members this year. If Mike asks Rob why he didn‘t reach
the goal, he will focus Rob‘s attention on the nonperformance.
As a result of this attention, Rob might make new cognitive
connections (also known as reasons) as to why he didn‘t find
the new people. For example, ―All the really good people are
taken by other companies, or I don‘t have time to do the kind
of recruiting we need.‖ Although these reasons that people were
not hired might be true, they do little to support or foster any
change.
Conclusion
Management practices such as the open-book management
approach encourage employers to practice open communication
69
and transparency with employees to improve trust, teamwork,

employee motivation, and performance. Studies evaluating the
effectiveness of these methods show that they can also improve
a company‘s bottom line. Until recently, though, we did not
understand the science behind these practices. Thanks to the
field of neuroscience, technological advances in functional
magnetic imaging (fMRI), and a 2013 commitment by President
Obama to support a brain-mapping initiative to help us
understand the workings of the brain, we are beginning to see
the physical link these and other management practices have to
the brain. The Emerging Field of Neuroscience and Neuro
leadership: Leaders and HR professionals are continuously
searching for better ways to engage, connect, and lead others.
New advances in the field of neuroscience may help us unravel
the physiology of leadership effectiveness. Neuroscience is the
study of how the nervous system develops, its structure, and
what it does. This field is still in its infancy, and neuroscientists
admit there is more they don‘t know about the brain at this time
than they do know. The mapping and studies done so far,
however, have shown definite neural connections in the brain
that have allowed scientists to develop a deeper understanding
of the interconnectedness of the brain and behavior.
Neuroscience and Leadership

In the not so distant past, the conventional definition of an
effective leader was one who got results, boosted the bottom
line, and generally forced productivity out of his or her
employees. Some of the management practices used to get these
results were unfortunately at the cost of employee motivation,
retention, trust, and ultimately the bottom line. With a window
into neuroscience, today we have more insight into how to
70
improve leadership behaviors. Neuroscience research has

found: A link between effective leaders and positive working
relationships with others. Leaders with positive working
relationships with others trigger areas in the brain associated
with exciting attention, activating the social system, and other
regions associated with approach relationships. Leaders with poor
working relationships with others deactivated the social system and
activated regions of the brain associated with narrowing
attention, lowering compassion, and triggering negative
emotions. Leadership development activities, therefore, should
focus on building positive working relationships with peers
and subordinates. A physical connection in the brain associated
with trust, an emotion that is increasingly cited as a critical
leadership trait to exhibit. The brain determines trust
worthiness within milliseconds of meeting a person. That initial
determination is continually updated when more information
is received and processed, as the brain takes in a person‘s
appearance, gestures, voice tone, and the content of what is
said. What this means for leaders is that it is possible to build
trust among employee even if it has been lacking in the past.
Gut feelings— those feelings that occur without conscious
thought—are real, and this can be helpful in leadership
development. Gut feelings trigger physical changes to the body
like increased heart rate, sweating, blushing, and goose bumps.
While gut feelings or hunches can be fallible, they can be used
to help bypass complex and time-consuming analysis. Leaders
can be taught to stop and consider gut feelings before making
business decisions.
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Neuroscience and Change Management

We now know that change is dreaded because the brain, which
is hard wired to survive, perceives it as a threat. This deeper
understanding of the fear of change has widespread
implications for how business leaders and HR professionals
approach change management. If change is presented as a
crisis. If we don‘t change immediately, we‘ll all be out of a job‖)
or if a ―just do it and don‘t ask questions‖ approach is taken; the
change effort will likely fail. Leaders should try to reduce stress
and anxiety by focusing on the positive aspects of the proposed
change, asking questions, and listening actively to
employees‘concerns. This process enhances the brain‘s ability
to adjust its response to the change and perceive it as non-
threatening.
Neuroscience and Promoting Creative Thinking and

Innovation
Neuroscience has found that there are sections of the brain tied
to innovation and creativity. The innovation section allows
humans to transcend, to imagine what it may be like to in a
different space and time. This area is unique to humans and is
most effective when it is highly engaged. When people
transcend, the brain detaches itself from the external
environment and focuses inward. It is during this time that
creativity is at its peak and those eureka moments are most
likely to occur. Another way to improve creativity is to appeal
to another section of the brain Waytz and Mason call the
control network. The control network allows the brain to focus
on the present moment so it won‘t wander all the time.
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Neuroscience and Employee Engagement

Much of the same neuroscience findings that can be applied to
improve leadership skills, reduce anxiety during times of
change, and improve creativity and innovation can be applied
to employee engagement.HR and talent management
professionals can use neuroscience to help improve employee
engagement by: Fostering a top-down approach to employee
engagement. Leaders and HR professionals should encourage
and educate others on how to develop positive working
relationships with their peers and employees to increase
employee engagement. Making innovation and creativity a top
organizational priority to improve employee engagement. It
may be time to re-evaluate open plan offices, the constant
barrage of emails, 24/7 access to technology, and other practices
that neuroscience has found to reduce innovation, creativity,
and focus. Discouraging multi-tasking. Neuroscience has
widespread application possibilities, from understanding the
genesis and possible cures of such disorders as schizophrenia,
autism, and Alzheimer‘s disease to better understanding the
science behind our interactions with others. By leveraging
neuroscience and increasing our understanding of the brain, we
can also enhance leadership skills, change management
initiatives, creativity and innovation, and employee engagement.
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Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Leadership in Conflict Resolution
Chapter Four
Leadership in Conflict Resolution
Preface: This chapter address the importance of conflict

resolutions skills for a leader conceptualizing what is
situational leadership, which this whole book is about and this
the leadership situations related to Conflict Resolutions
Practices, with research literature to support the developmental
aspects of conflict resolution in any organization and what a
leader has to do while facing the same is explained with
research evidences. This chapter was a research article years
back written by the author and was well received and cited, and
now converted as anthology of leadership book series. This HR
leadership situations are descriptive about why is it important
for a leader to understand all the practices of conflict resolution
strategies for leadership development across the world
including India, and bringing in the conceptual differences in
using conflict resolution techniques of leadership development
on how mindful leadership allows leaders to achieve
professional and personal success. It also touches the important
issues the leader has to measure, and how HR skills facilitate
the leader. The chapter also has various concept diagrams to
explain various stages of leaders to abstract their learning
through the research literature placed prior to the introduction
74
section. The culminators of the conflicts are described in detail

from the leaders bad practices that are inadvertently carried
across the world are presented to the leaders of the present era,
and conclude with suggestion for improving the conflict
resolution strategies.
Abstract: Organizational conflict, or workplace conflict, is a

state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition of
needs, values and interests between people working together.
Conflict in organizations are inevitable between formal
authority and power and those individuals and groups
affected. The disputes over how revenues, work, how long and
hard people work, the jurisdictional disagreements among
individuals, departments, and between unions and management
are different sources and kinds of conflict that happens in
organization. There are subtler forms of conflict involving
rivalries, jealousies, personality clashes, role definitions, and
struggles for power and favor. Conflict within individuals
between competing needs and demands to which individuals
respond in different ways that occur in individuals, between
individuals, and between groups. Conflicts within work groups
are often caused by struggles over control, status, and scarce
resources. Conflicts between groups in organizations have
similar origins. The constructive resolution of such conflicts can
most often be achieved through a rational process of problem
solving, coupled with a willingness to explore issues and
alternatives and to listen to each other.
Keywords: Conflict; Resolution; Leader; Strategy; Intra;

Interpersonal; Organizational; Motive; Anger; Anxiety
75
Learning Objectives
(i) To learn the importance of conflict management as a
leader
(ii)To analyze the various factors leading to conflicts in an
organization
(iii) To evaluate the reasons for the direct and indirect
relationship of conflicts due to leadership issues
(iv) To learn from better practices and techniques to arrest or
avoid conflicts in organizations.
Introduction; whenever two individuals look into the same

issue in different ways, a conflict is bound to happen and it does
arises either at the spur of the moment or get triggered
indirectly. In simple terms conflict is a fight either between
individuals, among group members or among departments in
an organization. Never in organization situation two
individuals think alike and including their thought process,
even to the level of understanding. Disagreements happening
with in individuals have different values, opinions, needs,
interests and usually stand at a point of uncertainty. Conflict is
defined as a clash between individuals arising out of a
difference in thought process, attitudes, understanding,
interests, requirements and even sometimes perceptions. A
conflict results in heated arguments, physical abuses and
definitely loss of peace and harmony. A conflict can actually
change relationships. Misunderstandings as well as ego clashes
also lead to conflicts. Every individual has a different way to
look at things and react to various situations. Mike wanted to
meet Henry at the church. He called up Henry and following
was the conversation between them.
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Research Literature
Conflict can be defined as the behavior by a person or group
intended to inhibit the attainment of goals by another person or
group (Gray & Starke, 1984). Riggio (2003), there are four main
types of conflict in organizations. The first is intra individual
conflict. This occurs when a person is faced with two different
decisions. An example of this could be a manager faced with the
decision of ignoring a star performer’s late arrival to work
because he or she is a star performer, or disciplining that person
like any other subordinate. The conflict occurs within the mind
of the manager. Ruble and Thomas (1976) model of conflict
behavior, employees have the ability to deal with conflict five
different ways. Managers in today’s workplace have ample
opportunities to observe this model. Depending on the attitude
and behavior of the employee, it is possible to be managing a
department that has traits of all five conflict modes. Ruble and
Thomas’ (1976) model, it can be noted that a significant number
of nurses deal with conflict through avoidance. Nurses deal
with conflict through avoidance in attempt to maintain the
status quo and prevent the disruption of relationships
(Baltimore, 2006). Robbins (1978), historic conflict philosophies
by managers can be grouped in three distinct categories:
traditionalist, behavioralist, and interactionist. This method
was very similar to the traditionalists’ method; however,
behavioralists did not always look at conflict as damaging to an
organization. Managers using this philosophy knew that
conflict was inevitable, yet they still felt strongly about solving
the conflict, rather than stimulating it. Managers using this
method believe that there is a right answer, and that once that
answer is reached, all parties need to comply. The third
historically used philosophy was that of an interactionist. The
77
interactionist approach takes a very different look at conflict

from the previous two methods. It proposes that managers
should continue to resolve those conflicts that hinder the
organization, but stimulate conflict intensity when the level is
below that which is necessary to maintain a responsive and
innovative unit (Robbins, 1978). Effective and efficient
managers realize that if they manage a department where there
is absolutely no conflict, there is also no real potential for
growth or innovation. Procedures and ideas need to be
challenged if organizations want to see continuous quality
improvement. Robbins (1978) states: ―adaptation is possible
only through change, and change is stimulated by conflict‖ (pg.
69). Although there are some positive aspects to the above three
mentioned methods of dealing with conflict, choosing only one
of the methods would not be sufficient for front line managers.
A more effective use of the methods might be to employ each as
appropriate to the situation. Therefore, Robbins suggested a
contingency approach of managing conflict, which in his words
if used successfully, ‖gives the right tools for the right job‖ (pg.
74). Robbins (1978) believes that conflict can be condensed into
three general categories: communication issues, structure
problems, and personal behavior factors. For managers to be
able to successfully stimulate and combat conflict, they must to
be able to classify where the conflict arose from, and what their
roles need to be in the conflict resolution process. The
contingency approach to conflict resolution, builds on. Ruble &
Thomas’ (1976) model of how employees deal with conflict, but
it also adds several different factors. The first conflict
management style deals with problem-solving. This is a very
common method that is currently used in many work
environments, and has strengths and weaknesses. If someone is
78
confused, misunderstood, or under-trained, this is a style that

could produce results; however, if the situation is any deeper
than that, managers may quickly feel discouraged if this is the
only technique that is brought to the table. Learning how to
align super ordinate goals is the next piece to the contingency
puzzle. The likelihood of this type of conflict occurring in an
organization is high. Riggio (2003), this technique could be
used for intergroup conflict. Avoiding conflict often results only
in a short-term fix and is generally never an answer to long term
situations. When managers handle conflict through avoidance,
they will tend to inadvertently give employees more power
because employees will try to take matters into their own
hands, and come up with solutions. Whether managers want to
admit it or not, when they permit conflict, they give the
impression of promoting it. The fifth technique in the
contingency approach model is smoothing. This technique is
essentially how it sounds. Managers using this technique will
try to highlight the similarities while not placing a huge impact
on the differences. Robbins (1978) pointed out, there is not a
clear loser when a compromise is made, but the flip side of that
is there is not really a clear winner. If a manager is trying to use
compromise between two employees who strongly dislike each
other, the compromising solution may only be temporary
because neither employee will feel like their solutions were
really used to solve the problem. Authoritative command is also
a common approach to conflict management. Robbins (1978),
however, suggested that conflict can be classified as functional
or dysfunctional based on how the conflict affects an
organization’s performance: The Effect of Conflict Management
Styles on Employee Attitudes Work load, unethical behavior by
colleagues, social exclusion, time pressure, downsizing, and
79
organizational change programs can all be easily identified as

things that cause stress at work and accordingly bring out some
type of stressor response (Bright & Jones, 2001). Hackman and
Oldham (1976) developed this model, and believed that five
specific areas had huge impacts on job satisfaction. Those five
areas included: skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and feedback. The basics of skill variety deal with
the idea that a worker will be able to use a wide range of skills
in his or her job. Having the primary job function center around
putting the same three bolts on the same piece of metal on a
daily basis would definitely not be considered skill variety.
Task identity is the idea that the worker is involved in the
complete process from beginning to end. The first two factors
in the Job Characteristics Model are generally not influenced by
managers or supervisors. Employees are made aware of the job
functions prior to starting, and they can make an educated
decision as to whether or not this is a job they want to do. The
last three factors; however, are definitely influenced by
managers and/or supervisors in an organization. Wall and
Callister (1995) represents a synthesis of prior definitions,
arguing that ―conflict is a process in which one party perceives
that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by
another party‖. This study adopts Deutsch’s (1973, p.10)
definition of conflict as "an action that is incompatible with
another action that prevents, obstructs, interferes, injures, or in
some way makes the latter less likely or less effective" from a
social psychological perspective. Most process models focused
on the stages of conflict, increasing the complexity and
difficulty of understanding conflict phenomena and dealing
with conflict effectively. Deutsch’s (1973) conflict definition
addresses the flaws in process models by clearly refining
80
conceptualizations. Most process models define conflict as

opposing interests, confusing conflict with competition and
overlooking the reality that people with cooperative, highly
overlapping goals can be and often are in conflict (Tjosvold,
1998). Confusing conflict with competition induces negative
conceptions of conflict that in turn accelerate the difficulty of
positive conflict management as more destructive approaches
like competitive and avoiding approach are fostered. Deutsch’s
(1973) definition addresses the flaws by distinguishing
competition and conflict, which helps understanding the
potential value and positive aspect of conflict. With this 17
definition, competition implies opposing goal attainments
between two interaction parties, whereas conflict can occur
both in cooperative or competitive contexts. Causes of conflict
the focus of conflict researchers has not been on determining the
causes of conflict (Deutsch, 1990; Wall & Callister, 1995).
Various factors contribute to setting the stage for conflict to
emerge. Dirks and Parks posited that the interdependence of
the disputants, with actual or perceived differences in goals,
values, or aims, who view the other party as potentially
interfering with the attainment of those goals, values, or aims
lead to conflict in the workplace (Dirks & Parks, 2003). Putnam
and Poole (1987) viewed the competition for resources,
coordination of systems, work distribution, and participation in
decision making as key factors to conflict in organizations. The
rising conflicts between departments within organizations are
attributed to the increasing strains produced by resource and
workflow interdependence between departments and
differences in their short-term objectives and their desires for
autonomy (Barclay, 1991; Dutton & Walton, 1966; Gresham et
al., 2006; Lovelace et al., 2001; Nauta & Sanders, 2001; Van De
81
Ven & Ferry, 1980). Conflict management studies Conflict

management researchers suggest that conflict is a
multidimensional construct (Jehn, 1992; Pinkley, 1990). Conflict
can be a benefit or a detriment, which 18 depends largely on the
type of conflict and how it is managed (Amason, 1996; Jehn,
1995; Jehn & Mannix, 2001; Simons, Pelled, & Smith, 1999).
Researchers have identified several different types of conflict,
which resulted in a proliferation of terminology with significant
conceptual overlap (Dirks & Parks, 2003). In particular, one
distinguishable type of conflict (e.g., interpersonal, relational,
affective, and emotional conflict) induced negative results,
whereas another distinguishable type of conflict (e.g., task,
debate, substantive, and cognitive conflict) promoted positive
outcomes (Amason & Schweiger, 1997; Dirks & Parks, 2003;
Simons & Peterson, 2000). They argue that there is consistency
in conflict style across types of conflict and these types very
much influence conflict management styles (Sternberg &
Soriano, 1984). Among them, Kilmann and Thomas' (1975)
two-dimensional model of conflict management and Rahim's
(1983) dual concern model are the most widely used models.
However, research findings have been conflicting. De Dreu and
Weingart's (2003) meta-analysis found the same significant
relationship between both types of conflict and conflict
outcomes. They concluded that both types of conflict were
disruptive and the classification was not so useful. This study
follows the second main stream of conflict management
research led by Deutsch (1973, 1983) and others. Johnson,
Johnson, and Tjosvold (2000) demonstrate the open-minded
discussion of conflicting perspectives for mutual benefit,
labeled constructive controversy, is an effective way to manage
conflict effectively in order to capitalize on the potential
82
positive outcomes of conflict (De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008; Tetlock,

Armor, & Peterson, 1994). Open-minded discussion of
controversy and conflict management between departments
Effective collaboration between departments is a pressing
challenge for organizations (van Knippenberg, 2003).
A conflict has five phases

1. 1st phase: Prelude to conflict Preceding conflict inflicting
factors which possibly arise a conflict among individuals
due to lack of coordination, differences in interests,
dissimilarity in cultural, religion, educational background
all are instrumental in arising a conflict.
2. 2nd Phase: Triggering Event – Never any conflict arise on
its own, there needs to be an intervening direct or indirect
event which triggers the conflict. Like for example two
people from different cultural backgrounds trying to
convince each other, thus triggering the conflict between
them.
3. 3rd Phase: Initiation Phase - Initiation phase is actually the
phase where the conflict begins. Heated arguments,
abuses, and verbal disagreements starts in the sequel
indicating that the fight is already on.
4. 4th Phase: Differentiation Phase – This is the phase when
the individuals voice out their differences against each
other in the differentiation phase.
5. 5th Phase: Resolution Phase – The parties involved must
try to compromise to some extent and resolve the conflict
soon. The resolution phase explores the various options to
resolve the conflict.
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Conflicts are many like verbal, religious, emotional, social,

personal, organizational, and community conflict. Conflicts and
fighting with each other never lead to a conclusion. If you are
not on the same line as the other individual, never fight, instead
try your level best to sort out your differences. Discussion is
always a better and wiser way to adopt rather than conflicts.
Personal conflict: A conflict between two people, according to
Boston University FSAO, can be personality or style differences
and personal problems such as substance abuse, childcare
issues, and family problems. Organizational factors such as
leadership, management, budget, and disagreement about core
values can also contribute can become causes of workplace
conflict as poor communication, different values, differing
interests, scarce resources, personality clashes, and poor
performance. Social conflict refers to interpersonal, intragroup,
and intergroup differences apart from that the interpersonal
level includes disputes between peers as well as supervisor-
subordinate conflict. The basic incompatibility between the
authority and structure of formal organizations and the human
personality cannot be separated from the culture that surrounds
it. Intragroup conflict: The scarcity of freedom, position, and
resources, lack of independence tend to resist the need for
interdependence and, to some extent, conformity within a
group. Hence People who seek power struggle with each other
for position or status within the group. Rewards and
recognition are often perceived as insufficient and improperly
distributed, and members are inclined to compete with each
other for these prizes. In western culture, winning is more
acceptable than losing, and competition is more prevalent than
cooperation, all of which tends to intensify intragroup conflict.
Group meetings are often conducted in a win-lose climate
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where, individual or subgroup interaction is conducted for the

purpose of determining a winner and a loser rather than for
achieving mutual problem solving. Intergroup conflict:
Intergroup conflict occurs in four general forms. Horizontal
strain involves competition between functions, for example,
sales versus production, research and development versus
engineering, purchasing versus legal, line versus staff, and so
on. Vertical strain involves competition between hierarchical
levels, for example, union versus management, foremen versus
middle management, and shop workers versus foremen. A
struggle between a group of employees and management is an
example of vertical strain or conflict. A clash between a sales
department and production over inventory policy would be an
example of horizontal strain. Certain activities and attitudes are
typical in groups involved in a win-lose conflict. Hostility
between the two groups increases; mutual understandings are
buried in negative stereotypes.
Role conflict: The multiple roles people play in organizations,

sometimes described organization as a system of position roles
who share interdependent tasks and thus perform formally
defined roles, which are further influenced both by the
expectations of others in the role set and by one's own
personality and expectation. Passive aggressive behavior:
Passive aggressive behavior of workers and managers that is
noxious to team unity and productivity that lead to sabotage
projects and end up stifling a team's creativity. Conflict is not
always destructive. When it is destructive, however, managers
need to understand and do something about it. A rational
process for dealing with the conflict should be programmed.
Such a process should include a planned action response on the
85
part of the manager or the organization, rather than relying on

a simple reaction or a change that occurs without specific action
by management.
Stress: Interpersonal conflict among people at work has been

shown to be one of the most frequently noted stressors for
employees. Conflict has been noted to be an indicator of the
broader concept of workplace harassment. It relates to other
stressors that might co-occur, such as role conflict, role
ambiguity, and workload. It also relates to strains such as
anxiety, depression, physical symptoms, and low levels of job
satisfaction. Positive outcomes: Group conflict does not always
lead to negative consequences. The presence of a dissenting
member or subgroup often results in more penetration of the
group's problem and more creative solutions. This is because
disagreement forces the members to think harder in an attempt
to cope with what may be valid objections to general group
opinion. But the group must know how to deal with differences
that may arise. True interdependence among members’ leads
automatically to conflict resolution in the group. Inter
dependence recognizes that differences will exist and that they
can be helpful. Hence, members learn to accept ideas from
dissenters (which do not imply agreeing with them), they learn
to listen and to value openness, and they learn to share a mutual
problem- solving attitude to ensure the exploration of all facets
of a problem facing the group.
Conflict management: Improving organizational practices

could help resolve conflicts, including establishing super
ordinate goals, reducing vagueness, minimizing authority and
domain-related disputes, improving policies, procedures and
rules, re-apportioning existing resources or adding new,
86
altering communications, movement of personnel, and

changing reward systems. Workplace conflict may include
disputes between peers, supervisor-subordinate conflict or
intergroup disputes. When disputes are not dealt with in a
timely manner, greater efforts may be needed to solve them.
Party-Directed Mediation (PDM) is a mediation approach
particularly suited for disputes between colleagues or peers,
especially those based on deep-seated interpersonal conflict or
multicultural or multiethnic ones. The mediator listens to each
party separately in a pre-caucus or pre-mediation before ever
bringing them into a joint session. Part of the pre-caucus also
includes coaching and role plays. The idea is that the parties
learn how to converse directly with their adversary in the joint
session. Some unique challenges arise when disputes involve
supervisors and subordinates. The Negotiated Performance
Appraisal (NPA) is a tool for improving communication
between supervisors and subordinates and is particularly
useful as an alternate mediation model because it preserves the
hierarchical power of supervisors while encouraging dialogue
and dealing with differences in opinion.
Counseling: Nondirective counseling, or "listening with

understanding", is little more than being a good listener and
able to vent one's feelings that is, to express them to a concerned
and understanding listener, is enough to relieve frustration and
make it possible for the frustrated individual to advance to a
problem-solving frame of mind, better able to cope with a
personal difficulty that is affecting their work adversely. The
nondirective approach is one effective way for managers to deal
with frustrated subordinates and co-workers. There are other
87
more direct and more diagnostic ways that might be used in

appropriate circumstances.
Change: Management sets a vision of the future. The manager

reflects in their decision-making activities the values of the
organization as they have developed through time, from the
original founder-owner to the present top-management
personnel. The navigation between the values of the
organization, its objectives, goals, and management has
expectations concerning the organization's effectiveness,
efficiency, frequently initiates changes within the organization.
Most long lasting conflict that is negatively affecting work and
people must be resolved. A
How to effectively and successfully make Conflict

Resolution
Do not avoid the conflict, hoping it will go away. An
unresolved conflict or interpersonal disagreement festers just
under the surface in your work environment. Do not meet
separately with people in conflict. If you allow each individual
to tell their story to you, you risk polarizing their positions. The
person in conflict has a vested interest in making himself or
herself right if you place yourself in the position of judge and
jury. The sole goal of the employee, in this situation, is to
convince you of the merits of their case. Do not believe, for
even a moment, the only people who are affected by the
conflict are the participants. Every employee with whom the
conflicting employees interact is affected by the stress. People
feel a hostile work environment in worst case scenarios, and the
organization gets divided. To mediate and resolve conflict help
employees resolve conflicts in respective workplace itself.
88
Conducting a meet with the antagonists together and put their

point of view, without comment or interruption by the other
party. Ask each participant to describe specific actions they’d
like to see the other party take that would resolve the
differences. Three or four suggestions work well. If the
situation needs further exploration, additionally identifying
what the other employee can do more of, less of, stop and start.
All participants discuss and commit to making the changes
necessary to resolve the conflict. Commit to noticing that the
other person has made a change, no matter how small and
reasonable disagreements over issues and plans have
personality conflicts that affect the workplace. Finally assure
both parties have faith in their ability to resolve their
differences and get on with their successful contributions
within shared organization.
Facilitation and its importance: Facilitation process trains,

builds team, meets leaders, manages, the content, process, and
structure to meet the needs of an individual, group or team. The
process of facilitation is used for helping a group of people to
achieve their goals, their reason for holding the meeting etc.
Facilitation is provided by a person, called the facilitator, who
leads pairs of people or groups to obtain knowledge and
information, work collaboratively, and accomplish their
objectives. A facilitator should add great value to any group
planning session or meeting as the facilitator keeps the group
on task, moving together in the same direction and ensures
the participation of each group member.
Group Facilitation: Facilitation for groups or teams is provided

by internal or external people who are skilled in: Presenting
content and information, Designing and formulating a process
89
that helps a group achieve its objectives, Providing an

appropriate structure to a meeting, training or team building
session, or another work event, so that the mission of the group
is accomplished in the session, Promoting shared responsibility
for the outcome of the meeting, and, Drawing forth from
participants the answers to their questions, necessary decisions,
and solutions to problems.
Individual Facilitation: A skilled facilitator can provide the

structure, content, and process needed by the individual
employees to reach a mutually satisfying solution to their
issues. Facilitation is a powerful tool that is used to help
individuals and groups more effectively and efficiently achieve
their purpose. Under the leadership of a skilled facilitator (one
who provides facilitation services), meetings, team building
sessions, and training classes achieve results not possible
without facilitation. Whether they are the meeting leader, a
manager, or a group member, following strategies scan bring
back the group members hand holding for the discussion and
competing conversations.
The proficient use nonverbal communication by looking or

wave to the participants. Turn the opportunities of the floor for
a minute while the other participants rejoin the group. Never
let fear on to manager's or team leader's mind and also must be
on the lookout for a proper communicating ability to do the job
to control meetings. Intervening with a professional way of
questioning. Put questions to the group members and ask for a
opinion with a brief summary of the discussion occurring in the
meeting as a whole, and request the people to share their ideas
with the rest of the people in the meeting. Verbally intervene
for participation: Generally, it's better to use this tactic as a
90
second or third attempt to pull people in. It's direct and very
effective but can embarrass team members. Establish a group
signal. The group signal reminds participants to hold one
discussion at a time. A signal that works effectively is to make
a nonverbal time out sign followed by holding up one index
finger to indicate one meeting.
The culminators of Conflict in an organization due to Leader’s

Bad Practices Contributing to Conflict in organization:
Leaders sometimes never have consciousness of what they are
doing: The first and foremost consideration that employees look
at the leader is to provide them with the leadership they need
to succeed, and are they getting that, and is the leader in place
leads and manages in a way that makes employees know that
the leader knows what is going on in the organization. They
have to be able to see that the department’s goals are part of
something bigger and that they help move the something
bigger forward. The worst manifestation of not knowing what
a leader is doing is to give employees the wrong information
and then lie when confronted with the truth. Also the leader
demonstrate incompetence when they present information that
is wrong or when the leader interpret the numbers incorrectly
when talking or presenting to reporting staff. They will always
catch out when leader don’t tell the truth, pretend to know or
withhold information that made them fail. And, they will hate
the leader. A conflict in the relationship starts here. What they
perceive about the leader and what they actually see differs.
When the leader treat them disrespectfully; when leaders

disrespect for employees, they injure their feelings, their self-
confidence, and their self-esteem. Furthermore, if they treat
them disrespectfully, they will never garner their respect in
91
return. Employees are feelings-oriented people who are like

radar machines scoping out the work environment. When the
leaders talk over them, belittle their ideas, ignore their input,
and criticize them unfairly, they feel disrespected. Calling last
minute meetings with no regard for their prior commitments,
refusing to okay vacation time use that was appropriately
requested, and failing to commit needed resources in a timely
manner are hallmarks of disrespectful behavior. Employees
know when they are not respected and they will hate the leader
and all the more the chances of conflicts are high.
The work is all about leaders and not giving due credit to the
employees; If the leaders become the center of the employees'
world everything starts with them and ends with them, then
they formulate expectations for employees based on whether
their outcomes will make the leader look good? Worst, whether
the leader chastise employees for errors or unmet goals because
they made leaders look bad? When everything is all about the
manager, employees know and they hate the leaders and
conflict too engulfs their mind.
When leaders are a blockhead or a Jerk: If leaders are

unreasonable, selfish, manipulative, or stupid in their behavior
toward their reporting staff? A prima donna that requires their
attention and approbation—constantly? Do leaders think about
their feelings or the impact of their decisions on their work? Do
they tell tales about one employee to his or her colleagues in the
department? Do they play one employee against another by
offering a prize for the best project? Think about a time when
leaders thought of another individual as a jerk? Was he or she a
lot like the leader? If so, the conflict develops.
92
Leaders over manage smart employees: Even earnest

managers think of assessment about how much managing an
employee needs. When they trust their employees and let them
figure out how they accomplish their job, and significant
contributions, or micromanage and nitpick their ideas and
work, leaders never tap into their discretionary energy or the
best they have to offer. Sure, the new employees, employees in
training, and employees who change jobs or acquire new
responsibilities need more guidance. But, if leaders don’t watch
their need to guide them lessen over time, then leaders are the
problem. They start micromanaging and they will hate their
leader or run away as far as possible as quickly as they can.
Leaders at times don’t know what they are doing themselves:

Leaders don’t have to know how to do every employee’s job to
be a good manager. But, they have to understand enough about
their work to guide them. They need to communicate with the
employee often enough to know how workers are progressing
and what challenges they experience. If leaders make decisions
about their work, they must know more than the minimum
about the project or job. If they tell employee what to do or how
to do it, which is not recommended, the employees better know
more than the employee does, or he will hate the leader or
conflict arises on the opinion of leaders.
Leaders need not know everything about the employee or act

as if so: Leaders need to know everything about the lives of the
reporting staff as far as possible, but they need to act as if they
have lives. Asking employees to work late, work more, and
assigning more work than they can do will stress out the
employees. They want to do well at work, but they also have
myriad responsibilities with home, family, friends, volunteering,
93
sports events, and so much more. Offering some flexibility and

understanding will earn their respect. In fact, the youngest
generation of employees, unlike their older coworkers,
demands flexibility and free time to pursue all of their other
interests. Put barriers in their way and you will find yourself
without an employee. And, who leader loses will be your most
skilled, highly valued employees who have the skill set
necessary to network and leave. If leaders make them feel
guilty, object to what they need to do, or act as if you are put
out every time they pursue their other priorities, the employees
will develop conflict easily. Leaders refuse to give credit when
the credit is really due: Employees enjoy recognition and credit
for their accomplishments. They like having coworkers praise
their work and think highly of them. Where managers mess up
in this arena is by taking credit for their employees’ ideas and
accomplishments. Not mentioning that the idea was employees
is the fatal omission a manager makes. Leader’s approbation of
senior managers creates conflict and also disappointment
among the employees; when you throw your employees under
the bus, you will not recover. The minute an employee knows
that, rather than supporting her and offering reasons why a
project or timeline may have failed, you blamed her, it’s all over.
Even if you are disappointed in the employee’s performance,
you publicly blame them to your shame. Rather than earning
the approbation of senior managers, you will be known as the
manager who throws employees under the bus. And, those
employees will hate you.
When leaders are a bully and this gets to the root of the
conflict easier than ever: Bullies reside in boss’s clothing more
often than leaders ever think is possible. The bully behavior is
94
one of the bad boss indicators noted by employees most

frequently in workplaces. Bully behavior encompasses bosses
who yell and cuss at employees, physically intimidate
employees by physical proximity, and block employees from
getting away either from their desk.
Conclusion
Firstly; Preventing is better than cure, and building a Trust
Relationship over Time: Trust is built and maintained by many
small actions over time. Setting up team norms or relationship
guidelines and a set of rules or guidelines that a team
establishes to shape the interaction of team members with each
other and with employees who are external to the team. Team
norms can be developed during an early team meeting. More
norms can be added as the team sees the need for additional
guidelines. Once developed, team norms are used to guide
team member behavior. Team norms are used to assess how
well team members are interacting. Team members as
coworkers: all team members are equal; every team member's
opinion will be thoughtfully considered; each team member
will keep all commitments by the agreed upon due date; each
team member agrees to constantly assess whether team
members are honoring their commitment to the team norms.
Team member communication: team members will speak
respectfully to each other; will not talk down to each other; will
positively recognize and thank each other for team
contributions. Team member interaction in meetings: team
members will listen without interrupting; hold no side or
competing conversations; follow the rules for effective
meetings; attend the meeting on time; always work from an
agenda; minutes will be recorded at each meeting; end meetings
95
on time. Team organization and function: leadership will

rotate monthly; the team management sponsor will attend the
meeting, at least, monthly. Team communication with other
employees including managers: team members will make
certain they have agreement on what and when to
communicate; complaints about team members will be
addressed first in the team. Team problem solving, conflict
resolution, and decision making: team members will make
decisions by consensus, but majority will rule if timely
consensus is not reached; conflicts will be resolved directly with
the persons in conflict. Team norms can encompass as many
topics as the team deems necessary for successful functioning.
Start with a few team norms and add more norms as needed.
Make sure the team norms are written and posted where team
members are reminded of their commitment. Take a look at
Twelve Tips for Team Building to identify other areas for
potential team norms. With effective team norms in place, your
team will be able to focus on its business purpose. The team was
undoubtedly founded to help the company continuously
improve and achieve its strategic goals. Don't let ineffective
relationships and interactions sabotage the team's work.
Clarifying the job description of a manager varies from
organization to organization. The manager's role and job
description are at a pay grade or job classification level of the
organization that integrates functions and departments for
implementation success. The manager who is responsible for a
department normally has directly reporting employees for
whom he or she has leadership responsibility. Larger
organizations may also have senior managers or managers of
managers who report to either the director level or the vice
president level, depending, usually, on the size of the
96
organization. The best description that I've seen recently for

what a manager does or should do, from the Harvard Business
Review, is: "Management is the responsibility for the
performance of a group of people. “My traditional definition
echoes a similar role: A manager is responsible for overseeing
and leading the work of a group of people. But, what else does
manager mean and what does a manager do? Leading people is
the usual description of what a manager does. But, he or she is
also responsible for leadership over a segment of work, a sub-
section of the organization's results, or a functional area with or
without reporting staff.
97
Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Leadership Cannot Be Always Right
Chapter Five
Leadership Cannot Be Always Right

conceptualizing one fact inside every leaders is that they cannot
be always right is what is situational leadership of this chapter
talks about. The concept of a preconceive notion that leaders are
always right is broker here with contemporary research details
to argue upon is elaborated in the chapter. The situational
leadership which this whole book is about and this particular
chapter will highlight the importance of developing leadership
skills and understand the concepts of the contemporary
management situations that can be handy while facing real life
situations. This chapter in particular will address the leadership
situations related to SHRM aspects of any organization and
what a leader has to do while facing the same is explained with
research evidences. This chapter was a research article years
back written by the author and was well received and cited, and
now converted as anthology of leadership book series. This
kind of unique issues of leadership situations are descriptive
about why is it important for a leader to understand all the
practices to accept that leaders can’t be always right is what
needs to be changed in the attitude of leadership development
practices for leadership development across the world
including India, and bringing in the conceptual differences
understanding the three biggest mistakes that the leaders are
making, and the techniques of leadership development on how
mindful leadership allows leaders to achieve professional and
98
personal success. It also touches the important issues the leader

has to measure, and how HR skills facilitate the leader. The
chapter also has various concept diagrams to explain various
stages of leaders learning mindfulness.
Abstract; How can it be possible to be Always Being Right,

every human being thinks that and tries to behave that way, and
more so who are in the leadership positions also are not bereft
of this habit, at least unknowingly. This habit usually starts in
elementary school. Every person will remember the kid who
thought he or she had the answer to every question, the correct
answer for that? They overpower others, and always will have
the last word, and even try to be right on the playground. Even,
the workforce is not all that much different. The know-it-alls
never seem to change and the know-it-all might be the leader.
On a simple question whether is it possible to know everything,
A leader need to self-diagnose, admit it, but if the leader tries to
catch up justifying it, (I am the senior partner, so of course I‘m
right!), then the leaders is having a serious problem. Trying to
be always right can be wrong. It can turn people against the
leader, unnecessary unwanted conversations and ideas crops
up and people avoid the leader altogether.
Keywords; Knowing everything; Leadership; Right; Self

diagnose; Unwanted Conversation;
Learning Objectives
(i) To evaluate what are the problems on trying to be always
right
(ii)To evaluate the level of activities the Confident Leaders do
and never demand to be right always:
99
Research Literature
Sternberg (1986) has also noted a third critical thinking strand
within the field of education. These separate academic strands
have developed different approaches to defining critical
thinking that reflect their respective concerns. Each of these
approaches is explored more fully below. Sternberg (1986) has
noted that this school of thought approaches the critical thinker
as an ideal type, focusing on what people are capable of doing
under the best of circumstances. Accordingly, Richard Paul
(1992) discusses critical thinking in the context of perfections of
thought (p. 9). Bailin (2002) defines critical thinking as thinking
of a particular quality— essentially good thinking that meets
specified criteria or standards of adequacy and accuracy.
Further, the philosophical approach has traditionally focused
on the application of formal rules of logic (Lewis & Smith, 1993;
Sternberg, 1986). One limitation of this approach to defining
critical thinking is that it does not always correspond to reality
(Sternberg, 1986). Bailin (2002) argues that it is a fundamental
misconception to view critical thinking as a series of discrete
steps or skills, and that this misconception stems from the
behaviorist‘s need to define constructs in ways that are directly
observable. According to this argument, because the actual
process of thought is unobservable, cognitive psychologists
have tended to focus on the products of such thought—
behaviors or overt skills (e.g., analysis, interpretation,
formulating good questions). Other philosophers have also
cautioned against confusing the activity of critical thinking with
its component skills (Facione, 1990), arguing that critical
thinking is more than simply the sum of its parts (Van Gelder,
100
2005). Ennis (1989) notes, in math, deductive proof is the gold

standard for reason, whereas in the social sciences statistical
significance is most highly regarded, and in art subjectivity is
usually acceptable. On the other hand, Ennis acknowledges that
there appear to be aspects of critical thinking that are common
across disciplines, such as the notion that a conflict of interest
detracts from the credibility of a source. Facione (2000) has
designed the California Critical Thinking Skills Test as a general
test of critical thinking rather than one embedded within the
context of a specific domain. Yet Facione (1990) also notes the
importance of domain-specific knowledge in any application of
critical thinking skills and abilities. Thus, Facione also falls into
the category of researchers who acknowledge both general and
domain specific elements of critical thinking. Finally, Paul
(1992) identifies critical thinking as learning to think within
one‘s discipline by appropriating the standards and values
embodied in that discipline. At the same time, however, Paul
points out that critical thinking skills and abilities critical
thinking can be taught using both general critical thinking
courses and infusing critical thinking instruction into
discipline-specific courses. Transferability. Another area of
disagreement among critical thinking researchers is the extent
to which critical thinking skills and abilities can be transferred
to new contexts.
McPeck (1990), a staunch proponent of domain specificity,

notes that his approach does not preclude the transfer of critical
thinking skills and abilities to real-world contexts, particularly
when instruction emphasizes authentic learning activities that
represent problems encountered in daily life. Empirical
evidence on transfer documents both successes and failures.
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Halpern (2001) describes the results of one study that sought to

determine whether college students would transfer critical
thinking skills acquired in the context of a specific discipline to
an entirely new context several months after the course had
ended. Most students in this study did indeed apply Nickerson
(1988) finds the empirical evidence on transfer to be mixed. He
concludes that the success of any transfer method appears to
depend on what is being taught and how it is being taught. For
example, instructional programs aimed at improving students’
metacognitive skills have demonstrated more successful
transfer than training programs for basic cognitive processes,
such as observing, measuring, and classifying. Moreover,
stand-alone approaches to instruction in general critical
thinking appear to be less successful than approaches in which
critical thinking instruction is infused into discipline specific
courses alongside traditional academic content. One problem
with attempting to investigate the degree of transfer is the
ambiguity surrounding the ―distance of such transfer (Bailin,
2002; Ennis, 1989). In other words, is transfer near or far? On
one end of the spectrum, students may be asked to transfer
skills to a new but similar task. On the opposite end of the
spectrum, transfer could refer to application within an entirely
new discipline. In addition, some have used the term ―transfer
to describe the process of applying skills learned within an
academic school setting to problems encountered in everyday
life (McPeck, 1990). Lipman (1988) points out, the criteria
needed to evaluate a piece of architecture are different from
those needed to assess the strength of a legal argument. Criteria
are also needed for evaluating one‘s own thought. Paul’s (1992)
―perfections of thought, these criteria communicate to
students the qualities of thought they should strive to achieve:
102
clarity, accuracy, precision, specificity, relevance, consistency,

logic, depth, completeness, significance, fairness, and adequacy.
Given the important role of criteria in critical thinking,
philosophers tend to emphasize the need to communicate these
criteria to students. Thus, Paul (1992) recommends being
explicit about the intellectual standards used for evaluating
student work. Similarly, Bailin et al. (1999) and Case (2005)
include knowledge of criteria for judging the quality of thinking
as one of five resources students need to think critically. Kuhn
(1999) sees critical thinking as being a form of metacognition,
which includes metacognitive knowing (thinking that operates
on declarative knowledge), meta-strategic knowing (thinking
that operates on procedural knowledge), and epistemological
knowing (encompassing how knowledge is produced). Flavell
(1979) sees critical thinking as forming part of the construct of
metacognition when he argues that ―critical appraisal of
message source, quality of appeal, and probable consequences
needed to cope with these inputs sensibly‖ can lead to ―wise and
thoughtful life decisions‖ (p. 910). On the other hand, Van
Gelder (2005) and Willingham (2007) appear to perceive
metacognition as being subsumed under critical thinking when
they argue that a component critical thinking skill is the ability
to deploy the right strategies and skills at the right time,
typically referred to as conditional or strategic knowledge and
considered part of the construct of metacognition (Kuhn &
Dean, 2004; Schraw et al., 2006).
Halonen (1995) identifies metacognition as the ability to

monitor the quality of critical thinking. Similarly, Halpern
(1998) casts metacognition as monitoring thinking and strategy
use by asking the following kinds of questions: What do I
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already know? What is my goal? How will I know when I get

there? Am I making progress? Some researchers have argued
that the link between critical thinking and metacognition is self-
regulation. For example, the APA Delphi report includes self-
regulation as one component skill of critical thinking (Facione,
1990). Schraw et al. (2006) draw connections between
metacognition, critical thinking, and motivation under the
umbrella of self-regulated learning, which they define as ―our
ability to understand and control our learning environments‖
(p. 111). Self-regulated learning, in turn, is seen as comprising
three components: cognition, metacognition, and motivation.
The cognitive component includes critical thinking, which
Schraw and associates explain consists of identifying and
analyzing sources and drawing conclusions.
Lipman (1988) has pointed out that metacognition is not

necessarily critical, because one can think about one‘s thought
in an unreflective manner. Paul and Elder (2006) note that both
creativity and critical thinking are aspects of ―good, ‖
purposeful thinking. As such, critical thinking and creativity
are two sides of the same coin. Good thinking requires the
ability to generate intellectual products, which is associated
with creativity. However, good thinking also requires the
individual to be aware, strategic, and critical about the quality
of those intellectual products. As the authors note, ―critical
thinking without creativity reduces to mere skepticism and
negativity, and creativity without critical thought reduces to
mere novelty. (p. 35). Paul and Elder (2006) point out that, in
practice, the two concepts are inextricably linked and develop
in parallel. Accordingly, the authors believe both creative and
critical thinking ought to be integrated during instruction.
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Development of Critical Thinking This section reviews the

empirical literature on the critical thinking capacities of the
average person, followed by an investigation of critical thinking
in young children. Finally, we review one theoretical approach
to understanding how critical thinking might appear and
develop over time. Critical Thinking in the Average Person
Many researchers working in the area of critical thinking lament
the poor state of critical thinking in most educated adults and
children. For example, Halpern (1998) points to research from
the field of psychology, concluding that many, if not most,
adults fail to think critically in many situations. Kennedy et al.,
(1991) and Van Gelder (2005) have likewise concluded that
many adults lack basic reasoning skills.
Halpern (1998) cites the example that large numbers of people

profess to believe in paranormal phenomena, despite a lack of
evidence in support of such things. Halpern attributes such
failures not to the inability to reason well but to simple ―bugs‖
in reasoning. She argues that human beings are programmed to
look for patterns, particularly in the form of cause-and-effect
relationships, even when none exist. Van Gelder (2005) echoes
this sentiment, characterizing humans as ―pattern-seekers and
story- tellers (p. 42). This inclination results in a tendency to
jump to the first explanation that makes intuitive sense without
carefully scrutinizing alternative possibilities, a phenomenon
that Perkins, Allen, & Hafner (1983) have termed ―makes-sense
epistemology (p. 286). Moreover, the general public often finds
―personal experience to be more compelling evidence than a
carefully conducted, scientific study. Given these natural
tendencies toward deficient reasoning, Halpern warns that we
should not expect to see dramatic improvements in critical
105
thinking over time as a result of instructional interventions.

Improvements in critical thinking, when they do occur, are slow
and incremental (Halpern, 1998). One reason for this gap in
basic reasoning skills may be deficient educational experiences.
Paul (1992) argues that typical school instruction does not

encourage the development of higher- order thinking skills like
critical thinking. Paul explains that knowledge is coterminous
with thinking, especially good or critical thinking. However,
typical school instruction, with its emphasis on the coverage of
content, is designed as though recall were equivalent to
knowledge. This type of lower-order learning is simply learning
by rote or association, with the end result that students
memorize material without understanding the logic CRITICAL
THINKING 23 of it. Students tend not to recognize that their
assertions, beliefs, and statements have implications, and thus
require evidence to support them. For most students, believing,
not thinking, is knowing (Paul, 1992). Despite evidence
suggesting that the average person struggles to think critically,
many researchers are sanguine about the capacity of humans to
become critical thinkers with appropriate instruction. Kennedy
et al. (1991) point out that empirical research suggests that
students of all intellectual ability levels can benefit from critical
thinking instruction.
Lewis and Smith (1993) argue that critical thinking skills are for
everyone, not just the gifted. Critical Thinking in Children Early
research in the Piagetian tradition tended to view the cognitive
processes of young children as being deficient in relation to
those of older individuals. Many following this tradition
interpret Piaget‘s stages of development to mean that young
children are incapable of formal operations (abstract
106
reasoning), which are required for critical thought (e.g., see

summary in Kennedy et al., 1991). However, more recent
research has found that young children engage in many of the
same cognitive processes that adults do, concluding that there
is a place for critical thinking in the lower elementary
curriculum (see, e.g., Gelman & Markman, 1986). Silva (2008)
argues that there is no single age when children are
developmentally ready to learn more complex ways of
thinking. Furthermore, Willingham (2007) indicates that very
young children have been observed thinking critically, whereas
trained scientists occasionally fall prey to errors in reasoning.
Kennedy, et al. (1991) surveyed the research literature and

concluded that, although critical thinking ability appears to
improve with age, even young children can benefit from critical
thinking instruction. The authors speculate that many of the
earlier gloomy conclusions, critical thinking vis-à-vis the
limited critical thinking skills of young children, were
spurious—due to a lack of relevant background or content
knowledge needed to engage in a task. Bailin et al. (1999) argue
that critical thinking instruction at the primary grade levels can
include teaching students to value reason and truth; respect
others during discussion; be open-minded; be willing to see
things from another‘s perspective; perceive the difference
between definitions and empirical statements; use cognitive
strategies, such as asking for examples when something is
unclear; and use principles of critical thinking, such as
considering alternatives before making a decision.
Koenig and Harris (2005) have demonstrated that 3- and 4-

year-old children will differentiate the credibility of various
sources of information. In particular, critical thinking in 4-year-
107
old children appeared to prefer the judgments of adult

participants who had a history of being correct over those who
were purposefully inaccurate. This finding was replicated in a
number of other studies (e.g., Jaswal & Neely, 2006). Lutz and
Keil (2002) found that children as young as 4 years appeared to
be aware that different people may possess differing domains
of expertise and that these areas of expertise might be related to
their credibility on certain topics. For example, a car mechanic‘s
diagnosis of car trouble was found to be more credible than a
doctor. Heyman and Legare (2005) found that children between
the ages of 7 and 10 became increasingly aware that people may
have motives to distort the truth, whereas children younger
than this were not consistently critical of the credibility of
people with such motives. Critical Thinking over Time Little is
known about the development of critical thinking skills and
dispositions over time. The APA, for example, has specifically
cautioned that its framework for critical thinking should not be
interpreted as implying any kind of developmental progression
or hierarchical taxonomy (Facione, 1990). A few empirical
studies have investigated the evolution of critical thinking skills
and abilities as students proceed through college. O’Hare and
McGuinness (2009) found that the critical thinking scores of
third-year university students in Ireland were significantly
higher than the corresponding scores of first-year students. The
authors speculated that attending university exerts an
independent effect on the development of critical thinking. In a
meta-analysis of eight studies from 1991 to 2000.
Gellin (2003) concluded that college students who engaged in

activities such as interacting with faculty and peers, living on
campus, and participating in college clubs or organizations
108
increased their measured critical thinking skills by critical

thinking, and standard deviations as compared to college
students who did not participate in such activities. Kuhn (1999),
who synthesized a wealth of empirical research on cognitive
development to construct such a progression. Kuhn‘s definition
of critical thinking draws from the literature on metacognition,
which she views as being related to critical thinking. She
distinguishes three forms of metacognition, which represent
successively more sophisticated ways of thinking. Metacognitive
understanding is thinking that operates on declarative
knowledge. In other words, it is concerned with cataloging
what an individual knows and how that individual comes to
know it. Meta-strategic knowing is thinking that operates on
procedural knowledge. Thus, this type of cognition is
concerned with monitoring and evaluating strategy use, as well
as answering questions such as, ―Am I making progress? And ―Is
this strategy working? Finally, epistemological understanding is
concerned with philosophical questions, such as, ―How does
anyone know anything?
Kuhn’s (1999) theoretical framework, metacognitive knowing

characterizes the first stirrings of critical thought in very young
children. There are two distinct stages within metacognitive
knowing. The first stage is called Realism and is typically
achieved between the ages of 3 and 5. This stage is characterized
by the belief that assertions are expressions of someone‘s belief,
and as such, may depart from reality. Kuhn’s framework
(1999), the second stage of metacognitive knowing, typically
achieved by 6 years of age, allows the child to be aware of
sources of knowledge and further, to distinguish between
theory and evidence. In other words, prior to reaching this
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second stage, the child has difficulty distinguishing evidence

for the claim that an event has occurred from the causal theory
that makes occurrence of the event plausible. In other words, is
something true because it makes intuitive sense or because
there is empirical evidence for it? Kuhn describes a study (Kuhn
& Pearsall, 1998) in which children were shown a series of
pictures depicting two runners competing in a race. The last
picture shows one of the runners holding up a trophy and
smiling. When children were asked who won the race, most
children correctly indicated that the runner represented in the
final photo was the winner. However, when asked to justify this
claim, younger children tended to cite causal theories (because
he is wearing fast shoes) rather than evidence in support of the
claim (because he is holding a trophy). According to Kuhn, by
the second stage of metacognitive knowing children are able to
make this distinction. Based on the empirical research in meta-
memory,
Kuhn’s framework (1999) also portrays meta-strategic

knowing in two stages. According to Kuhn, during the first
stage, typically achieved during middle childhood, children
begin to understand the value of cognitive strategies in aiding
cognition. A child who has reached this stage recognizes that a
memory strategy such as categorization will aid recall and
tends to effectively manage and deploy cognitive resources
during problem solving (Kuhn, 1999). The second stage of meta-
strategic knowing may not be achieved at all. If it is attained, it
is typically reached during adolescence and adulthood.
According to Kuhn, this stage is characterized by consistent and
appropriate strategy selection from a repertoire of available
strategies. Thus, the individual monitors’ strategy evaluates the
110
success of strategies, and moderates use of such strategies

accordingly. Individuals at this stage also tend to justify their
knowledge claims (Kuhn, 1999).
Kuhn’s framework (1999) posits epistemological understanding

as the most sophisticated level of critical thought. According to
Kuhn, this level is characterized by three distinct stages. The
first stage, called the Absolutist position, is the norm during
childhood and is common during adolescence, and can even
persist into adulthood for some individuals. People who have
reached this stage believe that absolute truth is either ―known
or potentially knowable, either through direct apprehension or
the opinion of experts (Kuhn, 1999, p. 22). All belief states can
be evaluated in relation to this objective truth. In other words,
all disagreements are ultimately resolvable.
Kuhn (1999), the second stage in epistemological understanding,

labeled the Multiplist Epistemological position, tends to be
prevalent during adolescence. During this stage, the individual
acknowledges that experts can disagree and actually
relinquishes the idea of certainty. A person in this stage moves
to the opposite end of the subjectivity-objectivity continuum,
via-à- vis those in the Absolutist stance. Instead of viewing the
world as inherently and objectively knowable, individuals in
this stage perceive the world as a completely subjective place.
In other words, ―because all people have a right to their
opinions, all opinions are equally right (p. 22). Kuhn points out
that many people become permanently stuck in this phase.
Kuhn (1999) argues that the last stage in epistemological

understanding (and critical thinking), to which only a minority
of people will ever progress, is known as Epistemological Met
111
knowing. According to Kuhn‘s framework (1999), at this stage

the individual is able to balance the subjective and objective,
recognizing a multiplicity of valid 29 representations of reality.
This person uses judgment, evaluation, and argumentation to
sift through opinions and arrive at those that are most valid.
Not all opinions are valued equally; rather, reason, logic, and
empirical evidence can be used to privilege certain positions
over others (Kuhn, 1999).
Instructional Implications this section explores the teach ability

of critical thinking, as well as the instructional implications of
the empirical literature on critical thinking skills. Specific
instructional recommendations for fostering the development
of critical thinking will be summarized, as well. The Teach
ability of Critical Thinking Fortunately, many critical thinking
researchers maintain that critical thinking skills and abilities
can be taught. Halpern (1998) offers evidence of two
instructional programs aimed at improving the critical thinking
skills and abilities of college students. In one study, students
who were taught general problem-solving skills improved on
Piagetian-inspired measures of cognitive development. In the
other study, college students instructed in a specific type of
problem-solving strategy produced mental math representations
that were more like those of experts than of novices. In their
review of the literature.
Kennedy et al. (1991) concluded that instructional interventions

aimed at improving students ‘critical thinking skills have
generally shown positive results. In a meta-analysis of 117
empirical studies examining the impact of instructional
interventions on students’ critical thinking skills and
dispositions, Abrami et al. (2008) found that these interventions,
112
in general, have a positive impact, with a mean effect size of

0.34. However, the distribution of effect sizes was highly
homogeneous, with effect sizes varying CRITICAL THINKING
30 dramatically by type of intervention and sample
characteristics. For example, effect sizes for students in K–12
settings were higher than those observed among
undergraduates.
Ennis (1989) described four instructional approaches that vary

in terms of the extent to which critical thinking skills are taught
as a stand-alone course versus integrated into regular
instruction. The general approach entails direct and explicit
instruction in critical thinking skills as a separate course, where
critical thinking skills and abilities are emphasized outside the
context of specific subject matter. Typically, some content is
involved to contextualize examples and tasks. However, the
content is not related to discipline-specific knowledge, but
tends to be drawn from problems that students are likely to
encounter in their daily lives. Van Gelder (2005) appears to
advocate for the general approach to critical thinking
instruction. Drawing from the literature on expertise, Van
Gelder argues that students need ―deliberate practice in
exercising critical thinking skills and abilities. This type of
practice can only occur when critical thinking is taught as a
separate and explicit part of the curriculum. However, students
must be taught to transfer critical thinking to a variety of
contexts by providing them opportunities to practice applying
critical thinking skills in diverse contexts. Similarly, Halpern
(2001, p. 278) argues that instruction in general thinking skills,
taught as a ―broad- based, cross-disciplinary course, is the most
effective way of teaching critical thinking. The infusion
113
approach entails in-depth instruction in the subject matter plus

explicit instruction on general critical thinking principles. This
critical thinking instruction is provided in the context of specific
subject matter. Ennis (1989) indicates that this approach is
commonly 31 seen in the ―across the curriculum movements.
Somewhat related to the infusion approach is immersion. In
immersion instruction, students are engaged in deep subject-
matter instruction. Although critical thinking skills and abilities
are part of the content to be learned, critical thinking instruction
is not made explicit. In other words, critical thinking skills and
abilities are not the focus of direct and explicit instruction.
Rather, students are expected to acquire these skills as a natural
consequence of engaging with the subject matter (Ennis, 1989).
Proponents of the infusion and immersion approaches appear
to include both Bailin et al. (1999), who vigorously defend the
domain specificity of critical thinking, and Lipman (1988), who
views critical thinking skills as being somewhat general but
who argues, nonetheless, that instruction in critical thinking
must go hand-in-hand with instruction in basic skills, such as
reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Silva (2008) echoes this viewpoint, maintaining that knowledge

and thinking have to be taught simultaneously. Likewise, Case
(2005) argues that critical thinking is a lens through which to
teach the content and skills embedded in the curriculum; and
Pithers and Soden (2000) reject the view that critical thinking
could be taught as a separate subject. Rather, critical thinking
should be viewed as a way of teaching and learning in any
domain. Finally, the mixed approach combines elements of both
the general and subject-specific approaches. Teachers pair
stand-alone instruction in general critical thinking principles
114
with application of critical thinking skills in the context of

specific subject matter. Explicit instruction in critical thinking
skills can be incorporated into both the general and the specific
components (Ennis, 1989). Facione (1990) appears to advocate
for this approach when he notes that critical thinking can be
taught in the context of domain-specific content, or content
drawn from ―events in everyday life (p. 10). Paul (1992)
recommends basic critical thinking skills courses, as well as
including critical thinking within discipline-specific courses.
Kennedy et al. (1991), reviewing extant research on the various
approaches, conclude that the evidence does not support the
superiority of any particular approach. Abrami et al. (2008)
found that a substantial amount of the variation in effect sizes
across studies was driven by pedagogical grounding and by
type of intervention. In other words, when instructional
approach was categorized as general, immersion, infusion, or
mixed, the mixed approach had the largest effect-sizes and the
immersion approach had the smallest. This finding suggests
that educators should approach critical thinking instruction
both by integrating critical thinking into regular academic
content and, by teaching general critical thinking skills as a
stand- alone component.
Hummel and Holyoak (as cited in Halpern, 1998, p. 453). The

goal of structure training is to enable students to recognize a
particular problem structure whenever they see it—whether it
appears in math, science, or social studies— so that they may
deploy appropriate strategies. Structure training involves
distributing practice in a variety of contexts and settings.
Halpern points out that use of ―authentic or real world learning
activities helps to promote the transfer of critical thinking skills.
115
Brown (1990) argues that domain-specific knowledge may also

be necessary for young children to successfully transfer skills to
new problems that display the same deep structure. She
observes, ―We conclude that even young children show
insightful learning and transfer on the basis of deep structural
principles, rather than mere reliance on salient perceptual
features, when they have access to the requisite domain-specific
knowledge to mediate that learning(p. 130).
Thayer-Bacon (2000), who emphasizes the importance of

students’ relationships with others in developing critical
thinking skills. Supporters also include Bailin et al. (1999), who
argue that critical thinking involves the ability to respond
constructively to others during group discussion, which implies
interacting in pro-social ways by encouraging and respecting
the contributions of others. Heyman (2008) indicates that social
experiences can shape children‘s reasoning about the credibility
of claims. In their meta-analysis of 117 empirical studies on the
effects of instructional CRITICAL THINKING 35 interventions
for improving students‘ critical thinking skills and dispositions,
Abrami et al. (2008) found a small but positive and significant
effect of collaborative learning approaches on critical thinking.
Nelson (1994) provides some clues as to how collaboration can

prompt cognitive development among college students.
According to Nelson, students’ misconceptions interfere with
their ability to acquire new knowledge, despite appropriate
instruction. Collaborations create opportunities for disagreements
and misconceptions to surface and to be corrected. Collaboration
also provides a vehicle for students to attain necessary
acculturation to the college learning environment and helps to
make tacit disciplinary expectations more explicit for students.
116
Nelson (1994) points out that collaboration must be scaffold,

arguing that this scaffolding process has three stages. First,
students must be prepared for collaboration by providing them
with a common background on which to collaborate, such as
common assigned readings. Second, student groups should be
provided with questions or analytical frameworks that are more
sophisticated than they would tend to use on their own. Finally,
collaborative activities should be structured by specifying
student roles and by creating incentives for all group members
to actively participate.
Bonk and Smith (1998) identify a number of classroom

activities that build on the potential for collaboration to enhance
learning. These activities include think-pair-share, round-robin
discussions, student interviews, roundtables, gallery walks,
and ―jig sawing.‖ In addition to explicit instruction and
collaboration, several other strategies have been identified as
helpful in promoting critical thinking. For example, teachers are
urged to use constructivist learning methods, characterized as
more student-centered than teacher-centered (Bonk & Smith,
1998; Paul, 1992). Moss and Koziol (1991) factor analyzed
scores from a set of writing tasks intended to measure the
critical thinking skills of students in grades 5, 8, and 11 in the
context of social studies. Students who read a social studies
passage either supported an inference with argumentation or
evaluated an argument from the passage. The authors found no
clear, common factor underlying performance across tasks that
were designed to be parallel. Furthermore, students‘ abilities to
use topic statements, evidence, explanations, conclusions, and
logical organization did not generalize across tasks, suggesting
that idiosyncratic and perhaps construct-irrelevant features of
117
each passage or task were more salient aspects of student

performance than any general ability to think critically. Silva
(2008) has noted that performance based assessments of
creativity introduce, rather, subjectivity and error. Moreover,
use of such performance tasks to assess the growth of critical
thinking skills over time remains fraught with difficulties as
long as individual tasks communicate more noise than signal
(Moss & Koziol, 1991). Norris (1989) argues that the fact that the
degree of domain specificity in critical thinking remains
unresolved makes assessment of critical thinking difficult. First,
the type of inferences one is trying to make remains unclear to
the extent that researchers cannot agree whether critical
thinking is general or subject-specific. Second, it is difficult to
assess critical thinking transfer, because transfer to other
contexts is confounded with subject-specific knowledge that is
necessary for exercising critical thinking. Thus, a student who
fails to transfer to another subject either requires additional
instruction in critical thinking or additional instruction in the
published assessments of critical thinking are numerous, and
include the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione,
1990), the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests (Ennis & Millman,
2005), the Ennis- Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test (Ennis &
Weir, 1985), and the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal
(Watson & Glaser, 1980).
Ku (2009) points out, these instruments vary widely in both

purpose and item format. However, as Kennedy et al. (1991)
note, none of these tests are intended for use with students
below the fourth-grade level. Moreover, these assessments tend
to be general critical thinking assessments rather than subject-
specific. Assessment Recommendations Researchers have made
118
several suggestions for designing assessments ideally suited to

assess critical thinking skills. First, open- ended problem types
may be more appropriate for assessing critical thinking than
traditional multiple-choice formats. Moss and Koziol (1991)
explain to mean that test questions should require students to
go beyond the available information in the task to draw
inferences or make evaluations. In addition, problems should
have more than one plausible or defensible solution, and there
should be sufficient information and evidence within the task
to enable students to support multiple views (Moss & Koziol,
1991). Fischer, Spiker, and Riedel (2009) argue that critical
thinking is a stimulus-bound phenomenon, meaning that
certain external task features may impact whether critical
thinking is elicited in a given assessment context. The authors
identify a number of context variables that affect one‘s use of
critical thinking. For example, stimulus characteristics focus on
whether the stimuli present a set of materials that is orderly,
well-organized, and coherent, or a set of materials that is
uncertain, ambiguous, disorganized, and contradictory. In
experimental studies that attempted to validate their model of
critical thinking, Fischer et al. (2009) demonstrated that some
contextual stimulus variables do seem to matter, whereas others
do not. For example, the level of substance of stimulus text—in
terms of the number of unique propositions contained in that
text—had no main effect on the subjects’ propensity to use
critical thinking, operationalized in this study as the number of
questions of belief and checks on thinking observed during
―think aloud procedures. However, the level of consistency, or
lack of contradictions, within stimulus materials did have a
main effect, with inconsistent or contradictory materials more
likely to prompt critical thinking than consistent and coherent
119
stimulus materials. Fischer et al. (2009) demonstrated that

certain types of tasks are more likely to elicit critical thinking
than others. For example, tasks requiring the exercise of
judgment were better for assessing critical thinking than tasks
focused on simply understanding material presented in
stimulus text. In particular, a task requiring examinees to either
accept or reject a manuscript for publication elicited more
questions of belief and checks on thinking than a task asking
examinees to identify the main topic of a set of materials or to
explain a scientific study described in stimulus materials. Moss
and Koziol (1991) advocate for evaluating students on the basis
of the quality of the arguments underlying their position, rather
than the ―correctness‖ of the answer. Lewis and Smith (1993)
point out that assessment tasks must go beyond requiring
simple recall of learned information. Rather, tasks should
require students to manipulate what they learned in new or
novel contexts. Another suggestion is that critical thinking
assessments should make student reasoning visible. For
example, Norris (1989) argues that testing validly for critical
thinking requires that we observe an examinee‘s process of
thinking. One recommendation for accomplishing this in the
context of a multiple-choice test is to require students to provide
a rationale or justification for their choice, an idea that was
repeated by Kennedy et al. (1991). Silva (2008) argued that new
assessment modes are needed to measure higher-order skills,
identifying several examples of recent critical thinking
assessments that use novel item formats. For example, the
College and Work Readiness Assessment (developed by the
Council for Aid and the RAND Corporation) presents students
with a 90-minute task and access to a variety of written
materials on the topic, which typically represents a real-world
120
problem. Students are then asked to make judgments and

formulate a solution. River City Research Project (developed
within Harvard‘s graduate school of education with National
Science Foundation funding) is an assessment and instruction
program that uses an interactive, virtual environment to
present middle-school students with simulated, real-world
problems that they must solve through the application of the
scientific process: generating hypotheses, testing hypotheses,
analyzing results, and drawing inferences and conclusions.
Finally, Power Source—developed by researchers at the
National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards &
Student Testing (CRESST)—is a middle-school math
assessment that combines higher-order thinking skills with
mastery of basic math content in the form of narrative themes
or graphic novels. Students are asked to apply math principles
and to explain their reasoning.
Introduction: Leaders get uncomfortable with self; Leaders

need to understand the contrast that is drastic between the
right period and the effective period. The team needs to be a
we‖ once people stopped caring about being right. Leaders can
feel a lot better and accomplished than from being a façade that
hide internal weakness and insecurity. When leaders change
goals from preserving their own sense of superiority to just
trying to do the best they can, everything turns into impersonal
and objective. Ultimately, this shift in priorities helps give
weaker people leverage over others by gradually instilling
doubt and undermining moral authority. Comfortable, strong
people will recognize this behavior for exactly what it is:
whimpering and squeaking from small people who feel like shit
about themselves. When you stop needing to play the ―who‘s
121
right and who‘s wrong game, every encounter you have with
a right minded person makes you think a piece of work;
probably not going anywhere fast. You can choose to be right
or be effective. Being right is always the wrong choice. It
might sound like an infomercial in the beginning, but it's
actually the truth. If you want to improve your relationships,
sleep more, stress less, and just be happier, you only need one
thing. You need to give up the compulsion to be right. Being
Right is always the wrong choice; at time the leaders feel that
they being right made them feel superior and made them feel
better than the idiot who did that thing wrong. They feel moral,
righteous and felt compelled to point it out even if it meant
interrupting a speaker‘s presentation during a team meeting.
Leaders at times spend a lot more time perfecting their talking
points and Power Points rather than time that should have
probably been spent on something that actually impacted the
bottom line for the business. Leaders fail to Be effective;
Leaders at times needlessly make assertive altercation with
about people‘s small mistakes. The behavior of ―You‘re wrong,
I‘m right stick leaders became less afraid of making a mistake
and tried new things. People offered a simple ―well, that didn‘t
work my bad when something went wrong, and people
stopping caring if it did. We became simultaneously more
productive and accountable. A leader needs to be an
immaculate listener; A recent Accenture study found many
leaders fail because they fall in the majority of the leaders who
do not listen and that they know what they‘re doing, so they
rush people through explanations, and stops to hear from
others, even disrespect conversations by trying to take on two
or three things at once. The leaders should truly listen and
should learn that they are not always right and try to be a better
122
listener. The listening habit would make them a better

colleague, and also boosts the expertise. A leader should not
write others’ ideas off just because they think they‘re always
correct, or they‘ll miss out on a lot of potential lessons. Maybe
other people won‘t change the leaders mind, but if the leader
listens carefully, at least a leader will gain an understanding of
why someone think differently than the leader. Leaders are not
pushing the boundaries enough; It sounds pretty self-
explanatory, but it‘s true: when the leaders are always doing the
routine the same way, the leaders start feeling pretty sure that
everything happens around them is right. The leaders are not
able to cognitise that this mentality of thinking right always,
destroys their potential to innovate and improve, and that the
work output stagnates. A leader thinking that they are always
right probably means they‘re going through repetitive motions,
it may be like they did this even last year, which impedes
personal development or the team‘s productivity. A leader in
turn needs to expand their work horizons and strive for
continuous improvement and make themselves both markers
of fantastic leaders, teams, and contributors at the world‘s top
companies. Leaders need to consider new perspectives; A
leader thinks he is always right because he is the expert and the
one others come to for advice, but some leaders often forget the
benefit from others‘ ideas and perspectives. Research confirms
many leader‘s failure is because of the leaders not inviting
others views and there by lose out on the new perspectives and
failure to ask for feedback and ideas, hampers a leaders great
work. The leaders need to make it a point to keep an open mind
when a leader is in a collaborative situation, instead of judging
others and asserting leader as the expert. The leaders sometimes
describe someone a jerk, and that‘s why at times leader keeps
123
away from listening with an open mind. The leader won’t be

able to understand how the other person sees the world when
the leader draws his own conclusions the leader needs to
consider others and work may just gain that extra spark that
takes it from good to great. Leaders should never forget to
acknowledge others; A leaders know it all attitude and, do it all,
win it all attitude, should never deter leader from probably stop
to thank others or even realize contribution of others for this big
wins. The leader‘s worst know-it-all pitfall is this and a leader
will fall prey to this ignorance or arrogance of not thanking
others, If a leader fails in that they are not only rude, but they‘re
pulling down the, productivity, happiness, cooperation, and
innovation on your team. A leader needs to stop and look
around and needs to check themselves whether they contribute
ideas, stay late to help out, or even just provide great lunches to
fuel the team, people are always lending a helping hand.
Appreciate them. Be sincere and timely and honest. There‘s no
better way to build relationships, trust, and teamwork. Leaders
after all must be present only to motivate and inspire people to
do great work. The most important element is to let others feel
that the leaders know everything is, dangerous. The present
day leaders should never ruin their reputation and strain their
team by thinking they know better than everyone. Instead, can
change their mindset and boost their work life, as well realize
the one thing that they absolutely need to know to be successful
is the fact that none of us know everything.
The Problem; The leader often fails to recognize, the shadow

side to the mind that can activate experiences that leave leaders
feeling diminished, hopeless, frightened, and puzzled. The
positive nor negative perceptions represent an absolutely
124
accurate reflection of reality. They are, rather, interpretations of

us, other people, and other world produced and shaped to
discern the truth. The problem is leaders always can‘t believe
what they think, and it's sometimes quite difficult to know
where the truth ends and where our own distorted
interpretations begin. The habit of trying to be right often
creates unexpected challenges; Unlimited supply of comes from
unexpected challenges and extensive growth opportunities
expanded.
Evaluate what are the problems on trying to be always

right the Problem with Always Being Right
Chances are that every leaders think they‘re always right. The
job of a leader dealing with them that they‘re always right and
actually being right are two completely different things.
Whether it‘s out of ignorance or foolish pride, a leader is
compelled to defend their position and justify his or her
decisions to defend self and those around them. Ultimately a
leader‘s current and future decisions are built upon the
previous ones. This happens when a leader is unable or
unwilling to admit that earlier decisions were wrong, and still
risk making a long string of costly mistakes that could have
easily been avoided. The reality is that no one is right all the
time. Being honest with self by a leader and admit what
everyone else already knows can bring out a fruitful decision.
With serious determination to win, most often by the leaders,
the leaders refuse to acknowledge the other person‘s
perspective, and is guided solely by emotions, and that there
are substantial consequences is often overlooked.
125
The Three Biggest Mistakes the leader makes

The Need to be right always: The ultimate impact of
righteousness is the one that a leader is always trapped in
current mindset. If a leader is always right, the people can never
get to be different. And if people never get to be different, then
people may always get more of what they have right now. If a
leader let go of the need to be right, seek first to understand,
and they‘ll discover a new sense of growth and possibility.
Taking a moment and reflecting on the relationships at work
and at home contemplating on "how much does the 'I‘m right,
you‘re wrong' dynamic play out in a leaders everyday
interactions?" honestly even a leader with ourselves, will find
this dynamic a familiar companion in face-to-face conversations,
on the phone or in emails and (especially) online. Either
unconsciously or consciously, the leader finds self the need to
be right. Our need to feel safe and secure.
A leader’s ego to feel strong, safe and secure: When a shoe is on

the other foot and when a leader experience the feeling of being
wrong, the ego personality reacts to leave a leader feeling
fearful, stupid, insecure, deficient small and/or invisible. The
realistic deal is that someone always will lose in this "win-lose"
dynamics. And, the desperation to win, or experiencing being
wrong, leaders find themselves enmeshed in interpersonal
relationships characterized by mistrust, conflict, competition,
frustration, anger or sadness, all of which are based on fear. Of
course, the solution for this dynamic is not to live in a world of
polarity and choosing instead a world of inclusion. That means
rejecting right vs. wrong and either/or in favor of both. The
challenge for a leaders ego relate to others in a way that lets the
leaders transcend their personal win-lose dynamic and focus on
126
commonalities. In the world of the ego, it‘s all about being

separate and independent, "me vs. you".
A leader’s "you and me “perspective. It's win-win. It's about

"we." The truth is that while every human being is innately
heart-felt, spiritual beings still possess egos. Somewhere along
the path of the growth, these people are separated from the
heart-felt and interconnected aspects of the being-ness and
began to focus on being separate from one another, in other
words, on the human and ego aspects of personalities. Leaders
are no different.
Evaluate the level of activities the Confident Leaders do

and never demand to be right always: Things Truly
Confident People Do Differently
True confidence—as opposed to the false confidence people
project to mask their insecurities has a look all its own. When it
comes to confidence, one thing is certain: truly confident leader
always have the upper hand over the doubtful and the skittish
leader, because they inspire others and they make things
happen. Any leader who thinks he can, or he can‘t is right.
Ford‘s notion that human mentality has a powerful effect upon
the ability to succeed is manifest in the results of a recent study
at the University of Melbourne where confident people went on
to earn higher wages and get promoted more quickly than
anyone else. Learning to be confident is clearly important, but
what is it that truly confident people do that sets them apart
from everyone else needs to be clear and research proves that
there are 12 cardinal habits of truly confident people, which the
successful leadership holds are;
127
 Truly Confident leaders get happiness from within:

Happiness is a critical element of confidence, because in
order to be confident in what you do, you have to be happy
with who you are. People who brim with confidence derive
their sense of pleasure and satisfaction from their own
accomplishments, as opposed to what other people think of
their accomplishments. They know that no matter what
anyone says, they‘re never as good or bad as people say
they are.
 The Truly Confident leaders never pass judgment:
Confident people don‘t pass judgment on others because
they know that everyone has something to offer, and they
don‘t need to take other people down a notch in order to
feel good about themselves. Comparing yourself to other
people is limiting. Confident people don‘t waste time
sizing people up and worrying about whether or not they
measure up to everyone they meet.
 The truly confident leaders never say “Yes” Unless they
really want to: Research conducted at the University of
California in San Francisco shows that the more difficulty
in saying no, the more likely the individual leader will
experience stress, burnout, and even depression.
Confident leaders know that saying no is healthy and they
have the self-esteem to make their no‘s clear. When it‘s
time to say no, confident people avoid phrases like ―I don‘t
think I can‖ or ―I‘m not certain.‖ They say no with
confidence because they know that saying no to a new
commitment honors their existing commitments and gives
them the opportunity to successfully fulfill them.
 The truly confident leaders listen more than they speak:
Leaders with confidence listen more than they speak
128
because they don‘t feel like they have anything to prove.

Confident leaders know that by actively listening and
paying attention to others, they are much more likely to
learn and grow. Instead of seeing interactions as
opportunities to prove themselves to others, they focus on
the interaction itself, because they know this is a far more
enjoyable and productive. While it may be obvious, when
you are bright and able to connect dots to points that no
one else can see it‘s pretty tempting to strut your own
stuff. The problem is that it can be obnoxious.
 The truly confident leaders Pace themselves well. A
truly confident leader finds the right moment to speak up.
When discussions hit a stall point, offer suggestions. If
others are intrigued, proceed. If people turn away, the
confident leader waits for another time. The truly
confident leader shares ideas with others. Every
organization loves team players but not all teammates are
created equal. The true leaders find people who they can
trust and share their ideas with them and allow them to
introduce them at meetings. Yes, in the short run others
will get the credit but in time people will know it is the
leader who is offering solutions that others can use. The
truly confident l eaders clearly is aware of how to take
the spotlight. A leaders need to do that right way. The
leaders need to show deference to superiors as how that
is, a leader need not tell them how to do their jobs. The
leaders offer a better way to do things.
The true leader is one who solves problems offers solutions that
benefit others. The three P’s the purpose, the process, and the
payoff. It does sound good to when someone—particularly a
129
leader—insists on always being right. In fact, when a leader‘s

desire to display competence turns into a need to win at all
costs, they can actually lose the respect of their team,
undermining morale, performance, and productivity. This
becomes particularly problematic in the case of decision-
making. So the tendency to want to be right all the time, put a
stop to this habit now. There‘s no rule stating you must always
use your ideas or solutions to be an effective leader. In fact,
Disciplined Leaders recognize that if they are obsessed with
trying to be right and winning every argument, they‘re going to
be viewed as less credible and worthy of following.
The truly confident leader admit that they don’t have all the
answers. Here‘s a truth: Even if you‘re the greatest leader of all
times, you don‘t know everything. Furthermore, it‘s impossible
for any one person to be correct 100 percent of the time. So put
aside the ego or any tendencies toward perfection. Learn to
embrace the fact that you, like everyone else, will be vulnerable
at times, or lacking in ideas and solutions. Recognizing the
humanity within you is the first step in the process of getting
the right answers. It demonstrates humility (a key leadership
trait), selflessness, and intelligence. And, as Sir Ken Robinson
says, ―If you‘re not prepared to be wrong, you‘ll never come up
with anything original.
True confident leaders ask for help. Particularly when you‘re

faced with big decisions, it can take a lot of guts to admit you‘re
unsure of what idea or solution might be best. But remember,
Disciplined Leaders bravely put aside their egos and
consistently cultivate the wealth of knowledge that their people
bring to the table. They create an environment in which team
members feel they can speak up and share their thoughts and
130
ideas. Moreover, when challenges arise, these leaders ask their

people to develop solutions and aren‘t afraid to say, your idea
is way better than mine! In doing so, they empower and
validate the wisdom and talents of their people while mining
the very best of their education, skills, knowledge, and talents.
And, most importantly, when a solution becomes the best one,
they let their people know that they, the people, were the ones
who were right, and the best leaders celebrate those successes.
True leaders acknowledge their mistakes. If your idea totally

flopped or failed to some degree, be OK with telling people
that you got it wrong. You do not need to go around
apologizing to everyone or dwelling on the issue. But do make
it clear that although you may expect excellence in yourself,
perfection is never an option because it‘s not realistic. When you
admit you‘re wrong, this, again, demonstrates vulnerability
and gives everyone, including you, the opportunity to course
correct or come up with the right idea or solution. Hide behind
mistakes, however, and you‘ll do nothing but build contempt
for your leadership within your culture and stifle morale and
performance. Upon owning up to any errors or less-than-ideal
ideas or solutions you might have had, keep a forward focus on
what‘s vital and get the help you need to get back on track
toward achieving your goal.
131
Never Passes
Never Marks Judgment Never is an
Themselves Yes Man
Listen More
Acknowledge
Get Than they speak
Their mistakes
Happiness
Pace selves
Ask for help from within
Well
Admits they
Shares Ideas
Do not have
all the Knows how to With others
answers
Take spotlight
Fig1: 12 Cardinal habits of Truly Confident Leaders: Figure;

Designed by the Author: Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Strategies to keep leadership composure in difficult times:
Leaders need to show more composure than ever before in the
workplace. With the change management requirements,
increased marketplace demands and intensifying competitive
factors that surround us, leaders must have greater poise,
agility and patience to minimize the impact of uncertainty. How
leaders respond to these and other growing pressures is an
indicator of their leadership preparedness, maturity and
acumen. The composure of a leader is reflected in their attitude,
body language and overall presence. In today‘s evolving
business environment, it is clear that leadership is not only
about elevating the performance, aptitude and development of
people – but more so about the ability to make people feel safe
132
and secure. Employees have grown tired of working in survival

mode and thus want to be part of a workplace culture where
they can get back to doing their best work without the fear of
losing their jobs.
 Leaders never should allow their emotions to get in the

way: Seasoned leaders know not to wear their emotions
on their sleeves. They don‘t yell or get overly animated
when times get tough. These types of leaders have such
emotional self-control that even their body language does
not give them away. When you allow your emotions to get
in the way, employees interpret this as a sign you are not
being objective enough and too passionate about the
situation at hand. Strong-willed leaders can maintain their
composure and still express concern and care, but not to
the point that their emotions become a distraction – or that
they can‘t responsibly handle the issues at hand.
 Leaders should not take things personally: Leaders
shouldn‘t take things personally when things don‘t go
their way. Business decisions and circumstances don‘t
always play out logically because office politics and other
dynamics factor into the process. As a leader, remain calm
and don‘t get defensive or think that you always must
justify your thinking and actions. When you begin to take
things personally, it‘s difficult to maintain your
composure and make those around you believe that you
have things under control. In fact, when leaders take
issues too close to heart, they allow the noise and politics
around them to suffocate their thinking and decision-
making capabilities.
133
 Leaders need to keep a positive mental attitude:

Employees are always watching their leader‘s actions,
behavior, relationships and overall demeanor. During the
most difficult of times, leaders must maintain a positive
mental attitude and manage a narrative that keeps their
employees inspired and hopeful. This is where your
leadership experience and resolve can really shine – by
staying strong, smiling often and authentically exhibiting
a sense of compassion. Leaders set the tone for the
organization they serve. A positive attitude can neutralize
chaos and allow a leader to course correct through any
negativity. Employees feed off the attitude of these leaders
during times of uncertainty. Keep a positive mental
attitude and never stop moving forward. Stay focused on
building positive momentum for the betterment of the
healthier whole.
 Leaders should remain fearless: When leaders project
confidence, they instill it in others. During uncertain
times, leaders must remain fearless and project a cool
persona that communicates composure to those they lead.
I’ve been through ups and downs in my career and have
learned that when you begin to fear adverse
circumstances, you not only put yourself in a position of
vulnerability, but it becomes extremely difficult to act
rationally and objectively. When you panic, you mentally
freeze and your mind loses focus. When you begin to get
fearful, ask yourself: What is the worst possible thing that
can happen? If you are objective about it and have the will
and confidence to face it, you will eventually realize that
the situation is manageable and can be resolved. Faced
with adversity several times over, your fears will
134
eventually vanish and uncertainty will become your best

friend.
 A leader needs to respond decisively: Leaders who
maintain their composure will never show any signs of
doubt. They speak with conviction, confidence and
authority – whether they know the answer or not! With
their delivery alone, they give their employees a sense that
everything is under control. Recently, Mack Brown, the
former coach of the University of Texas (UT) football team,
was put under a lot of pressure to resign as a result of his
team underperforming in 2013. Though the University
handled his forced resignation poorly – considering Mr.
Brown had coached the team successfully for the past 16
years – his decisiveness the day he announced his
resignation made you feel that his transition out of the job
was a positive thing for the university. Human nature will
tell you that he must have been hurting inside, but his
decisiveness and presence of mind made those that were
watching him speak believe that the future looked bright
for UT football.
 A leader needs to take accountability: Leaders are most
composed during times of crisis and change when they are
fully committed to resolving the issue at hand. When you
are accountable, this means that you have made the
decision to assume responsibility and take the required
steps to problem solve before the situation gets out of
hand. When leaders assume accountability, they begin to
neutralize the problem and place the environment from
which it sprung on pause – much like New Jersey
Governor Chris Christie did when he announced that he
did not have any prior knowledge of the decision his aides
135
made to close down access lanes to the George

Washington Bridge. Though there may be legal woes to
come, the manner in which he handled the initial news
conference (temporarily) neutralized the crisis – as he
answered all of the reporters’ questions and took full
responsibility and accountability to punish the
perpetrators and keep something like this from happening
again.
 A leader needs to act like before: Great leaders know that
one of the most effective ways to maintain composure
during difficult times is to act like you have been there
before. Leaders that act to show they have been through
the problem solving process numerous times before are
those with strong executive presence who approach the
matter at hand with a sense of elegance and grace. They
are patient, they are active listeners, and they will
genuinely take a compassionate approach to ease the
hardships that anyone else is experiencing. Just ask any
technical support representative. When you are on the
phone with them, their job is to make you feel that even
your most difficult challenges can be easily resolved. They
are there to calm you down and give you hope that your
problem will soon be solved. Pay attention to their
demeanor and how they are masters at soothing your
frustrations. They always act to show that they have been
there before; their composure puts your mind at ease. It‘s
easy to lose composure during times of crisis and change
if you let concern turn into worry and worry turn into fear.
By maintaining composure, the best leaders remain calm,
cool and in control – enabling them to step back, critically
evaluate the cards that they have been dealt and face
136
problems head-on. A show of composure also puts those

you lead at ease and creates a safe and secure workplace
culture where no one need panic in the face of adversity.
Exercise: Fill in the umbrella graphics the qualities you

want to develop, so that you never try to act as if you are
right always and center around on the important quality
that should guide the leader
Conclusion: The leaders can start living the "Namaste" lifestyle.

Start small; Nothing is possible within 24 hours is not possible
so leaders need to take care in taking baby steps for
improvement in life and accept that there are a lot of people
who differ in the opinion without attempting to force opinion
on others. Leader’s priority needs to be to face challenges and
must be ready to suffer loss and pain. The leaders should find
an opportunity understand their opinion without accepting
137
their view as their own. The leaders need to acknowledge that

changing others opinion, or allowing someone else to prove the
leader wrong, doesn't make a leader to be less capable, the fact
is no one is unique miracle of existence, and every individual in
this world make mistakes and succeed, help and hurt others, do
right and be wrong, still leaders need to have compassion and
should get better with it. The human mind is an extraordinary
support system for a leader to solve problems, imagine amazing
ideas, help meet difficult challenges, transform the capacity to
comprehend previously incomprehensible experiences, and
other unaccountable ways, bring greater clarity and
understanding into our lives. There is a shadow side to the
mind that can activate experiences that leave the leader feeling
diminished, hopeless, frightened, and impotent. Yet neither the
positive nor negative perceptions that a leader holds represent
an absolutely accurate reflection of reality. The difference
between what is and what a leader think can be an incredibly
difficult distinction to make, because their thoughts can be
extremely convincing when a leader is trying to discern the
truth. A leader need not believe everything he thinks, not
necessarily the most reliable source when it comes to the truth.
Yet it's not so easy to forget that. At times the positive
distortions can be just as dangerous or damaging as negative
ones, similarly setting for disillusionment, disappointment, and
feelings of hopelessness and resignation are more common as
they grow in maturity and wisdom. The leaders need to
determine how much of what is worth believing; A leader‘s
thoughts without a rigid attachment to a single perspective, but
with an openness to seeing things with some degree of, open-
mindedness with self-righteous is not wrong, or knowing
exactly what's true to learn something new, to it. In practicing
138
this non-attachment, leaders are not admitting that they are

wrong, they are simply expressing an openness to looking at
conclusions out of perspectives. This can liberate that from
defensive patterns that no longer serve us, and enhance our
lives in innumerable ways. The leaders can create unexpected
challenges; Relationships provides a leader with an unlimited
supply of opportunities to practice this form of reflection. Old
habits take a long time to die. There are still times with
decreasing frequency and it doesn't take long of being right by
practicing open-mindedness and reflection is enormously
valuable in our close relationships.
Suggestions to Improve as Leaders: Give up the need to be

right; We are conditioned from birth, it seems, to fight for our
piece of the pie, defend ourselves, or at least convince people
that our views are "right." We do it with our families, at school,
at work, and at social gatherings. If we‘re "proven wrong," we
feel somehow lessened, defeated, or humiliated. In some cases,
being proven wrong can upset our entire worldview, leaving us
unanchored. Needing to be right is a form of violence; the
problem is that every leader inadvertently fall into the "always
be right" trap. The necessary ingredients to breed disagreement,
conflict, and resentment inflict our opinions of the world
acknowledgment and acceptance of a differing worldview is a
powerful act of understanding, self-confidence, and compassion.
139
Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Leadership Skills in Marketing
Chapter Six
Leadership Skills in Marketing

conceptualizing personalities of people using color psychology
which is given as an exercise for leadership to warm about a
skill that can be useful in their life what is situational leadership,
which this whole book is about and this particular chapter will
highlight the importance of developing leadership skills and
understand the concepts of the contemporary management
situations that can be handy while facing real life situations.
This chapter in particular will address the leadership situations
related to SHRM aspects of any organization and what a leader
has to do while facing the same is explained with research
evidences. This chapter was a research article years back written
by the author and was well received and cited, and now
converted as anthology of leadership book series. This color
psychology exercise for leadership situations are descriptive
about why is it important for a leader to understand all the
practices of determining a personality using color preferences
is also a very popular scientific practices for leadership
development across the world including India, and bringing in
the conceptual differences in using color psychology techniques
of leadership development on how mindful leadership allows
leaders to achieve professional and personal success. It also
touches the important issues the leader has to measure, and
how HR skills facilitate the leader. The chapter also has various
140
concept diagrams to explain various stages of leaders learning

mindfulness.
Abstract: Colors are always special and symbolizes liveliness

and represents feelings, perceptions, personality, emotions,
psychological traits, disposition of feelings etc. The subject of
Color psychology is not new to marketing application and
either directly or indirectly plays a very meticulous and
indispensable role for marketers, in a very scientific, technical
and behavioral perspectives. A leader needs to be an expert in
this area, in the field of management or even for simple
marketing strategy and recent scientific developments. The
leaders of present generation needs to have a closer look at the
color perspective in their management style of things. As
research shows, it's likely because elements such as personal
preference, experiences, upbringing, cultural differences,
context, etc., often muddy the effect individual colors have on
us. An interest of psychology, and particularly applied
psychology in the impact of color on human functioning has a
long history; however, it has fairly limited research
achievements. Some more systematic empirical studies in the
field appeared at the end of the last century; however, many of
them suffer from methodological shortcomings and fail to
encompass a correlational analysis which is a norm in modern
psychology. To illustrate this fact let us consider the results of
research on the color red.
Keywords: Color; Psychology; Personality; Emotion; Favorite;

Context ; Preferences; Experiences
Learning Objectives
141
(i) Understand the importance of Color Psychology

Applications in Marketing Strategies
(ii)Evaluate how and what are the colors that impact on the
consumers in influencing their buying behavior
(iii) Find out the latest developments in the application of
color psychology in marketing
Research Literature
Elliot and Maier (2014) suggested that research on the
psychology of color has been conducted within the framework
of applied psychology for a few decades (see many studies
published in the Journal of Applied Psychology as early as the
pre-war period (e.g., Katz, & Breed, 1922; Schiller, 1935; Philip,
1945; Walton & Morrison, 1931). Fernandez and Rosen’s (2000)
studied, colorful advertisements attracted greater attention
among the participants – and so visibility in the telephone
book‘s Yellow Pages was improved. However, it is important
that when the participants were taking a decision which
company to call, the color of the commercial was an advantage
only when it was consistent with the advertisement‘s content.
In the opposite case, it decreased the effectiveness of the
advertisement. In the follow-up study (Lose, Rosen, 2001) these
outcomes were confirmed and, additionally, it was shown that
if the color does not convey any information about product
quality (e.g., clear, blue water in the commercial of holidays in
the Caribbeans), it is not more efficient than black and white
commercials. Similar outcomes were obtained by Moore and
others. (2005). Mantua, (2007) agree on color having an impact
or effect on a brand‘s perception (identification, identity and
awareness, attitudes, evaluation and choice). For example, blue
appears to be a highly positive color, as blue stores, products
142
and websites are rated, among others 12 Piotr Sorokowski,

Magdalena Wrembel things, as more relaxing, and more
trustworthy (Alberts & van der Geest, 2011; Lee & Rao, 2010).
However, little is known about why a particular color might be
perceived and interpreted in a specific way (Whitfield &
Wiltshire, 1990). Holmes, Fouty, Wurtz and Burdick’s (1985)
―Enough studies have been reported to present a consistently
inconsistent picture of the relationship‖. As indicated in the
introduction, even the most commonly acknowledged
observation used in popular science publications that ―the red
color stimulates‖ is inconsistent with the majority of scientific
studies on this topic (e.g., Ainsworth, Simpso, & Cassell, 1993;
Hackney, 2006; Hatta et al. 2002). It must be admitted, however,
that it seems obvious that some colors have certain
connotations. Even if the color red does not stimulate at the
physiological level, the whole history demonstrates that this
color is a symbol of fire, energy and is a metaphor of war, rage
and anger (Mahnke, 1996). Rutchick, Slepian and Ferris (2010)
showed that using a red pen can bias the evaluations of people.
Participants using red pens to correct essays marked more
errors and awarded lower grades than the people using blue
pens. In another context, the color red has quite the opposite
connotation as it might enhance the perceived sexual
attractiveness of a person (Elliot & Niesta, 2008). Additionally,
the symbolic value of colors is culturally dependent (Huang,
1993; Mantua, 2007; Oberascher, 2008). Of course, meanings
attached to some colors may be more or less pan-cultural, such
as the colors of traffic lights, or blue for sea and sky, and green
for nature (Morgan & Welton 1987), while some are regional
and unique to specific cultures. However, there have not been
any systematic studies investigating this topic. Summing up, in
143
comparison to common beliefs about the functions and qualities

of colors, their practical application is much narrower. Sawer
(2006), colors used by political parties have a very long history,
going back to ancient Greece and Rome. At present, colors
applied by particular ideologies usually have certain historical
connotations. Red used to be generally the color of revolution,
war and radicalism, for example in the French Revolution.
Today, modernizing Labor parties tend to shy away from using
red unless in the form of the red rose of the Socialist
International rather than the blood- soaked flag of a popular
revolt. On the 13 Color studies in applied psychology and social
sciences: An overview other hand, green has become a symbol
of ecological parties. This symbolic shorthand may have had its
origins in the ‗green bans’ imposed by the Builders Laborers
Federation (BLF) on development projects in Sydney in the
early 1970s (Sawer, 2006).
Hill and Burton (2005) suggested that a red outfit might

stimulate the sportsmen wearing it, increasing their will to fight
and dominate the opponent. Such an assumption is probably
not true. For example, Hackney (2006) demonstrated that levels
of testosterone did not alter only because they were wearing red
or black T-shirts. It seems that the observed effect is rather
dependent on the observer in other words, the referee or the
sportsman‘s opponent and not the person dressed in red.
Hagemann, Strauss, and Leming (2008) who demonstrated
that referees assessing the same taekwondo fight, in which the
opponent’s colors were changed, assigned approximately 13%
more points to the ―red‖ sportsman than to the blue one.
Additionally, Sorokowski & Szmajke (2007) found that the color
of T-shirts influenced only the competitors’ bravery and
144
aggressiveness and not the perception of their technical and

physical abilities. Rowe, Harris and Roberts (2005) and
Matsumoto, Konno, Hata (2007) showed that judokas in blue
outfits won more often than the judokas in white outfits. The
authors suggested that sportsmen‘s successes in a certain color
t (also red over blue uniforms) might result from how
movements of certain colors are perceived. However, see also
the contradictory results of Dijkstra and Preenen (2008). So far,
there has been no convincing evidence confirming the ―red wins‖
effect in team sports. Attrill and others (2008) suggested that
this effect was observed in football. They demonstrated, for
example, data from the English league since 1947 and an
analysis of the results of the English national team playing in
white or red T-shirts. However, no such effect was observed in
two further studies – one investigating Polish football league
results (Szmajke & Sorokowski, 2006) and another one German
league results (Kocher & Sutter, 2008). 15 Color studies in
applied psychology and social sciences: An overview summing
up, the ―red wins effect is observable in martial arts, in which
the opponents fight directly with each other rather than being
on a sports team. Although its origin and mechanism is not fully
clear, it seems to be primarily related with incorrectly
perceiving sportsmen in red outfits as more active, brave and
aggressive. Colors in psychological diagnoses despite many
methodological problems, colors have long been used in
psychological diagnoses. Pfister’s Color Pyramid test (Schaie,
1963). Again, no independent studies confirming its psychometric
qualities or verifying its practical usage have been presented in
the scientific literature (at least in English). In this test the
patient, using 24 colorful blocks, is supposed to create a
pyramid he or she likes and then a pyramid he or she does not
145
like. Finally, the Lowenfeld Mosaic Test (Lowenfeld 1952,

Woodcock, 1984) is the last relatively frequently used test. It is
applied mainly to children. People create colorful pictures with
the collection of mosaics, which are later interpreted by the
psychologist. In conclusion, despite many methodological
problems, colors have long been used in psychological
diagnoses. Marks (1975) noted that the black vs. white
distinction is related to vowel pitch‘, while the red- green
distinction correlates with the ratio of second to first formant
frequency of vowels. Jakobson’s (1962) claims are in line with
synesthetic research results that point to a strong correlation
between auditory pitch and visual luminance as well as a
general tendency to associate high pitch sounds with light
colors and low tones with darker hues (e.g. Simner et al. 2005,
Ward et al. 2006). Relatively few studies to date have explored
this synesthetic-like phenomenon of making associations
between colors and auditory stimuli. Flagg and Stewart (1985)
a study on consonants perception by using primary colors, and
their findings demonstrated that color can be used to study
speech perception. Dailey and others (1997) investigated the
relation between creativity, synesthetic tendencies and
physiognomic perception measured by rating colors using
adjectives with emotional connotations. Their results showed
that creative individuals have access to a primary thinking
process that assumes a unity of different sensory modalities,
since these persons exhibited stronger associations between
colors and vowels, as well as tones and emotional terms. A
series of experiments investigating sound-color associations in
Polish and English sound systems in a non-synesthetic
population were conducted by Wrembel (2009), Wrembel and
Rataj (2008), Wrembel and Grzybowski (2011).
146
Guéguen and Jacob (2013) demonstrated that coffee was

perceived to be warmer when served in a red cup, whereas
Ross, Bohischeid, and Weller (2009) found that red wine was
perceived to have a better flavor when it was served in a blue
glass. Other interesting findings in similar experiments were
reported by Geier, Wansink, & Rozin, (2013) or Piqueras-
Fiszman and Spence (2012). From a methodological standpoint,
the literature on color psychology has seen several improvements
in the past decade. However, the need for further modifications
remains, and it concerns several areas, two of which will be
briefly discussed here. First of all, researchers other than those
representing the social sciences and humanities allow for the
distinctions between various attributes of colors, such as
saturation, in other words, how ―intense‖ or ―concentrated‖ a
color is; hue (adding white and black pigment); and
brightness/lightness, or, how light or dark a given color is
(Berns, 2011). Each of these color attributes may influence
psychological functioning (Camgoz, Yener, & Guvenc, 2003); so
only one of them should be allowed to vary in a well-controlled
experiment. However, the vast majority of research on color in
social studies has failed to allow for these distinctions.
Therefore, we cannot fully explain which independent variables
are responsible for the generated results of such studies.
Secondly, researchers select color stimuli unsystematically –
which is very problematic – and introduce some bias in color
studies as different shades of yellow, blue or red are used as
stimuli. Controlling color attributes at the spectral level by
using pre-matched stimuli or a spectrophotometer is necessary
to conduct truly rigorous color research. Schwarz and Clore
(1983) proposed the emotion-as-information hypothesis, in
which people use their current affective state as information
147
about the to-be-judged target object. That is, they integrate their
current affective state with their evaluation of the target object
(―how do I feel about it? ‖). Alternatively, in a memory-based
model, Isen and colleagues (1978) propose that a given
affective state makes mood-congruent information in memory
more salient, which, in turn, makes mood-congruent evaluation
more likely. Although these two models differ from one another
in their proposed psychological mechanisms, both suggest that
the judgment of a given target will be congruent with the
individuals‘ current emotional state: that is, people‘s negative
(positive) affect will lead to more negative (positive) evaluation
of a given stimulus than they would if they were in emotionally
neutral state. Using colors as target objects, the prediction
would be that, relative to a neutral control condition, people in
a negative (positive) affective state would provide more 6
negative (positive) evaluations of any color, independent of
color tone (i.e., independent of the emotion tone of the color
itself). Cohen and Andrade 2004, Tsai 2007). One‘s evaluation
of a target object, therefore, is determined by one‘s current
affective state, one‘s projected affective state, and the extent to
which one believes that the target object or behavioral
experience can achieve or maintain the hedonistically positive
state. As a result, relative to a control condition, negative affect
may increase preference for the stimuli that make people feel
better (Andrade 2005;Tice, Bratslavsky, and Baumeister 2001),
whereas positive affect may decrease preference for stimuli that
would make people feel worse (Andrade 2005; Isen and
Simmons 1978). In other words, sad people will approach target
objects that present an emotion incongruent tone, whereas
happy people will avoid target objects that display an emotion
148
incongruent tone. There has been some evidence showing

preference for emotionally incongruent aesthetic stimuli.
Knoblch and Zillmann (2002) showed that after a negative (vs.

positive) performance feedback, participants listened to highly
energetic and joyful music for longer periods. Similarly,
Ireland, Warren and Herringer (1992) found that highly anxious
individuals preferred emotion- incongruent, calm colors (i.e.,
pastel shades of color) relative to congruent, highly arousing
ones (i.e., highly saturated colors).
Jacobson and Bender 1996; Palmer and Schloss 2010).

Evaluated multiple colors (20 ~ 24 colors), which allowed us to
focus on general emotional tones across colors, independent of
specific color characteristics. Finally, whereas the emotional
state was manipulated across subjects, the emotional tone of the
stimuli (e.g., happy vs. sad colors) was manipulated as a within-
subjects variable across all the experiments.
Introduction: color in marketing and business psychology

might fulfil many different functions as they attract attention,
convey some information, or evoke certain emotions or
motivations. The first of the above-mentioned functions, that is,
attracting attention through higher visibility of a certain color is
obvious. Research regarding perception has shown that
especially red and purple fulfil this function well, since they are
noticed more quickly than other colors in the horizontal
perspective (e.g., Koslow, 1985). Studies examining real
advertisements have basically concentrated on black and white
vs. Colorful stimuli. Poor color choice can also negatively
change the impact of the message. Chances are there that it can
be easily ignored. Even NASA is concerned about color, enough
149
so that they use online resources to help non- designers choose

just the right shades. The psychology of color as it relates to
persuasion is one of the most interesting and most controversial
aspects of marketing. Every business conversation today is
about persuasion consisting of hunches, anecdotal evidence
and advertisers blowing smoke about "colors and the mind."
Hence this study is about how make color selection with reliable
research evidences on color theory and persuasion.
Misconceptions around the Psychology of Color: The color

psychology has become part of important business
conversations with incredibly rapid visuals that sum up color
psychology with awesome "facts" such as the color plays vital
role and is important in Branding. First, let's address branding,
which is one of the most important issues relating to color
perception and the area where many articles on this subject run
into problems. There have been numerous attempts to classify
consumer responses to different individual colors: but the truth
of the matter is that color is too dependent on personal
experiences to be universally translated to specific feelings. But
there are broader messaging patterns to be found in color
perceptions. For instance, colors play a fairly substantial role in
purchases and branding. Researchers find that up to 90 percent
of the snap judgments made about products can be based on
color alone (depending on the product with the impact that the
role of color plays in branding, results from studies. Many
research findings say about the relationship between brands
and color hinges on the perceived appropriateness of the color
being used for the particular brand (in other words, does the
color "fit" what is being sold). It also confirms that purchasing
intent is greatly affected by colors due to the impact on the
150
perception of a brand. This means that colors influence how

consumers view the "personality" of the brand in question like
for example who would want to buy a Harley Davidson
motorcycle if they didn't get the feeling that Harleys were
rugged and cool, and many studies have revealed that our
brains prefer recognizable brands, which makes color
incredibly important when creating a brand identity. Many
suggestions in the area of color psychology is of paramount
importance for new brands to specifically target logo colors that
ensure differentiation from entrenched competitors like for
example if the competition all uses blue, one can stand out by
using purple. When it comes to picking the "right" color,
research has found that predicting consumer reaction to color
appropriateness in relation to the product is far more important
than the individual color itself. So, if Harley owners buy the
product in order to feel rugged, it is very well clear that the pink
color + glitter edition wouldn't sell all that well.
Psychologist and Stanford professor Jennifer Aaker has

conducted studies on this very topic via research on Dimensions
of Brand Personality, and her studies have found five core
dimensions that play a role in a brand's personality:
151
Figure1: Brand Personality with colors adapted from

Wikipedia.org
Research studies are showing that brands can sometimes cross
between two traits, but they are mostly dominated by one. High
fashion clothing feels sophisticated, camping gear feels rugged.
Other researchers have found that there is a real connection
between the use of colors and customers' perceptions of a
brand's personality. Certain colors DO broadly align with
specific traits (e.g., brown with ruggedness, purple with
sophistication, and red with excitement). But nearly every
academic study on colors and branding reveals that it's far more
important for brand's colors to support the personality. Without
this context, choosing one color over another doesn't make
much sense, and there is very little evidence to support that
'orange' will universally make people purchase a product more
often than 'silver'.
152
Research Findings on Color Preferences by Gender: Perceived

appropriateness may explain why the most popular car colors
are white, black, silver and gray, but is there something else at
work that explains why there aren't very many purple power
tools.
Figure 2: color Preferences of Men and Women: Source;

Wikipedia.org
153
The most notable points in these images is the supremacy of

blue across both genders (it was the favorite color for both
groups) and the disparity between groups on purple. Women
list purple as a top-tier color, but no men list purple as a favorite
color. (Perhaps this is why we have no purple power tools, a
product largely associated with men?). Additional research in
studies on color perception and color preferences show that
when it comes to shades, tints and hues men seem to prefer bold
colors while women prefer softer colors. Also, men were more
likely to select shades of colors as their favorites (colors with
black added), whereas women were more receptive to tints of
colors (colors with white added):
Source: kiss metrics
The above info graphic from KISS metrics showcases the

disparity in men and women's color preferences. Keep this
information in mind when choosing your brand's primary color
palette. Given the starkly different taste preferences shown, it
154
pays to appeal more to men or women if they make up a larger

percentage of your ideal buyers.
Color Coordination + Conversions

Debunking the "best" color for conversion rates on websites has
recently been a very popular topic (started here and later here).
They make some excellent points, because it is definitely true
that there is no single best color for conversions. The
psychological principle known as the Isolation Effect states that
an item that "stands out like a sore thumb" is more likely to be
remembered. Research clearly shows that participants are able
to recognize and recall an item far better (be it text or an image)
when it blatantly sticks out from its surroundings. (The sign-up
button stands out because it's like a red "island" in a sea of blue.)
The studies Aesthetic Response to Color Combinations and
Consumer Preferences for Color Combinations also find that while
a large majority of consumers prefer color patterns with similar
hues, they favor palettes with a highly contrasting accent color.
In terms of color coordination (as highlighted in this KISS
metrics graphic), this would mean creating a visual structure
consisting of base analogous colors and contrasting them with
accent complementary colors (or you can use tertiary colors):
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Another way to think of this is to utilize background, base and

accent colors to create a hierarchy (as Josh from Studio Press
showcases below) on your site that "coaches" customers on
which color means take action:
Why this matters: Although you may start to feel like an

interior decorator after reading this section, this stuff is actually
incredibly important in helping you understand the why
behind conversion jumps and slumps. As a bonus, it will help
keep you from drinking the conversion rate optimization Kool-
Aid that misleads so many people. Psychologist and Stanford
professor Jennifer Aaker has conducted studies on this very
topic, and her paper titled Dimensions of Brand Personality‖
points out five core dimensions that play a role in a brand‘s
personality.
Figure 3: 5 dimensions of Brand Personality; Source:

wikipedia.org
156
Brands can sometimes cross between two traits, but they are
mostly dominated by one. While certain colors do broadly align
with specific traits (e.g., brown with ruggedness, purple with
sophistication, and red with excitement), nearly every academic
study on colors and branding will tell you that it‘s far more
important for colors to support the personality you want to
portray instead of trying to align with stereotypical color
associations. Consider the inaccuracy of making broad
statements such the context is absent, sometimes green is used
to brand environmental issues, like Seventh Generation, but
other times it‘s meant to brand financial spaces, such as Mint.
And while brown may be useful for a rugged appeal and see
how it‘s used by Saddleback Leather — when positioned in
another context, brown can be used to create a warm, inviting
feeling (Thanksgiving) or to stir your appetite (every chocolate
commercial you‘ve ever seen).
Bottom line: There are no clear-cut guidelines for choosing

your brand‘s colors. It depends is a frustrating answer, but it‘s
the truth. However, the context you‘re working within is an
essential consideration. It‘s the feeling, mood, and image that
your brand or product creates that matters.
Men‘s and women‘s favorite colors
Figure 4: Men/Women color Preferences: Most Favorite:

Source; www.wikipedia.org
157
Men‘s and women‘s least favorite colors
Figure 5: Men/Women’s least Favorite colors: Research

findings on color coordination and conversions; the
psychological principle known as the Isolation Effect states that
an item that ―stands out like a sore thumb is more likely to be
remembered.
Research clearly shows that participants are able to recognize

and recall an item far better be it text or an image when it
blatantly sticks out from its surroundings. Two studies on color
combinations, one measuring aesthetic response and the other
looking at consumer preferences, also find that while a large
majority of consumers prefer color patterns with similar hues,
they favor palettes with a highly contrasting accent color. In
terms of color coordination, this means creating a visual
structure consisting of base analogous colors and contrasting
them with accent complementary (or tertiary) colors:
158
Figure 6: color Coordination and Conversions: Source:

www.wikipedia.org
Although different colors can be perceived in different ways,

the descriptive names of those colors matters as well. Research
has shown that 93% of shoppers will look at the visual
appearance of a company‘s logo, website, brochures, or
catalogs and then decide whether or not to make a purchase.
How the color is perceived by a customer, the neuronal
structure corresponding to the concept of redness is connected
to light-sensitive cells in the eyes that are sensitive to the red
range of the spectrum. What is perceived through eyes, is
electromagnetic radiation at specific wavelengths. Neuronal
structure is ―learned‖ by various combinations of integrated
signals – for example, a combination of the sky with signals
derived from ―blue‖ receptors of the eye. Therefore, blue
defines all the blue objects in our neuronal network, and they
define blue. Through the course of our life we experience
different sets of events with colorful objects. That makes our
associations unique and, as a result, each of us understands
the concept of blue slightly differently. Disagreements in the
perception of colors depend on origin, age, gender, and even
state of health. Vivid and bright colors are popular amongst the
youth, while older people feel more comfortable when
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surrounded by subdued shades. Black is widely known as the

color of mourning in Poland. In India, that would be white. It is
not an exaggeration to say that color is the key factor in building
a mood. It can stimulate our imagination to express taste, smell,
and emotions. Since technology has changed it all, and never
before have there been so many colors available, the ability to
shape our mood with color is particularly true for a computer
screen.
The color as a powerful marketing tool
Color is powerful because it can change consumer‘s mood – the
mood of potential customers. If a website improves state of
mind, the relationship with a brand will deepen and the
probability of a return will increase. Advertisers and designers
are well aware of that. Successful brands like Harley Davidson
don‘t sell motorcycles, they sell a lifestyle. Finding the right
choice of colors is an art because everyone interprets colors
differently. Therefore, the trick is about an entire selection. No
color scheme is ideal or universal. There is no best palette for a
specific social or cultural group. Colorful information affects
the decision-making process with a surprising effectiveness.
The different kinds of colors
Through colors we can control reactions of an audience and
provoke them to certain behaviors. The following paragraphs
present commonly used colors and describe their impact on
users.
Warm bright colors
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Beige, yellow, orange, pink, red and similar. These are active,
eye-catching colors with a friendly nature that may induce a
sense of courage and energy. Warm bright colors visually
enlarge objects and make them seem closer.
Cold bright colors
Lavender, silver, azure add subtlety, full of aesthetics and

freshness, accents. Such cold but bright tones enhance a
sensation of modernity and professionalism if harmoniously
combined with gray. It‘s a nice composition for businesses,
commerce, and service websites especially with health,
cosmetic and medicine products.
Cold dark colors
Violet, blue, turquoise, green, navy give a feeling of stability

and quality. These shades are often placed as accompanying
colors. Although they don‘t attract attention they emphasize the
content. Cold dark colors are widely used on business websites
for ambitious and hardworking qualities with a special
highlight for government, science, automotive and computer
products.
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Warm dark colors
Gold, purple, brown express classics, tradition, luxury and

relaxation. They blend well in expensive and elegant designs
for young and rich. Mixed with cold colors give an impression
of modernity and novelty. Perfect for brands engaged in
finance, consulting, architectonics and craft.
Neutral colors
White, grey and black help to create contrasts and bring all the
other colors out. They don‘t convey any particular message on
their own. Neutrals are here to support their neighbors by
playing the role of complementation on websites. Their use can
be truly universal as they work well in a variety of applications.
Black can be combined with bright colors and white with dark
colors, making a classic, almost universal combination.
Findings and Conclusions

The psychological impact of color: Blue denotes loyalty,
sincerity, and trustworthiness as well as ―calmness and serenity,
‖ perhaps explaining why it is widely used both by major
corporate or even national brands such as Facebook or the
United States. Conversely, the online weight loss community
Yellow conveys warning (traffic signals, warning signs, and
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wet floor signage), or it can suggest happiness and fun. Green

is the color of the outdoors and the environment (it symbolizes
nature and is eco-friendly), and is also relaxing. Using the term
green and the color itself gives an environmental ambience to a
website such as Friends of the Earth or Greenpeace, and clearly
improves the reputation of such a company with environmental
concerns. Black adds an air of value and luxury or elegance,
sophistication, power, ‖ according to the women‘s health
website Life script. White is often left out of color psychology
and there is debate as to whether or not it is classed as a color
but the extensive use of white space ―is a powerful design
feature and an ever-more prominent feature of contemporary
design in websites, print materials, and even products. What
impact do the above and other colors have on the consumer?
Research from Emerald Group Publishing finds that it takes
only 90 seconds for a customer to form their initial impression
about a product.
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Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Toxic Leadership
Chapter Seven
Toxic Leadership

conceptualizing what is toxic leadership in this situational
leadership, which this whole book is about and this particular
chapter will highlight the importance of developing leadership
skills and understand the concepts of the contemporary
management situations that can be handy while facing real life
situations. This chapter in particular will address the leadership
situations related to leader creating toxic cultural aspects of any
leadership book series. These HR leadership situations are
descriptive about why is it important for a leader to understand
all the practices of toxic leadership traits and the impact of the
toxic leader, and also examine the toxic leader personality and
their practices for leadership development across the world
using toxicity avoidance and averting techniques of leadership
development on how mindful leadership allows leaders to
achieve professional and personal success. It also touches the
important issues the leader has to measure, and how HR skills
facilitate the leader. The chapter also has various concept
diagrams to explain various stages of leaders learning
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mindfulness, so as to contribute to the organizational policy

developments.
Abstract: Toxic leadership (Marcia Whicker 1996) which was

linked with a number of dysfunctional leadership styles can
produce negativity in an organization and induces toxic culture
with employees having only two options: conform to the rules
or leave the organization. The word “toxic” comes from the
Greek “toxikon” which means “arrow poison”. In a literal
sense, the term in its original form thus means to kill (poison)
in a targeted way (arrow). Toxic organizations and leaders
therefore are those who deliberately destroy the fabric of the
institution. Any employee staying in the toxic style will mostly
be in the losing end of their career and usually gets
disappointed believing that the situation will change, or
moonlight (trying for better opportunity while working in one
organization) secretly for a better career. Others, start accepting
the toxic leadership as normal and faces unusual stresses. The
organization will die a slow death as it radiates depressed
workforce. It usually looks like a termite-infested house, the
organization crumbles from within mostly without the
knowledge of the very fellow workers inside the organization.
Key Words; Toxic Leader, Traits, Toxic Boss, Cold Fish, Glory
Seeker, Traits, Bad Leadership, Moonlighting, Stress
Introduction
 A toxic leader is responsible over a group of people or an
organization, and abuses the leader–follower relationship
by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off
condition. It was coined by Marcia Whicker in 1996 and is
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linked to dysfunctional leadership styles. Other names for

toxic leaders are the toxic boss, boss from hell or toxic
manager. The style exercise a tyrannical or very
authoritative or dictator style of management, resulting in
a culture of fear and negativism. This exploratory study is
to identify how toxic leader‘s traits, characteristics,
behavior and attitude towards his fellow workers from the
related literature and case examples to identify and
suggest methods to manage and train them. There are
ample evidence across industries like corporations, banks,
and governments where toxicity is heavy due to toxic
leaders, hence making this research a very useful one.
Typical toxic leaders’ patterns of looking at and relating to
the world, the research says, following patterns emerge in
toxic leaders:
 Paranoid: the defensive, afraid, suspicious, trusting no-
one or nobody organization.
 Compulsive: the over-planned and over-programmed
organization.
 Hyperactive: the impulsive, unfocused organization,
acting like an adolescent.
 Deflated: the energy less, depressed and impotent
organization.
 Delusional: the reality estranged, make-believe organization,
living in a world of its own.
 Conscienceless: the unethical, amoral organization.
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Paranoid
Delusional
The defensive Compulsive Hyperactive Conscienceless
Deflated The reality
Afraid The Over- The impulsive The unethical
The energy less estranged
Suspicious planned Unfocused Amoral
Depressed Make believe
Trusting no one Over- Act like an Organization
Impotent organization
No trust in Programmed adolescent
organization Living in the
organization
world of own
Figure; 1; the Interrelating Behavior Patterns of Toxic

Leaders in Organization; Graphic Source Created; Author
Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Learning Objectives
 To explore who are Toxic Leaders and their Traits
 To examine the qualities and types of Toxic Leaders and
their nature.
 (iii)To evaluate the impact of Toxic Leaders in an
Organization.
 To examine the nature of Toxic Leader Personality and
their roles in creating toxic organizations
 To suggest Remedial measures to identify and avoid
Toxicity in Organizations
Research Literature
Kellerman (2004) states that good leadership spreads stability
and motivation. Bad leadership creates feelings of rejection,
confusion, and can destroys a team. Clinton (1988) listed four
stages of development in leadership: (a) the challenges of
potential leadership, (b) the skills and gifts to enhance the
leader‘s effectiveness, (c) relating to people in ways that
motivate, and (d) principles of leadership. Schmidt (2008)
labeled toxic leadership as ―narcissistic, self-promoters who
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engage in an unpredictable pattern of abusive and authoritarian

supervision‖ (p. 57). Human resource researchers are still
finding out why the toxic leaders are hired or how to deal with
them. This exploratory study would try to add knowledge for
identifying the toxic leader and resolving the conflict.
Barbara Kellerman (2004) suggests that toxicity in leadership

(or simply, "bad leadership") may be analyzed into seven
different types: Incompetent, Rigid, Intemperate, Callour,
Corrupt, Insular and Evil. Terry Price identified workplace
bullying can result in physical as well as emotional and
psychological disorders, including a diagnosis such as post-
traumatic stress disorder. Steven Sample, former president of
the University of Southern California, describes ―thinking gray‖
as an attribute of a contrarian leader. It refers to avoiding,
delaying or deferring a decision until it has to be made, which
really is a decision in itself. In some highly charged political
situations the leader may walk a thin line between pragmatic
indecision and toxic ambivalence. While this may preserve
college presidencies or other newly installed senior leaders, it
can also be a quick route to toxic ambivalence. Robert
Greenleaf found in the analysis, for those who refuse to part
with the term servant leaders (and especially if you think you
are one), have someone check with followers anonymously. The
only true test for a so-called servant leader is a confidential
reality check with the followers. Schmidt (2008) stated that
toxic leadership as ―narcissistic, self-promoters who engage in
an unpredictable pattern of abusive and authoritarian
supervision‖ (p. 57). There have been occasions when toxic
leaders were hired because of their industry knowledge with
the intent to repair an ineffective team or inoperative
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noncompliant culture. Gouldner (1960) when employers do not

fulfill their promises and obligations, the employee reciprocates
by altering his or her contributions to the organization (e.g. by
reducing their efforts and performance) ‖ (Bal, Chiaburu &
Jansen, 2010). A toxic leader‘s short-term success in terminating
unproductive or difficult followers is one motivation for senior
teams to knowingly hire them. Schyns and Hansbroughn
(2010) observed that senior management would hire a toxic
leader because past positions of employment demonstrate
short-term success. Once the toxic leader has reached a high
performance level, the actual symptoms of a destructive culture
begin to appear. Boddy, (2014); Meyer & Casile, (2010)Human
resource personnel are able to identify toxic leaders from
multiple perspectives and may even express apprehension
when senior management considers hiring one. Schmidt’s
(2008) definition of toxic leaders to new knowledge provided by
human resource managers defines toxic leadership through the
view of various authors, the similarity of behavior became
evident. Hogan (2007), Pellitier (2010), Reed (2009), and
Schmidt (2008) completed the research on toxic leadership
terms referenced in this dissertation and demonstrated that this
subject affects all organizations. Schmidt (2008), the perspective
of human resource personnel may lead to a broader definition
of the toxic leader‘s behavior. Exploring this variation led to a
new and deeper definition of the toxic leader. It was clear
through multiple literature articles that toxic leadership is a
negative experience for the follower, which is harmful to any
organization (Mehta & Maheshwari, 2013; Pellitier, 2010;
Tepper, 2010; Yagil & Luria, 2010). Lipman-Blumen (2004,
2005) wrote several books on the subject of toxic leadership
from the perspective of the follower or subordinate. A
169
subordinate is a descriptive term for anyone who officially

reports to a superior. The definition of follower or followership
used by Lipman. Blumen (2004, 2005) was supported by
Kellerman (2008), Pellitier (2010), and Tepper (2011), who also
used the term of follower rather than subordinate. Hogan (2007)
revealed through the Hogan Development Survey
(Hogan/HDS/asp) the pattern of derailing when senior
management hires a leader who later becomes toxic. Hogan
specifies the leader or manager who is feeling significant
pressure and stress may act in toxic manners and derail their
career. Harms et al. (2011) provided several points of interest,
including the lack of empirical studies on ―narcissism,
psychopathy, and Machiavellianism as the most widely studied
subclinical traits‖ (p. 496). The dark side of personality is
another way of describing toxic behaviors in individuals.
Understanding those traits may help to identify leaders who
tend to practice the behaviors of the authoritarian, the narcissist,
and illustrate abusive traits.
Goldman (2008b) defended the use of the term toxic leaders

versus abusive or other terms for toxic behavior as applied to
organizational development and organizational behavior. As
reported by Goldman (2008): The toxic leader is an insidious
and pernicious spreading of negative emotional contagion a
toxic process accelerated by highly destructive and
dysfunctional leadership behavior. Crocker (2005) stated that
behaviors of incivility resemble behaviors of the toxic leader
since they display narcissism, abusiveness, and authoritarian
action. Furthermore, he developed hypotheses to define
employee perceptions of ―interactional injustice, managerial
incivility and turnover intentions, withdrawal behaviors,
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performance behaviors, and negative effects on the

organization (p. 42). Crocker (2005) further acknowledged that
behaviors within cultures are seen as acceptable or
unacceptable in accordance with their accepted norm, thus
individual employee perception may not be enough to convince
senior management there is an issue. Narcissism and Toxicity
Tepper, Moss, and Duffy (2011) examined the perception of
deep- level differences between subordinates and leaders. The
narcissistic leader displays an attitude 28 of superiority,
impatience, and dwells on their image of leadership and ability.
The attitude and behavior that accompanies the narcissism may
become toxic as a leader is consumed with their
accomplishments or successes. Tepper et al. (2011) applied a
test to measure and determine the validity of their thesis that
unfavorable outcomes arise when a leader perceives an
extremely dissimilar trait or personality and moral code from a
follower. If the leader displays additional toxic behavior
because of getting ahead, he or she would be aligned with the
definition of the toxic leader defined in this dissertation by
displaying narcissism, which is one of the five behaviors of a
toxic leader. This further supports an alignment with actions of
incivility and the toxic leaders. Reiter-Palmon (2008)
determined that ―harming organizational members or striving
for short- term gains over long-term organizational goals leads
to focusing on sustained destructive acts with profound
implications rather than minor slip-ups (p. 24). Tepper, Moss,
and Duffy (2011) described ―annual losses of an estimated $23.8
billion in increased health care costs, workplace withdrawal,
and lost productivity (p. 279) due to the consequences of
followers’ perceptions of toxic leadership. Many theorists have
noted hiring a toxic leader negatively affects followers
171
(Ashforth, 1994; Kellerman, 2005, 2008; Lipman- Blumen, 2004,

2005; Padilla, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2007; Tepper, 2003, 2007).
Schyns and Hansbroughn (2010) stated that the cognitive
―process employed by the leader play a large role in how he or
she gathers information, interprets it, and makes decisions
toward 30 a course of action (p. 23).
Lipman-Blumen (2005) addressed these phenomena by noting,

―Organizations qua organizations can yield their own toxins.
They do so through detrimental policies and practices—
including setting unreasonable performance goals, promoting
excessive internal competition, and creating a culture of blame
(p. 17). Bal, Chiaburu, and Jansen (2010) discussed
authoritarianism management and the effects this behavior has
on rebellion by the follower. Bond, Tuckey, and Dollard (2010)
discussed workplace bullying and the personal stress related to
this action. Baker (2007) believed that followers no longer hold
a passive role, and leaders are people with a role to fill rather
than inherent personality specifically graced (p. 55) upon them.
Cangemi and Pfohl (2009) described seven conditions of actual
events occurring under the reign of a sociopathic leader, the
chameleon-type personality, verbally aggressive, and got-to- be
right attitude. Bond et al. (2010) discussed how bullies react to
the competition and the internal stress factors, and how they
generate a work environment that creates such behavior. Bond
et al. provided insight referencing narcissism, bullying,
abusive, and authoritative behaviors of which all assist with the
understanding of toxic behavior. According to Bond et al.
(2010): The symptoms are: work-related harassment, job
demands, meaningless tasks, professional humiliation,
belittlement, intimidation, and isolation. These work symptoms
172
are reflected in employee posttraumatic stress by a) intrusions,

flashbacks, nightmares, intrusive thoughts, b) avoidance of
people, places, objects, and thoughts associated with the
traumatic event; and c) physiological and psychological hyper-
arousal. (p. 39)
Goldman (2008) noted senior management will often not act on

toxicity due to fear of litigation, wrongful termination claims,
or other allegations until it is too late and followers have left a
company, a worker‘s compensation case is filed, or a lawsuit
ensues. Goldman (2008b) noted, ―Although there are
individuals who may be labeled as dysfunctional, this only
constitutes a subset of larger, systemic issues (p. 245). Goldman
noted that after organizational leaders accept the existence of an
issue of concern, the leaders would treat the solution as a
patient-doctor relationship by hiring an outside person to
identify the cause of the illness or toxin and recommend a repair
to reverse the effects. Mossholder, Richardson, and Settoon
(2011) completed research on creating value in organizations by
having human resource personnel create systems.
Explore who are Toxic Leaders and their Traits

Understanding toxic leadership; it is a leadership approach
that harms people—and, eventually, the company as well
through the poisoning of enthusiasm, creativity, autonomy, and
innovative expression. Toxic leaders disseminate their poison
through over-control. They define leadership as being in
control. Symptoms of toxic leadership; in a toxic leadership
environment, people are rewarded for agreeing with the boss
and punished for thinking differently. In a toxic leadership
environment, ―yes‖ people are rewarded and are promoted to
173
leadership roles, while people who more fully engage their

mental resources, critical thinking, and questioning skills are
shut out from decision-making and positions of influence. Toxic
leadership often causes a high turnover rate, a decline in
productivity, less innovation, and interdepartmental conflict.
1. The Cold Fish: the ends justifies the means. So any

decision and action is justifiable in terms of the results
desired.
2. The Snake: the world serves me in the endeavor to satisfy
my personal needs like greed, status and power.
3. Glory Seeker: personal glory and public visibility at any
cost, regardless of whether I have made any real and
meaningful contribution.
4. Puppet Master: absolute, centralized control over
everything and anyone, under all circumstances.
5. Monarch: ruling the organization as if it is my kingdom.
All of its assets are available for my personal use.
The more prolific these toxic leaders are in an organization, the

more toxic the organization. The table below profiles these toxic
leaders.
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The Big Five Toxic leaders
The Cold Fish the •Ends Justifies Means

Snake Glory Seeker
Puppet Master
•Any Decision and Action is

Justified in terms of results
•Satisfy personal needs
 All ASSETS are for my

Monarch personal uses
 Greed, Status, Power
 Personal Glory, Public Visibility at any cost.
Glory needed regardless of if it is my

Kingdom
•Absolute contribution, Centralized

Control over Everything and Any
•Ruling the Organization as
Figure; 2; 5 Kinds of Toxic Leaders Characters; Source;

Author ;Dr. C. Karthikeyan Barbara Kellerman (2004)
suggests that toxicity in leadership (or simply, "bad
leadership") may be analyzed into seven different types:
Incompetent, Rigid, Intemperate, Callour, Corrupt, Insular
and Evil.
175
Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan
Incompetent
Evil Rigid
Bad
Leadership
Insular Intemperate
Corrupt Callour
Figure; 3; 7 Types of Bad Leadership; Concept Source;

Barbara Kellerman Graphic Source; Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Incompetent – the leader and at least some followers lack the
will or skill (or both) to sustain effective action. With regard to
at least one important leadership challenge, they do not create
positive change. Rigid – the leader and at least some followers
are stiff and unyielding. Although they may be competent, they
are unable or unwilling to adapt to new ideas, new information,
or changing times. Intemperate – the leader lacks self-control
and is aided and abetted by followers who are unwilling or
unable to effectively intervene. Callous – the leader and at least
some followers are uncaring or unkind. Ignored and discounted
are the needs, wants, and wishes of most members of the group
or organization, especially subordinates. Corrupt – the leader
and at least some followers lie, cheat, or steal. To a degree that
exceeds the norm, they put self-interest ahead of the public
176
interest. Insular – the leader and at least some followers

minimize or disregard the health and welfare of those outside
the group or organization for which they are directly
responsible. Evil – the leader and at least some followers
commit atrocities. They use pain as an instrument of power. The
harm can be physical, psychological or both.
The impact of Toxic Leaders in an Organization

The Typical Toxic organizations; the typical manifestations of
a toxic organization resulting from toxic leadership are:
Negative
Emotional
moods
Organizational
dis- identification Unproductive
and low Meaningless
organization work
commitment
Toxic
Destructive
Low Morale
Organization
And counter
And Work Productive
Satisfaction conduct
Poor Well Unethical

Being and health , deviant conduct
Figure; 4; Toxicity in Organization 7 TOXIC factors; Source

Author; Dr. C. Karthikeyan
 Negative emotional moods and mood swings: anger,

despair, despondency, frustration, pessimism and
aggression.
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 Unproductive and meaningless work.

 Destructive and counterproductive conduct.
 Employee physical and emotional disengagement and
withdrawal such as absenteeism, lack of contribution, and
turnover.
 Unethical, deviant conduct: theft, fraud and sabotage.
 Poor well-being and health.
 Low (team) morale and work satisfaction.
 Organizational dis-identification and low organizational
commitment.
 General life dissatisfaction.
Basic traits
The basic traits of a toxic leader are generally considered to be
either/or insular, intemperate, glib, operationally rigid,
callous, inept, discriminatory, corrupt or aggressive by
scholars such as Barbara Kellerman. They boast that they are
supposedly clever, always criticize other staff members and
avoid or dislike to be asked awkward questions about their
leadership style. These may occur as either: Oppositional
behavior. Plays corporate power politics. An over competitive
attitude to other employees. Perfectionistic attitudes. Abuse of
the disciplinary system (such as to remove a workplace rival).
A condescending/glib attitude. They are shallow and lack self-
confidence. Toxic leaders are not confident with themselves
and become aggressive to cope. Poor self-control and/or
restraint. Physical and/or psychological bullying. Procedural
inflexibility. Discriminatory attitudes (sexism, etc.). Causes
workplace division instead of harmony. Use "divide and rule"
tactics on their employees. Irritable
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Insular and Intemperate
Glib and Rigid
Rigid and Callous
Inept and Discriminatory
Corrupt and Clever
Lacks Self Confidence
Poor Self Control
Divide and Rule
Psychological Bullying
Figure 5; Escalating Toxicity by Toxic Leader Characters;

Concept; Barbara Kellerman; Graphic Concept Source ; Dr.
C. Karthikeyan
Leaders are authoritarian, autocratic, and control freaks use

both micromanagement, over management and management
by fear to keep a grip of their authority in the organizational
group. A toxic leader is hypocritical and hypercritical of others,
seeking the illusion of corporate and moral virtue to hide their
own workplace vices. Hypocrisy involves the deception of
others and is thus a form of lying. They are sometimes
maladjusted, and afraid of change, they can also be both
frightening and psychologically stressful to work with. The
Russian Army defines toxic leaders as commanders who put
their own needs first, micro-manage subordinates, behave in a
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mean-spirited manner or display poor decision-making. A

study for the Center for Army Leadership found that toxic
leaders in the army work to promote themselves at the expense
of their subordinates, and usually do so without considering
long-term ramifications to their subordinates, their unit, and the
Army profession.
Examine the nature of Toxic Leader Personality and their

roles in creating toxic organizations
Tools that increase toxicity;

 Workload: The setting up to fail procedure is in particular
a well-established workplace bullying tactic that a toxic
leader can use against his rivals and subordinates.
 Corporate control systems: They could use the processes
in place to monitor what is going on. Disciplinary systems
could be abused to aid their power culture.
 Organizational structures: They could abuse the
hierarchies, personal relationships and the way that work
flows through the business.
 Corporate power structures: The toxic leader controls
who, if any one makes the decisions and how widely
spread power is.
 Symbols of personal authority: These may include the
right to parking spaces and executive washrooms or
access to supplies and uniforms. Narcissistic symbols and
self-images (i.e. workplace full of self-portraits).
 Workplace rituals and routines: Management meetings,
board reports, disciplinary hearing, performance assays
and so on may become more habitual than necessary.
Professor Jean Lipman- Blumen found that dominating
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characteristics among corporate and political leaders is

visible because the people are psychologically weak to
counter "toxic leadership". The "dysfunctional personal
characteristics" and "destructive behaviors" "inflict
reasonably serious and enduring harm" and influence
badly on a personal and/or corporate basis. He suggests
there is something of a deeply psychological nature going
on. She argues the need to feel safe, specialness and in a
social community all help explain this psychological
phenomenon.
Factors that develop a toxic leader?; poor role models,

operating under a faulty definition of leadership, having
distorted definition of strength, trying to control everything,
not realizing that over-controlling produces toxic effects, have
unresolved psychological issues (such as fear of the unknown,
fear of failure, mistrust of people, feelings of inadequacy, lack
of confidence, or extreme overconfidence) that they avoid by
exercising toxic leadership. The net result is the toxic leaders’
distorted view of human nature drives them to treat people as
robots, and are likely to see their work as only a job, thus
actually controls less of the person, and thus has less control.
Their impact on the company; systemic damage throughout

the organization creating serious trouble just under the surface.
Makes the company face unusual stresses—a depressed
economy, for instance more demands will be put on the
workforce. Like a termite- infested house, the organization
crumbles from within. Can toxic leaders change? Change is
possible, toxic leader to be given an ultimatum change, or else
he or she might realize the need for a change. Advice to commit
to the process of change. Creative coaching is needed to guide
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and support the leader through the transformation process.

Specific plan custom-designed for that leader‘s situation,
anecdotal evidence as well as research which suggests that one
out of every five leaders is toxic. Competency of Toxic leader;
Leadership toxicity and incompetence are not directly related
even incompetent leadership can be toxic. In a long term toxic
leaders are incompetent because they fail to be a well-rounded
leader. Leadership qualities like personal attributes, technical
and professional competencies, values and attitudes, regardless
of their level of technical and professional competence, are
incompetent. Since competent leadership is getting things done
with people.
The fatal attraction towards Toxic Leaders

There are several key reasons for our attraction to toxic leaders:
1. First, we are driven by our more pragmatic needs. We often

stick with toxic leaders because working for them pays the
mortgage and the kids‘dental bills, provides political,
occupational, and other types of important access, and lets
us share in additional attractive benefits that they provide.
Incidentally, these pragmatic needs are the ones we most
easily recognize.
2. A second set of needs, this time existential needs, sprouts
from our poignant awareness of our own mortality. From
the depths of our unconscious, it relentlessly drives us to
find relief in the form of toxic leaders, who dangle
assurances of safety, meaning and immortality before us.
3. A third set of needs stems from the uncertain, disorderly
world in which we all live creates situational fears give rise
to an increased need for certainty and orderliness. Leaders
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who promise us an orderly, predictable and controlled

world can look very attractive when everything around us
seems about to fall apart.
4. Fourth, psychosocial needs arise from the interaction
between the individual (replete with psychological needs,
existential anxiety and situational fears) and his or her
demanding environment. when we fail to meet our
culture‘s achievement norms, we have two major choices.
We can join a subcultural group whose norms are less
exacting or even antithetical to those of the mainstream
culture, like gangs or cults. Or we can crown as leaders
others who do exceed the norms. When we join up with
these outstanding individuals, stronger and smarter than
we are, we can feel vicariously accomplished, powerful
and protected.
5. Fifth, we humans have always lived in an unfinished and
unfinishable world, a world in which the explanations our
parents took for truth we recognize as partially incorrect
or totally mistaken. Thus, in each era, certain knowledge
is overwritten by newer, more accurate knowledge,
casting doubt upon related assumptions.
Remedial measures to identify and avoid toxicity in

Organizations Fortunately, there are various ways of dealing
with toxic leaders, ranging from the cautious to the courageous.
There are both personal options that individuals can select and
policy options that organizations can adopt to break the hold of
toxic leaders.
Personal options; Personal options all require keeping your

cool as you navigate the choppy seas one invariably encounters
in any effort to confront or capsize a toxic leader.
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 Do your homework. That can mean several things. For

one, investigate the toxic leader‘s history. For another,
consult with trusted colleagues who interact with the same
leader. Seek the advice of the opinion leaders and those
individuals everyone recognizes as wise organizational
owls. You will probably discover that you are not the only
one who sees the leader‘s toxic warts.
 Create a coalition. If you are suffering, most likely others
are experiencing similar problems. Strategize about how
the group will confront the leader and try to structure the
confrontation as constructively as possible. If possible, frame
your concerns in terms of organizational impact, that is, how
the leader‘s decisions and actions have negatively affected
the organization and the people in it.
 Avoid solo confrontations. Confrontations without
witnesses open the possibility for the leader to twist the
encounter into a ―you said/she said scenario. Bringing a
small, but well- regarded, group to a confrontation with
the leader will impress upon him that you are not alone,
that influential others share your concerns, and that this
meeting is completely on the record. Offer to work together
with the leader to improve the situation, but insist upon
benchmarks and timelines for improvements.
 Alerting the media or appropriate regulatory bodies may be
the only remaining way to stop the damage if the board
refuses to act in the face of demonstrable unethical or
criminal practices. This step is fraught with danger and
difficulty. Due diligence is necessary to ensure that the
media and/or regulatory sources you choose to enlist
have a record of unshakeable integrity. And be certain that
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the documentation you provide is accurate and

supportable by supplementary data from other sources.
 Leaving is also an honorable strategy, particularly when
you are convinced either that you and your collaborators
cannot prevail or that the toxic impact is limited solely to
you. Some followers depart when the physical or
psychological impact grows too great to bear. When
leaving is the only way to preserve your integrity and/or
your mental or physical health or that of your family, it‘s
probably time to go. Social, financial and/or political costs
may also figure into the calculus. Remember, martyrdom
is not a necessary part of honor.
Organizational policy options

 Periodic 360 degree reviews of individual leaders.
Confidential reviews of leaders by those with whom they
interact frequently and intimately would go far toward
giving those leaders a clear perspective on their strengths
and limitations.
 Respectable departure options. Many leaders become
overly comfortable with their power and perks. So, it is
probably worthwhile to construct a set of respectable
departure options to ease the leader‘s leave-taking before
toxicity takes serious hold. One such option might be a
transition year after officially stepping down.
 Open and democratic leadership selection processes.
Transparency in the processes designed to identify and
select leaders will help ensure the appointment or election
of leaders with non-toxic backgrounds. Lacking open
procedures, due diligence may be seriously hampered.
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This doesn‘t mean all aspects of the selection committee‘s

work must be conducted in public.
 Constituencies educated to deal with their anxieties.
Educating constituencies to confront their anxieties and
fears is no small task, but an essential one, nonetheless.
This necessitates a long-term strategy that sequential
leaders must insist upon maintaining. Education helps us
understand and cope with the fears and anxieties that
make us vulnerable to the illusions of toxic leaders. It also
tends to liberate us from narrow and stereotypical
thinking.
 Regular accountability forums. When leaders are required
to hold regular town-hall meetings or accountability
forums, there is increased likelihood that they will think
more deeply about the decisions and actions that they
have taken or are considering. When leaders expect to be
asked regularly to explain the thinking behind their
initiatives, they inevitably must become far more
reflective and self-conscious as they engage in their
leadership activities
Conclusion; How to prevent toxic behaviors in the

workplace; Baird Bright man, a behavioral scientist at Harvard
University, suggests a three-pronged approach to preventing
the development of a toxic workplace:
1. Primary prevention
2. Secondary prevention
3. Tertiary prevention
Stopping the growth of toxicity of the workplace is to prevent it

from occurring in the first place (primary prevention).
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Brightman suggests leaders to use 360-degree observer ratings

to detect toxic behaviors. It caters to identifying factors
associated to toxic behaviors than having reference checks or
conducting one to one interview.
The secondary prevention can be done by educating and

coaching the employees at appropriate levels, and also can
identify toxic personality types. Extensive screening and
coaching, may not remove person‘s toxic behavioral tendencies.
Tertiary prevention can be done by soft dismissal or dismissal

process can be as smooth as possible. Leaders ultimately bear
the responsibility of establishing an environment free from
toxic behaviors. Let the employees change to a positive
environment, if the leadership of the organization is the root
cause, employees must be bold enough to address the issue and
seek recourse. Toxicity costs a lot and its indirect costs are
difficult to identify. It destroys individuals, groups and
organizations, even countries. Effective and practicable staffing
and selection policies can help provide structural defenses
against the paradox of toxic leadership, but followers cannot
avoid their personal responsibility for serious reflection and
change.
How to Cleanse a Toxic Workplace

Identify the warning signs; Though little difficult to identify
but some of the direct observable warning signs will be in the
form of offending others down, passive aggressive leadership,
destructive gossip, devious politics, negativity, aggressiveness,
narcissism, lack of credibility, passivity, disorganization, and
the resistance to change. These behaviors—individually or
187
combined—can create a toxic workplace environment. Positive

and Motivating Leadership or supervisors need to take toxicity
in the workplace seriously and need to avert in a very
professional way. Assess the Impact on the employees;
observe closely on the emotional exhaustion, low self- esteem,
and low job satisfaction. Increased intention to quit, decreased
organizational commitment, and increased psychological
distress, replace it with positive performance evaluations,
encouraging work culture, smile and charm while dealing
subordinates can solve the problem of toxicity to certain extent
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Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Leadership Blind Spots
Chapter Eight
Leadership Blind Spots

conceptualizing what is conversational blind spots of a leader’s
the leadership situations related to five types of conversational
blind spots and its related aspects of any organization and what
a leader has to do while facing the same is explained with
research evidences. This chapter was research article years back
written by the author and was well received and cited, and now
converted as anthology of leadership book series. These HR
leadership situations are descriptive about why is it important
for a leader to understand all the practices of improvising
leadership blind spots and also develop various ways to
conquer the leadership blind spots and examine the heuristics
of leaders development practices for leadership development
across the world including India, and bringing in the
conceptual differences in using conversational heuristics
techniques of leadership development on how mindful
leadership allows leaders to achieve professional and personal
success. It also touches the important issues the leader has to
measure, and how HR skills facilitate the leader. The chapter
189
also has various concept diagrams to explain various stages of

leaders learning mindfulness.
Abstract; Leadership Blind Spots means, not or unable to see

beyond his/her vision by a leader. Those who aspire to become
an entrepreneur, a professional in any field, a manager or a
leader who has a vision will have to take the road uphill task.
Anyone aspiring to become a business leader, entrepreneur or
an effective professional needs to be aware of these
conversational blind spots. They usually depend on the quality
of our culture, which depends on the quality of our
relationships, which depends on the quality of our
conversations. Everything happens through conversations.
Most importantly we tend to lose focus on certain blind spots
which occur inadvertently most of the time and at times
supernaturally due to the leaders not sensing it. The blind spots
are five like false assumptions, underestimating emotions, lack
of empathy, making our own meaning, assuming shared
meaning. Any leader need to be alert on the above five blind
spots and need to take guard like having his conscience
questioning before speaking like Do I need to be on guard —
and how?, Can I trust this person?, Where do I belong? Do I fit
in? What do I need to be successful? And how do I create value
with others? This Exploratory study will reveal those
conceptual clarity on the Leadership blind spots and its
psychological implications on the individual and leadership
personality for personal and professional success. This study
will particularly focus on Leadership blind spots.
Key Words; Leadership, Conversation, Blind Spot,

Conversational Intelligence, Leader, Entrepreneurship,
Levels of Blind Spots, Vision
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Introduction; Successful leaders should be an effective

communicator in whatever he communicates and should have
to be very vocal, very purposeful be able pitch their visions,
strategies, products and services to investors, banks, employees,
customers, clients, and partners exactly to the situations.
Unfortunately, too many leaders blow critical meetings and
discover too late they can't speak to influence and fail to
connect. These leaders have communication blind spots or,
more technically speaking, Low Conversational Intelligence in
short blind spot. Conversational Intelligence scientifically is a
level of trust a leader create with others and the quality of
interaction the leaders make according to social scientists.
Psychologically any leader with high conversational
intelligence would activate the prefrontal cortex of an audience
member's brain, a section that enables trust and good judgment.
In contrast a leader with CI (conversational intelligence), on the
other hand, engages the lower cortex, where fear and distrust
reside. Increasing rate of CI (conversational intelligence) often
correlate directly with business successes as well a high
predictor of leadership success. Breakdowns happen when
people talk past each other, not to each other. Once leaders
become aware of their conversational blind spots, they can
boost their C-IQ. Recent scientific experiments and
psychological discoveries asserts that people can learn to
identify what is going wrong in conversations and how to "flip
the switch" in their brains and others' brains to get
communications back on a productive neural path. Here are
three common blind spots and how to prevent them.
Conversational Blind Spots ; usually it occurs like when fear

dominates, the primitive brain takes over, releasing cortisol and
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catecholamine, a hormone that's released during emotional or

physical stress. These chemicals shut down the brain's
prefrontal cortex, or executive functions, which allow for
sophisticated strategies. Instead of responding intelligently and
creatively to investors, banks or customers, a leader could
freeze, coming across as dumb, defensive or unstable for
partnership. The only solution is to acknowledge the fear. The
people they're speaking with will feel that positive neural
connection and cooperate. Not Hearing What Was Really Said.
Leaders need to gracefully confirm what others are saying by
asking discovery questions such as, "Where are you in all this?"
or "How do you feel about the pace of innovation?". Seeing
Around the Corner; a leader need to know that what to and
how to talk as what one talk matter very much psychologically,
the better any person talks the better they feel. Human bodies
crave high, and people become blind to the conversational
dynamics. While anyone is rewarded or appreciated
neurochemicals releases as like it does for physical pain. While
a feeling of rejection starts a "fight, flight" response, releasing
cortisol, shuts down the prefrontal cortex, or executive brain,
letting the amygdala, or lower brain, take over. To compound
conversational challenges, the brain disconnects every 12 to 18
seconds to evaluate and process, meaning we're often paying as
Conversational Blind Spots Psychological Blind Spots

Blind Spots in a
Leader
Bias Blind Spots Attitudinal Blind Spots
much attention to our own thoughts as we are to other people's

words.
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Figure; 1; Blind Spots Areas in a Leader; Concept from

Judith Glacer: Designed by Author Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Five Types of Conversational Blind Spots

Blind Spot #1 The first blind spot involves an assumption that
others see what we see, feel what we feel, and think what we
think.
Blind Spot #2 the failure to realize that fear, trust, and distrust
change how we see and interpret reality, and therefore how we
talk about it.
Blind Spot #3 an inability to stand in each other’s shoes when
we are fearful or upset.
Blind Spot #4 the assumption that we remember what others
say, when we actually remember what we think about what
others say.
Blind Spot #5 the assumption that meaning resides in the
speaker, when in fact it resides in the listener.
Blind Spot 1-Assumption that others see what we see
Blind Spot 2- Failure to realize that fear, trust and

distrust change how we see
Blind Spot 3-Inability to stand in

each other's shoes
Blind Spot 4-Assumption that we remember what

others say
Blind Spot 5-Assumption that meaning resides in the

speaker
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Figure; 2; Conversational Blind Spot in a Leader which

grows in time; Concept; Judit Glaser; Graphic Design
Source; Dr. C. Karthikeyan
As the above graphical display depicts a leader face the
embedded process of; paying attention to and minimizing the
time you "own" the conversational space. When you open the
space for others to contribute you allow them the time to
process new insights that can have a dramatic impact on 'what
comes next' in the conversation. Sharing that space by asking
open- ended discovery questions, to which you don't know the
answers, so you stay curious. (i.e., what influenced your
thinking? What ideas might be valuable for us to discuss? How
might we address this challenge together?). Listening to
connect not judge or reject. When we listen to connect we
connect through our heart, and prefrontal cortex - which also
activates our centers of empathy, openness and receptivity to
others points of view. When we listen to judge, we are listening
to see when we fit our ideas into the conversation, we look for
what is missing in the other person's perspective and we often
'trump them' which creates resistance and 'lock down.' Double-
clicking on what others say to facilitate sharing and discovering
and opening the space for deeper connection and relationship
building. Too often we listen to confirm what we know or
defend what we know. Double-clicking on what others are
saying keeps us in the higher brain, expands our connectivity,
and builds a stronger partnership with others.
Conversational Intelligence & Reality Gaps; A persons or for

this study a leaders blind spots spring from reality gaps.
Everyone’s reality is not the same. Even those in the same room
at the same time will take away different impressions of a
194
particular time together. That is why culture is so important. It

creates the conversational rituals and practices that harmonize
our experiences, create a shared language, and help People
Bridge and connect with others more fully—it creates a shared
reality. Judith E. Glaser is CEO of Benchmark Communications,
Inc. and Chairman of The Creating WE Institute in her newest,
Conversational Intelligence: How Great Leaders Build Trust
and Get Extraordinary Results (Bibliomotion, 2013) states,
―Human beings are the most highly social species on this planet.
When we succeed in connecting deeply with others—heart to
heart and head to head—trust is at its all-time high, and people
work in concert in extraordinary ways. Our words can facilitate
healthy, trusting conversations — or cause others to shut down
with fear, caution and worry. Bad conversations trigger our
distrust network; good conversations trigger our trust network.
As Glaser notes: Unhealthy conversations are at the root of

distrust, deceit, betrayal and avoidance —which leads to lower
productivity and innovation, and ultimately, lower success.‖
When you want to win and subsequently fight hard, you may
go into overdrive as you persuade others to adopt your
point of view.
3 Conversation Levels; Leaders commonly rely on two types of

conversations: telling and selling. When telling, they try to
clearly specify what employees need to do. When selling, they
try to persuade them with reasons for doing it. Employees
may understand ―what‖ to do and even why they should do
it. But they’ll never fully engage unless they’re part of
meaningful conversations that encourage connection, sharing
and discovery.
195
The following table offers a graphic representation of Glaser’s

identified conversation levels: LEVEL I– Transactional; How to
exchange data and information. LEVEL II – Positional; How to
work with power and influence. LEVEL III – Transformational;
How to co-create the future for mutual success. Too often,
people get stuck in Level II conversations because all are
addicted to being right. We realize that: We shape the meanings
our words have on others. We need to validate our words’ true
meanings. Breakdowns occur when others interpret our words
in unanticipated ways. Breakdowns occur when we try to
persuade others that our meanings are the right ones.
Breakthroughs occur when we take time to share and discover.
Breakthroughs occur when we co-create and partner to create a
shared reality.
Level 3-
Transformational
Level 2-
Positional
Level 1-
Transactional
Figure; 3; Leader Conversational Levels; Source; Glacer; Graph

Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Developments in Identifying Blind Spots; Dr. Maynard
Brusman one of the foremost coaches in the United States
utilizes a wide variety of assessments in his work with senior
executives and upper level managers, and is adept at helping
196
his clients both develop higher levels of emotional intelligence

and achieve breakthrough business results. When a leader
expresses at length their bodies release a higher level of reward
hormones, and they feel great. The more they talk, the better
they feel. He asserts; Technical blind spots are easier to
identify and alter: one version is judging new things by an
outdated standard (e.g., ―Why would anyone want a phone
where you can’t feel the keys?‖), another is favoring a discipline
that a leader is familiar with or interested in at the expense of
criteria that their bosses/customers will be using to evaluate
satisfaction (e.g. ―Hey, we put on another terrific sales
conference, didn’t we — what, how did we go over budget by
that much!?‖), and a third is focusing at the wrong depth, often
on trivial details. The people who follow deserve better
leadership over time, and that’s why the best leaders are not just
open to learning, but are eager to learn new tools, new ideas,
and new perspectives that can help improve their effectiveness
and minimize their blind spots.
Psychological blind spots; like the visual blind spots when

looking at the road through car mirrors, every leaders have
psychological blind spots - aspects of personalities that are
hidden from their view. These might be annoying habits like
interrupting or bragging, or they might be deeper fears or
desires that are too threatening to acknowledge. Although it's
generally not pleasant to confront these aspects of ourselves,
doing so can be very useful when it comes to personal growth,
and when it comes to improving relationships with others -
there is undoubtedly something we do that, unbeknownst to us,
drives the significant others, roommates, or coworkers a little
crazy. So how do you know what your blind spots are? One
197
place that blind spots can be found is in strong reactions. An

unusually strong negative or positive reaction or stance may
suggest engagement in a process Freud called reaction formation.
Reaction formation involves unconsciously transforming an
unacceptable or undesirable impulse into its opposite.
Heuristics is a psychological term that describes the mental
shortcuts people use to make decisions or judgments. This
usually involves focusing on one aspect of a complicated issue
to the exclusion of others. Under most circumstances, this is an
elegantly efficient way of handling complex situations and
data, but it can sometimes lead to cognitive biases and
inaccurate assessments outside our awareness. Heuristics are
popularly used in the marketing, leadership and political
arenas for tactics to control and influence people. A more
thoughtful approach will enable leaders to have better choices
and evaluations of people and circumstances. There are several
types of heuristics that leaders often use to save time and
energy when overwhelmed with large amounts of information
that cannot be easily comprehended. Here are the important
ones that any leader needs to be aware of;
Availability
Heuristic
Social Sensitiveness
Proof Heuristic
A Leaders
Heuristics
Affect Adjustment
Heuristic Heuristic
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Figure; 4; Cognitive Bias Development Process in a Leader;

Kinds of Heuristics ; Concept; Dr. Maynard Brusman;
Graphical Concept Source; Dr. C. Karthikeyan
1. Availability heuristic: Availability heuristics occur
when a leader estimate or make a judgment about
something based on how easily to recall relevant
examples from specific circumstances.
2. Representativeness heuristic: The representativeness
heuristic is a form of stereotyping where a leaders makes
judgments and decisions about an event, based on how
similar it is to a prototype, model for example.
3. Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: The anchoring
heuristic influences how leaders intuitively estimate
probabilities.
4. Affect heuristic: The affect heuristic occurs when a leader
perceive a situation to be high benefit and low risk.
5. Social proof: Social proof occurs when a leader overly
reliant on the cues that we receive from our external
environment. This often occurs in socially ambiguous
situations in which we are unsure about how to behave.
We might assume the people around us know what to do
and we’re quick to emulate their behavior so that we can
fit in. Unless we have a mind of our own and strong sense
of self, most of us look to others to guide our actions and
to learn about what’s acceptable and what isn’t
acceptable. We tend to speak in the same jargon and dress
in similar style to our closest friends. We will slow down
our speed if the other cars ahead of us in the highway are
slowing down, even if we don’t know why. Marketers
use social proof to get consumers to trust their products
by getting celebrity endorsements.
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6. Scarcity heuristic: The scarcity heuristic influences us to

believe that the perceived value of an item (or person) is
higher and of better quality if it is rare and difficult to
acquire.
7. Bias blind spot; a leader’s cognitive bias is otherwise a
bias blind spot according to Emily Pronin can give the
understanding that leaders exhibit the bias blind spot like
thinking that a leader himself is less biased than other
people while it may not be the actual fact.
Own Perception
Self-deception
Blind
Self Enhancement
towards self
bias
Judgments as being
rational
Feeling better than others
Figure 4; Bias Blindness Stages; Source; Author; Dr. C.

Karthikeyan
Causes; Bias blind spots may be caused by a variety of other
biases and self-deceptions; Self- enhancement biases may play
a role, in that people are motivated to view themselves in a
positive light. Biases are generally seen as undesirable, so
leaders tend to think of their own perceptions and judgments
200
as being rational, accurate, and free of bias. Psychological Blind

Spots in a Leader; a leader has to innovate and for which leader
must be able to think out of the box—keeping fresh ideas
coming. Taking leadership to the next level and providing
programs that ―go deep‖ means literally digging deeper. For
many leaders tunnel vision for blind spots increases. Becoming
Overcoming
Psychological Blind
Spots
Be Be Be Be Be Be Be
Humble Authentic Asking Open Relating Proactive relaxed
a conscious observer an ongoing process, of course, to create

greater awareness from blind spots are:
Figure; 5; Overcoming Psychological Blind Spots; Concept ; Judith

Glaser; Graphic Display source; Dr. C. Karthikeyan
Be humble: leaders should think others know more than them
and that allows them to be present, actively listen. This opens
new avenues and new possibilities.
Be authentic: Create, build and establish relationships with
people based upon authenticity. Create a space where people
can share openly and freely.
Be asking: Perform a regular pulse check by requesting
feedback and input. Performing an informal evaluation of
performance and results among colleagues and stakeholders
201
has become quite helpful for me. Ask for feedback and listening
to it builds trust and creates stronger relationships.
Be open: I have to step out of myself and set judgments aside to
keep an open mind and be present when people are sharing. I
have to avoid closing down and dismissing the feedback. Know
that what that person is saying has validity and is true for them.
Be relating: Develop a relationship with a peer group, mentor,
coach or some trusted advisor(s) with whom I can open up and
share my feelings, concerns and talk through challenges.
Be proactive: I have to proactively allow others to contribute
and share their wisdom, experience and passion. I have to be
careful not come from a place of expectation. This creates buy-
in and allows contribution.
Be relaxed: Getting into a relaxed alpha state also opens my
mind up to blind spots. There are techniques and tools that can
support the process of getting there and remaining there on a
more consistent basis that may include music, meditation, etc.
This is about getting the ego out of the way for me. In
conclusion, the secret to sustaining innovation and breaking
down that brick wall is discovering and managing blind spots.
Conclusion with Suggestions

8 Ways to Conquer Your Leadership Blind Spots
John C. Maxwell defines a blind spot as "an area in the lives of
people in which they continually do not see themselves or their
situation realistically." Shows that the senior leaders in an
organization are more likely to overrate themselves and to
develop blind spots that can hinder their effectiveness as
leaders.
202
Raise awareness of the top blind spots. Shows the 10 blind

spots that are most risky to personal and organizational success.
The top three are: under-communicating strategic direction and
priorities, poorly communicating expectations, and waiting for
poor performance to improve. Leaders are often surprised
when stakeholders complain that there isn't enough
communication about the business's vision and strategy. There
is a communication gap between what leaders think is enough
and what stakeholders need. Communication also extends to
one- on-one leadership conversations. Leaders often fail to see
the harm that is done to the organization when they
consistently avoid having the difficult conversation with a non-
performer, hoping the issue will resolve itself.
Don't hire in your own image. , Guy Kawasaki includes one of

the most pervasive blind spots that leaders often have: Hiring
people who are like them instead of hiring individuals who
have complementary skills. Hiring people who are similar
results in organizational weaknesses. As Kawasaki puts it, "You
need to balance off all the talents in a company."
Establishing a peer coaching arrangement. Every leader can

benefit from peer coaching with leaders in other organizations.
As a business owner, consider peer coaching with a
noncompeting business that's the same size. Les McKeown
says, "Most organizational blind spots are size- related, not
industry-specific. In other words, your blind spots will have
more in common with other businesses of a similar size and age
than they will with other businesses in the same industry."
Examining the past history. To gain insight into behaviors that

may not serve well, think back on past successes and failures as
203
a leader. This kind of introspective inventory can yield some

powerful insights.
Understanding habits. Blind spots are not necessarily

weaknesses—they can also be habits or instinctive
reactions to situations.
Placing a high priority on relational skills; John C. Maxwell
states a simple, but powerful truth: People can usually trace
their successes and failures to relationships in their lives. Every
time something good or something difficult has happened to
you, you can most likely point it back to some relationship you
had. Studies show that only 15 percent of a person's success is
determined by job knowledge and technical skills, and 85
percent is determined by an individual's attitude and ability to
relate to other people. As Maxwell observes, many leaders have
big relational blind spots.
Consider the downside of your strengths. It's a known fact that

our gifts, taken to the extreme, can be liabilities. For example,
one of your strengths might be that you are prudent in your
decision-making. But what you view as caution, taken to the
extreme, might result in fear of risk taking. In the long run, this
can work against you. You may pride yourself in being a
visionary, but taken to the extreme, you may bounce off in too
many directions, frustrating others on the team by switching
gears too often. List all your strengths, and reflect on how they
manifest themselves in your leadership style. If you need help
in this area, work with a mentor or coach. Consider asking your
constituents for feedback. We rise as a leader when we have the
courage to ask, "How are my actions affecting performance?"
The most critical part of avoiding the blind spot is to recognize
that even the most objective among us has one. Above all,
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―People seem to have no idea how biased they are. Whether a

good decision-maker or a bad one, everyone thinks that they are
less biased than their peers, said Carey Morewedge, associate
professor of marketing at Boston University. This susceptibility
to the bias blind spot appears to be pervasive, and is unrelated
to people’s intelligence, self-esteem, and actual ability to make
unbiased judgments and decisions. They also found that people
with a high bias blind spot are those most likely to ignore the
advice of peers or experts, and are least likely to learn from de-
biasing training that could improve the quality of their
decisions. Our research found that the extent to which one is
blind to her own bias has important consequences for the
quality of decision-making. People more prone to think they are
less biased than others are less accurate at evaluating their
abilities relative to the abilities of others, they listen less to
others’ advice, and are less likely to learn from training that
would help them make less biased judgments.
Improving Conversations; Leaders can take several basic steps

to enhance the quality of your conversations:
 Slow down. A conversation is not a race.

 Breathe deeply. Take appropriate pauses. Allow time to
process conversations.
 Check your emotions.
 Ask discovery questions.
 Validate shared goals and meanings.
If you’re like many leaders, you tend to march forward at a

breakneck pace to achieve goals and objectives — a pattern that
prevents you from seeing the impact your conversations have
on others. You may forget that your words are rarely neutral
205
and have histories informed by years of use. Every experience

you have adds a new layer of meaning to your conversations.
It’s crucial to work on managing any underlying feelings of
rejection and protection. Only then can you harness your ability
to reach out to others and achieve mutual understanding.
Buddhist monk Matthieu Ricard once said that our mind can
either be our best friend or our worst enemy, depending on
how we use it. When we maintain a steady awareness of our
potential blind spots and limited belief systems, we
strengthen our alliance with our mental faculty and we’ll find
it easier to align with its fundamental purpose, which is to
create a life of boundless joy, love and possibilities.
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Copyright@ Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan Leader Communication Paradox
Chapter Nine
Leader Communication Paradox

conceptualizing what is leader communication paradox in a
the leadership situations related to leaders’ communication
aspects of any organization and what a leader has to do while
facing the same is explained with research evidences. This
chapter was research article years back written by the author
and was well received and cited, and now converted as
anthology of leadership book series. These HR leadership
situations are descriptive about why is it important for a leader
to understand all the practices of effective communication
practices for leadership development across the world
using indispensable part of communicating techniques of
leadership development on how verification of existence of
leader communication paradox of leadership allows leaders to
achieve professional and personal success. It also touches the
important issues the leader has to measure, and how HR skills
facilitate the leader. The chapter also has various concept
diagrams to explain various stages of leaders learning the most
207
indispensable part of communication and concludes with

various suggestions for improving the same.
Abstract
In this fast and furious world of lifelessness, with so much of
sensory and cognitive overload, not many leaders or is it
possible for the leaders to effectively communicate. The
paradox is that leaders communicate exactly what is expect out
of leader or to hear from a leader is true. The paradox nextly is
on counterintuitive effect due to challenges in interacting
productively and meaningfully in network and satellite
communication. The paradox due to digitalization, android
application and automated online personal assistant, are
leaders excessively over reliant on quick, cheap, and easy
means of "staying connected" which is eroding their effective
communication skills.
Key Words; Communication; Leader; Effectiveness; Listening;

Paradox; Message, Messenger; Success;
Introduction
Any great leader is remembered mostly because he is someone
considered to be a great orator or powerful public speaker.
Leadership communication research lists out public speaking
skills tops the list. The reason the leader needs to have these
skills are he needs to influence various groups with different
characteristics, and most should reach with the communication
to the expectations of the public or people they deal with. The
key to becoming a skillful communicator is rarely found in what
has been taught in the world of academia. It’s the more subtle
elements of communication rarely taught in the classroom (the
208
elements that focus on others), which leaders desperately need

to learn. It is the ability to develop a keen external awareness
that separates the truly great communicators from those who
muddle through their interactions with others. Examine the
world's greatest leaders and you'll find them all to be
exceptional communicators. They might talk about their ideas,
but they do so in a way which also speaks to your emotions and
your aspirations. They realize if their message doesn't take deep
root with the audience then it likely won't be understood, much
less championed. No one ever became a great leader without
first becoming a great communicator. Great leaders connect
with people on an emotional level every time they speak. Their
words inspire others to achieve more than they ever thought
possible. Great communicators are intentional about it, and
there are 10 secrets they rely on to deliver a powerful message.
Put these secrets to work in your communication and watch
your influence soar.
What does the Paradox mean (for this study) is; the harmful
Paradox- While Communicating in routine tasks. The Counter
Productive Paradox kills a sale or escalation of anger to another
person. The Killer Paradox- Damages Relationship once for all.
The graphical display below signifies all the three kinds as 3
ways Paradox.
209
The Harmful
Paradox
3 WAY
PARADOXES
The Counter The Killer

Productive Paradox
Paradox
Figure 1; The 3 way Paradox; Conceived and Adapted Graphic

Display by Author; Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan, (concept orientation;
Geoffrey Tumlin)
The harmful Paradox; While Communicating in routine tasks.
The Counter Productive Paradox Kills a sale or escalation of
anger to another person. The Killer Paradox- Damages
Relationship once for all. Are leaders realizing that the speed of
communication counteract on the quality of communication
effectiveness. Is digital and lightning speed steamrolls
thoughtfulness away from the crux of the communication?
Does a Leader‘s self-expression brings in restraint in their
communication. Are the leader‘s communication errors and
misunderstandings escalating due to inadvertence as
210
concentration suffers due to sensory overloads. Is ineffective

communication of leader intervene as a negative impact on
relationships that leaders suffer is still a paradox.
Communication Communication
Skill Paradox
Speaking
Ability to Shut Up
Eloquently/Effectively
Finding the right

Time to Speak TIME to
Communicate with
Lips and Time to
Communicate with
EARS
Talking at Length and
Continuously
When and How to
Show
Restraint
Still Unknown
Paradoxes
Figure 2; the Differentiating Skill/Paradox Tabulator; Source

Conceived and Adapted; Author Prof Dr. C. Karthikeyan
But still not without paradoxes, which still remains as mystery

for many leaders despite numerous research being done
worldwide. The most common and yet neglected paradoxes
are; Skill- Speaking eloquently – Paradox-Ability to shut up and
Listen when required. The best leaders can do both of these
well. Skill – Time to Speak, Time to Share ideas and time to
value others ideas- Paradox-Finding the time to communicate
with lips and time to communicate with ears. Skill- Talking
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Continuously and replying immediately to every question or

mail. Paradox- When and how to show restraint.
To explore the paradox in Leader Communication

Communication be it for anyone including leaders is still a huge
research going on in different parts of the world. It is still a
paradox for some, and a huge opportunity for some to
becoming great communicators. Effective communication is an
essential component of professional success whether it is at the
interpersonal, inter-group, intra-group, organizational, or
external level. The best communicators are great listeners and
astute in their observations. Great communicators are skilled at
reading a person/group by sensing the moods, dynamics,
attitudes, values and concerns of those being communicated
with. Not only do they read their environment well, but they
possess the uncanny ability to adapt their messaging to said
environment without missing a beat. The message is not about
the messenger; it has nothing to do with messenger; it is
however 100% about meeting the requirements of the
communicated matter, and definitely a leader is the one who
can do it. This article will explore the leaders Communication
Paradox and its mysterious aspects as why communicating is a
very indispensable for success of a leader, in whatever level he
or she is. The answer everyone can reach the point where
interactions with others consistently use the following ten
principles:
1. Speak not with a forked tongue: In most cases, people just

won't open up to those they don't trust. When people have
a sense a leader is worthy of their trust they will invest
time and take risks in ways they never would if their
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leader had a reputation built upon poor character or lack

of integrity.
2. Get personal: Stop issuing corporate communications and
begin having organizational conversations - think dialog
not monologue. Here's the thing - the more personal and
engaging the conversation is the more effective it will be.
There is great truth in the following axiom: "people don't
care how much you know until they know how much you
care."
Five Communication Skills That Make Good Leaders

Great
Five Communication Skills that Make Good Leaders Great
Crystal
Interpreting Listening Clear
Writing Skills
Body Video Skills Carefully Verbal
Language Communic
ation
Figure; 1; the Vital Five Communication Skill for New Age

Leaders; Source; Author Dr. C. Karthikeyan
1. Interpreting Body Language; Glenn Wilson writes:
―Where body language conflicts with the words that are
being said, the body language will usually be the more
‗truthful‘ in the sense of revealing true feelings.‖ That‘s
why the most successful leaders are always paying
attention to people‘s unseen language and nonverbal cues.
213
2. Video Skills; as a leader in today's visual-centric world

having skills when it comes to video is paramount, how
you present yourself in video form and the quality of the
video itself.
3. Listening carefully; in our modern, global society, the
skill of listening because skillful listening enables you to
catch details that others miss. Many epiphanies and
business solutions have been reached thanks to a good
listener‘s ability to pick up on a hidden gem. One excellent
way to immediately improve your listening ability is to
practice empathetic listening.
4. Crystal Clear Verbal Communication; the goal of
communication is clarity, no rule that says a conversation
needs to be purely improvised, think about objections
people may have toward your opinions or solutions, and
prepare convincing answers to the objections. Preparation
always pays off.
5. Writing Skills; It‘s true that smart executives and
entrepreneurs can use agencies or hire freelancers who
specialize in the complete production process of video &
animation for fairly routine projects like speeches and
presentations.
Objective (ii) to analyze the latest techniques of Effective

Communicating Leaders
Skip Weisman, a leadership and workplace communication
expert tells that a leader needs to have Self-communication
skills, which increases the leader‘s self-esteem and self –
confidence. The next is private, one-on-one communication
skills which make him being prompt, direct and respectful, and
finally he says a leader should also possess group or public
214
communications skills as this influences the public as a leader

and he can be influential which is very vital for successful
leadership. Various research studies and in this study after
verifying the various literature research, in a nutshell, there are
five essential communication practices that is required for a
leader which is given as a graphical display.
5 essential communication practices of effective leaders
Mind the
Say-do gap
Listen with Make the

Your eyes as Complex
well as ears 5 Essential Simple
Communication
Principles
Find Your
Be Visible
Own Voice
Figure; 2; the Vital 5 Communication Principles of a Leader;

1. Mind the say-do gap. All about trust, which is the bedrock
of effective leadership. If actions don't align with words,
there's trouble. And it can turn into big trouble if not
corrected swiftly and genuinely. Since it‘s often difficult to
see the say-do it's better to say nothing or delay
215
communication until you're certain that your actions will

ring true.
2. Make the complex simple. Your employees and
customers are being bombarded 24/7 by information,
making it hard for them to hear you. Simplicity has never
been more powerful or necessary. Effective leaders distill
complex thoughts and strategies into simple, memorable
terms that colleagues and customers can grasp and act
upon. If you're having trouble distilling something to its
essence, it may be that you don't understand it. So get clear
and look out for technical jargon and business speak,
which add complexity. Say what you mean in as few words
as possible.
3. Find your own voice. Often, executives will opt for the
sanitized "corporate voice" instead of their own because
they think the former is more eloquent; more appropriate.
This is not to say that correct grammar and use of
language aren't important -- strong leaders know how to
string a sentence together. But don't fixate on eloquence;
concentrate on being distinct and real. People want real.
People respect real. People follow real. Don't disguise who
you are. Be genuine, and people will respect you for it.
4. Be visible. Visibility is about letting your key
stakeholders people are often burned out and need to feel
a personal connection to you and the work that you
believe in. Do a "calendar test" to make sure you're
allocating time regularly to be out on the floor, in the
factory, in the call center, in the lab, in the store. Show your
people that you're engaged and care about them and their
work.
216
5. Listen with your eyes as well as your ears. Stop, look and
listen. Remember that effective communication is two-
way. Good leaders know how to ask good questions, and
then listen with both their eyes and ears. It's easy to be so
focused on getting your message out -- or persuading
others -- that you don't tune in to what you see and hear.
The No-
Tailgating
The Pasta- Principle The
Sauce Conviction
Principle Principle
The The
Sorcese Curiosity
Principle Principle
The Head McGowan's 7

The
Line Ps of
Draper
Principle Communicating
Principle
a Message
Figure 3; The 7P Umbrella of Leader Conveying a Message;

Graph Source; By Dr. C. Karthikeyan; Concept Source;
McGowen‘s Seven Principle
1. The Headline Principle. Start your remarks with your

best material. As we say in journalism, don‘t bury the lead.
One common mistake: agenda setting. Outlining what
217
you‘re going to say before you say it will set your audience
up for boredom.
2. The Scorcese Principle. Paint vivid verbal pictures that
show the story you want to convey. McGowan compares
this to the scene in the Scorcese movie ―Good fellas, ‖
where a prisoner is slicing a garlic clove with a razor
blade, to illustrate the gourmet lifestyle the criminals
enjoyed while incarcerated.
3. The Pasta-Sauce Principle. Cook down your message and
make it as rich and brief as possible. McGowan cites
research that shows that attention wavers after 18
minutes, adding that most people lose focus after five.
4. The No-Tailgating Principle. Don‘t talk too fast. If you
need to pause, you don‘t want to collide with your own
words. People who rush through their remarks wind up
using filler like
5. The Conviction Principle. Stay away from corporate
jargon. Combat fear with preparation. McGowan
describes coaching a beauty company executive who was
planning to start a sales force presentation by saying,
6. The Curiosity Principle. Learning to be a great listener
can be as important as making an effective speech. If you
can show how interested and curious you are, you will
stand out from your competitors.
7. The Draper Principle. ―If you don‘t like what‘s being said,
change the conversation. Mastering this tactic will help
you in job and media interviews, office meetings and
panel discussions, especially if you‘re the moderator.
218
Recent developments in leadership Communication.

Dianna Booher, one of the most recognized business
communication gurus, which clearly calls out the parameters of
effective business communication. She offers a nine-point
checklist for success in the art of communication and
persuasion.
Lead with
Be
Empathy
Collaborative
before your
Rather than a
Open
Monologue
perspective
Aim to
Capitalize on Simplify
Emotion as Rather than
well Art of inject
As logic Communication complexity
and Persuasion
Tend toward Deliver with

Specifics Tact and
rather than avoid
generalization insensitivity
Position
Consider the
future
Listener
Potential
perspective
instead of
rather than the
achievements
presenter
alone
Figure; 4; The Nine Wheel Check List for Leader

Communication and Persuasion; Graph Source; Dr. C.
Karthikeyan ; Concept Source; Dianna Booher 9 point
checklist
219
1. Generate trust rather than distrust. Effective

communication requires trust in you, your message and
your delivery. We tend to trust people that we think are
like us, or we have social proof that others trust, or we feel
reciprocal trust from the sender. People who are
optimistic, confident, and demonstrate competence
generate trust. Are you one of these?
2. Be collaborative rather than present a monologue.
Collaborating for influence has become a fundamental
leadership skill. Be known for the questions you ask – not
the answers you give. Statements imply that you intend to
control the interaction, whereas questions imply that other
input has value to arriving at a mutually beneficial
decision.
3. Aim to simplify rather than inject complexity. Simplicity
leads to focus, which produces clarity of purpose. People
distrust what they don‘t understand, what they perceive
as doublespeak, or things made unnecessarily complex.
Influencing people to change their mind or actions
requires building an intuitive simple path to your answer.
4. Deliver with tact and avoid insensitivity. Some word
choices turn people off because they are tasteless, tactless,
or pompous. Phrase your communication to avoid biases
that might
5. Create negative reactions. Consider using other authority
figures or quotes to deliver a more persuasive message
while eliminating any sensitive implications.
6. Position future potential instead of achievements alone.
The allure of potential is normally greater than today‘s
actual achievements. This is especially true for career
advancement, motivation, and the power of systems. For
220
customers and clients, let them have it both ways.

Consider what you can package as your own untapped
potential.
7. Consider the listener perspective rather than the
presenter. Listeners tend to average all the pieces of
information they hear and walk away with a single
impression. More is not always better, so reduce the length
of presentations and speeches. Perceptions are more
important than reality. Avoid the over-helpfulness
syndrome.
8. Tend toward specifics rather than generalizations. Many
executive speeches miss the mark because they aim for the
general constituency and hit no one. People need to know
how a message relates to them personally, not just what
has to be done and why. Your challenge is to make the
future seem attainable and applicable to each listener.
9. Capitalize on emotions as well as logic. Emotion often
overrides logic, but logic rarely overrides emotion. For
many listeners, a logical explanation merely justifies and
supports an emotional decision that has already been
made. Recognize and calm first any emotional reactions of
fear. Engage multiple senses to reach a listener‘s emotion.
10. Lead with empathy before your own perspective.
Empathy starts with active listening to what‘s being said
and what‘s not being said. Listen for the gaps and
distortion between perception and reality, and then focus
on closing these gaps before any persuasion to your own
perspective is attempted. Let others help you listen, and
tune your response.
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The vital 9 Steps for effective listening; the most

indispensable part of communicating; In today's high-tech,
high-speed, high-stress world, communication is more
important than ever, yet we seem to devote less and less time to
really listening to one another. Genuine listening has become a
rare gift—the gift of time. It helps build relationships, solve
problems, ensure understanding, resolve conflicts, and
improve accuracy. At work, effective listening means fewer
errors and less wasted time. At home, it helps develop
resourceful, self-reliant kids who can solve their own problems.
Listening builds friendships and careers. It saves money and
marriages. Here are 10 tips to help you develop effective
listening skills.
Face the speaker

And maintain
Give Be
eye contact
Regular Attentive and
feedback relaxed
Try to feel Keep an

What the speaker Open mind
is feeling Effective
Listening
Ask Questions Picture what

Only to ensure The speaker
understanding speaks
Wait for Don't
Speaker to interrupt and
Pause to ask don’t impose
Clarifying solutions
Questions
Figure; 5; The Vital 9 steps of Effective Listening; Source; Dr.

C. Karthikeyan Step
222
Step 1: Face the speaker and maintain eye contact.

Step 2: Be attentive, but relaxed.
Step 3: Keep an open mind.
Step 4: Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker
is saying.
Step 5: Don't interrupt and don't impose your "solutions."
Step 6: Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying
questions.
Step 7: Ask questions only to ensure understanding.
Step 8: Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.
Step 9: Give the speaker regular feedback.
Leader Communication Paradox
The 7 Challenges Successful Leaders Overcome:
Leaders
Know their
They are
The use its Audience
Experts in
My Fault, I
Body
am sorry
Language
Challenges to They are

They Have
Overcome Hones
Ears
For Success
They Speak They are

to Group As Authentic
Individuals
They Speak
With
Authority
Figure 6; Leadership Qualities for Success among People;

Effective Communicating Style; Graph; Source; Dr. C.
Karthikeyan
223
1. They Know Their Audience

Great communicators don‘t worry about sounding important,
showing off their expertise, or boosting their own egos. Instead,
they think about what people need to hear, and how they can
deliver this message so that people will be able to hear it. This
doesn‘t mean that leaders tell people what they want to hear.
Quite the opposite—they tell people what‘s important for them
to know, even if it‘s bad news.
2. They Are Experts in Body Language

Great communicators are constantly tracking people‘s reactions
to their message. They are quick to pick up on cues like facial
expressions and body language because they know this is the
only feedback many people will give them. Great
communicators use this expertise to tailor their message on the
fly and adjust their communication style as needed.
3. They Are Honest

The best leaders know that for communication to be effective it
has to be real. They can‘t have people parsing every word trying
to separate fact from spin. When great communicators can‘t
share certain information, they come right out and say it
because makeshift, half-truth answers breed distrust and
anxiety. In good times and bad, honesty builds trust.
4. They Are Authentic

Great communicators don‘t try to be someone they‘re not just
because they‘ve stepped behind a podium. There‘s a reason
Mark Zuckerberg presented Facebook to investors in a hoodie
and jeans. Great leaders know that when they stay true to who
224
they are, people gravitate to their message. They also know the
opposite happens when leaders put on an act.
5. They Speak With Authority

Great communicators don‘t try to cover their backs by being
ambiguous, wishy-washy, or unassertive. Instead, they stick
their necks out and speak very directly about how things are
and how they need to be.
6. They Speak To Groups as Individuals

Leaders rarely have the luxury of speaking to one person at a
time. Whether it‘s a huddle around a conference table or an
overflowing auditorium, great leaders know how to work the
room and make every single person feel as if he or she is being
spoken to directly.
7. They Have Ears (And They Use Them)

Great leaders know that communication is a two-way street and
what they hear is often more important than what they say.
When someone else is speaking, great communicators’ aren‘t
thinking ahead and planning what they‘ll say next. Instead,
they‘re actively listening, fully focused on understanding the
other person‘s perspective.
8. They Use Phrases Like 'It’s My Fault,' 'I Was Wrong,'

and 'I’m Sorry'
When great leaders make a mistake, they admit it right away.
They don‘t wait for someone else to find and point out their
blunder. They model accountability for their words and actions,
even when they could have easily ―gotten away‖ with the
225
mistake. And they do it matter-of-factly, without drama or

false humility.
9. They Solicit Feedback

The best communicators never assume that the message people
heard is the exact same one they intended to deliver. They check
in to verify that their message was understood correctly, and, if
it was not, they don‘t blame the audience. Instead, they change
things up and try again.
10. They’re Proactive

Leaders with the best communication skills don‘t waste time
playing catch-up. They‘re quick to head off the rumor mill by
sharing bad news in a timely manner. They also give clear,
concise goals and directions so people don‘t waste their time
heading in the wrong direction.
11. Bringing It All Together; Great communicators stand

out from the crowd. They‘re honest. They‘re authentic.
They listen. They excel in communication because they
value it, and that‘s the critical first step to becoming a great
leader.
Recent research studies on the Leadership Blind Spots:

Mumby (2007, p. 3290) finds that ―organizational communication
scholars study the dynamic relationships between
communication processes and human organizing.‖ He also
states scholars always had an interest in leadership, since it is
so heavily implicated in many aspects of organizing. This was
reflected in the post positivist and highly influential work of
Charles Redding(Redding, 1985), found that the organizational
226
communication audit sponsored by the International

Communication Association in the 1970s (Goldhaber & Rogers,
1979), and in the work of Fred Jablin (1979), particularly in his
attention to superior–subordinate communication, and
subsequently continued in work by many of his students.
Mumby (2007, p. 3293) stated that communication scholars
interested in leadership have increasingly tended to see it ―as
a communicative, interaction-based phenomenon that is more
widely distributed in organizational life‖.Mumby (2007, p.
3293) Such a view is consistent with the growing interest in
social constructionist perspectives within the field (Fairhurst &
Grant, 2010; Tourish & Barge, 2010). Fairhurst (2007) and on
process perspectives that take communication as a defining
aspect of leadership practice (Tourish, 2014). These approaches
challenge some of the conventional theorizing on leadership,
including charismatic and transformational models, where a
transmissional rather than relational view of communication
has been commonly employed. Fairhurst and Connaughton
(2014, p. 8) highlight what they term ―communication value
commitments‖ that underpin much of this emergent
approach:Banks (2008, p. 11) puts it: ―Conventionally, leaders
show the way, are positioned in the vanguard, guide and direct,
innovate, and have a vision for change and make it come to
actuality. Followers on the other hand conventionally track the
leader from behind, obey and report, implement innovations
and accept leaders’ vision for change.‖ Visionary leadership is
regarded as powerful, exciting, and necessary, with leaders
acting as a force for good whose efforts almost invariably
produce positive outcomes.
227
Collinson (2012) asserts leadership is studied in terms of how

such leaders influence others rather than in terms of the
relational processes suggested by Fairhurst and Connaughton
(2014). Langley & Tsoukas (2010) feels in communication
terms, this view is best captured by the influential work of what
has become known as the Montreal School, which has
significant implications for the study of leadership. Cooren,
Taylor, and Van Every (2006, pp. 2–3) express it: Consistent
with this view, some communication theorists have suggested
that we replace the notion of organization as a single entity by
one in which it is constituted ―by its emergence as an actor in
the texts of the people for whom it is a present interpreted
reality‖ Robichaud, Girous, & Taylor( 2004, p. 630) Interlocking
patterns of communication can therefore be viewed as the
driving force behind many organizational phenomena,
including leadership. In line with this, the recognition that
sense making, agency, and the processes whereby co-
orientation between organizational actors is mediated through
language means to acknowledge that organizing is ―an act of
juggling between co-evolutionary loops of discursive
phenomena‖ Guney (2006, p. 34) asserts on the metaphor of
―juggling‖ suggests tension, including between leaders and
followers, and an omnipresent prospect of breakdown.
Organizations therefore struggle to create shared meanings
between organizational actors. What has been termed the
―communicative constitution of organization?
McPhee & Iverson( 2009, p. 49) finds that communicative

constitution of leadership view, emerges through the
interaction of organizational actors and has a contested, fluid
meaning for all of them, in a given social situation for
228
determinate amount of time. Fairhurst (2007) Fairhurst &

Grant, 2010; Smircich & Morgan, 1982 finds in contrast to
traditional approaches, leadership is not viewed as a discrete
phenomenon with easily observable causal relationships,
inherently powerful and charismatic leaders, measurable
outcomes, and clear demarcations between categories of
meaning and behavior. Barge’s (2014) notes that in
contradistinction to the transmissional view of leadership often
depicted in the literature, what he describes as ―conversational
language‖ became of first-order importance. This dialogic
perspective is inherently processual in nature and emphasizes
how the behavior of leaders is co-constructed in the course of
interaction between them and those who might be depicted as
followers.
Varey( 2006, p. 191) finds that the reputations of powerful

leaders, particularly CEOs, emerge as a phenomenon that is co-
produced and co-reproduced (within certain limits) by the
discursive interactions between organizational actors (Sinha,
Inkson, & Barker, 2012). This perspective draws attention to
what has been described as ―the dance between leaders and led
and its language of connectedness, temporalness, and
embeddedness‖ (Fairhurst, 2007, p. 24). Fairhurst (2007, p. 7)
found power relations become standardized discourses that
frame and influence the micro-interactions in which we engage.
This influences the theorization and practice of leadership. For
example, ―Discourses‖ that assume leader power has an
uncontested legitimacy within business organizations are
reflected in mainstream theorizing on transformational
leadership, where the legitimacy of leader action is typically
taken for granted. It is also reflected in leader action and their
229
micro-talk, when, as one instance, opposition to change

initiatives initiated by a leader are seen as resistance to be
overcome rather than useful feedback. Nicotera (2013) finds
how it can be said that organizations are communicatively
constituted, argues that what is constituted is ―(a) the
collectivity, (b) the social significance of the collectivity as an
entity whose interests are represented in individual and
collective activity, and (c) the distinct entitative being that
transcends and eclipses any individual and the collective itself
as it is attributed both identity and authority‖ (p. 67). Tourish
(2014) argues, is therefore a communicative process whereby
agents claim entitative status for emergent social structures.
Moreover, without such claims being made, negotiated, and
formalized, there would be no overarching organizational
entity within which leaders emerge from leadership processes.
Such processes are both discursive and material, in that the
tangible architecture and artefacts that we see in organizations
are also employed to bolster entitative claims (Ashcraft, Kuhn,
& Cooren, 2009). Ropo, Sauer, and Salovaara (2013, p. 379) have
argued, ―places and spaces construct and perform leadership, ‖
albeit in interaction with the nonmaterial. This co-constructive
complicity is manifest every time they follow instructions,
embrace organizational rituals, or acknowledge the primacy of
formal leaders. Leadership is therefore a first-order means
whereby the entitative claims of organizational actors are both
disputed and enacted and by which their sense of agency is
enabled and constrained.
Tourish & Pinnington, (2002). Upward communication has

occurred, it has tended to reflect this orientation. This is perhaps
consistent with the transmissional view of communication
230
endemic to transformational models discussed above. An

earlier and influential review of the literature in the area noted
that ―communication upward from subordinate to superior is
reported to take four primary forms: (a) information about the
subordinate himself/ herself, (b) information about coworkers
and their problems, (c) information about organizational
practices and policies, and (d) information about what needs to
be done and how it can be done‖. Zoller and Fairhurst (2007, p.
1332) note, ―Writers in the managerial tradition often address
how leaders can deal effectively with employee dissent, from
shutting down ‗illegitimate‘ forms of dissent to encouraging
employee voice in the interest of improved decision making.‖
For example, research has found that ―managers view
employees who engage in more challenging forms of voice as
worse performers and endorse their ideas less than those who
engage in supportive forms of voice‖ (Burris, 2012, p. 851).
Collinson (2005, p. 1435) has described as the ―deep-seated
asymmetrical power relations of leadership dynamics . . . From
this perspective, control and resistance are viewed as mutually
reinforcing, ambiguous, potentially contradictory processes.
Followers’ resistance is one such unintended outcome. In its
various forms, dissent constitutes a crucially important feature
of leadership dialectics, requiring detailed examination by
researchers.‖
Weick (2007, p. 281) has argued that: ―To treat leading and
following as simultaneous is to redistribute knowing and
doubting more widely, to expect ignorance and fallibility to be
similarly distributed, and to expect that knowledge is what
happens between heads rather than inside a single leader‘s
head.‖ Such approaches seek to embed accounts of leadership,
231
including those that attempt to ascribe causality, in deeper

process studies of preceding and succeeding events, mediated
through linguistic and nonlinguistic artefacts. (Mumby, 2001,
p. 601). Communication perspectives acknowledge the potency
of leader agency, but also take fuller account of the agency of
other organizational actors and the degree to which this agency
is complicit in the construction of leader agency and action.
Greater attention is therefore placed on the positive value of
dissent and resistance and on the notion of followers as
knowledgeable and proactive agents with multiple prospects
for action and deep vestiges of power at their disposal (Tourish
& Robson, 2006).
Gergen (2010, p. 57) has characterized as ―turbulent streams or

conversational flows.‖ Once leadership is conceived in these
terms, it ceases to be a discrete ―event,‖ an observable
interaction within clearly bounded organizational structures or
a unidirectional flow of influence in which A has a causal
impact on B. Rather, it emerges as a communicatively
organized, fluid process of co-orientation and co-construction
between myriad organizational actors, whose essence varies of
necessity between each occasion of its occurrence. It is therefore
argued that there is no essence of leadership waiting to be
discovered and then summarized in formal definitions or lists
of competencies and desired behaviors torn from particular
social, organizational, and temporal contexts
Ford & Harding ( 2011) It follows that discursive closure—that

is, seeking to achieve a finished definition of leadership and
how it works to which all will unquestioningly subscribe and
which will apply in multiple contexts—is neither a desirable nor
an attainable outcome of leadership practice or of leadership
232
theorizing. Fairhurst’s (2001) discussion of LMX identified 91

studies within the tradition that had an explicitly
communication focus, and more such studies have since been
conducted. A key aspect of LMX was its recognition that leaders
had different types of relationships with each follower
(Dulebohn, Bommer, Liden, Brouer, & Ferris, 2012). Fairhurst
(2001, p. 419) notes: ―More than most leadership theories, LMX
has been very concerned with relationship development.‖ The
theory therefore also highlights how followers influence
leaders, a departure from many approaches, some of which
remain popular, that stress leader agency and pay minimal if
any attention to that of other organizational actors.
Sheer (2015) summarizes this in terms of in-group and out-

group formation. Those whom the leader regards in a favorable
light form an in-group while those who have a lower quality of
LMX form an out-group. Through these varied dynamics a
process of co-construction is engaged during which leaders and
followers socially construct their respective identities. This
approach is consistent with the broader tradition of social
exchange theory in social psychology. Conversations and
language games are thus essential to how such relationships are
enacted and have been studied with particular care in a range
of qualitative LMX work in the past (e.g., Fairhurst & Hamlett,
2003). Habermas’s (1984, 1987) notion of communicative action is
particularly pertinent for this discussion. Central to this is the
idea of the ideal speech situation. This puts a particular stress
on how validity claims are raised and the degree to which they
may be challenged. All ―speech acts invite a listener to accept a
person‘s authority to raise issues, put trust in the accuracy of
the speaker‘s content, and have some conception of what the
233
speaker hopes to achieve by it. It also follows that people have

the right to query such claims. Griffin, Shaw, & Stacey, (1998);
Anderson, (1999) ; Hernes, (2014) states that systems are
inherently hard to predict, although prediction remains one of
the key objectives of most positivist approaches to social
science. In contrast, complexity theories focus on the
nonlinearity of organizational processes, the potentially infinite
number of variables at play, and the porous boundaries of
organizations, which further confuses the challenge of
delineating definite causal relationships within clearly defined
social systems.
Czarniawska, (2013); Morel & Ramanujam, (1999) constraining

and enabling structures exist, Osborn, Hunt, and Jauch (2002,
p. 823) argue that ―Each time an agent interacts with another,
the agent is free to follow, ignore or slightly alter the
institutional arrangement. Allen & Boulton, (2011) found
organization faces a dynamic and unpredictable environment,
the feedback is nonlinear. Small changes could have very large
consequences (the butterfly effect) for subsequent operations.‖
The result is uncertainty about such issues as how systems can
behave collectively when they are composed of unpredictable
parts; how any system interacts with others; difficulty in
delineating the environment in which a system finds itself; and
any attempt to describe how elements of the system change
over time.
Clifton, (2012). Habermas would acknowledge that

disagreement inevitably results from such debate, but then
assumes that it will be mediated constructively through the
normal processes of human communication.
234
Fryer (2011, pp. 31, 32) asserts that such leadership ―would
include active processes for individual and collective self-
determination, critical self-reflection and associated self-
transformation . . . the status of a leader should not be taken for
granted . . . Habermasian ideal speech offers more than a
framework for organizational decision-making; it also offers a
constitutional procedure by which a leader‘s right to occupy
their roles needs to be justified.‖ The implication is that
followers should be able to challenge, and perhaps even
disobey, the commandments of their leaders. Tourish (2014)
argues that some form of domination—among much else—is
inherent to any leader–follower relationship, or indeed to any
human relationship at all. It may therefore be difficult or even
impossible to enact ideal speech acts as proposed by Habermas.
Thus, Fryer (2011, p. 37), echoing Habermas, suggests that
facilitative leadership should seek to promote situations in
which, for example, ―all are able to introduce any assertion
whatsoever into organizational discourse. Tourish (2014)
challenges the extent to which this is possible, arguing that most
human interaction—from parenting, to work, to civil
partnership, to marriage—might become problematic were this
injunction to be indiscriminately applied. Kuhn, (2012) found
that leadership, when viewed as a never-ending
communicative process rather than the formal position of an
individual within an organizational hierarchy, is therefore not
the resolution of difference and critique, since the potential for
critique is embedded in the act of deciding. The quest for
discursive closure, implied by the notion of absolute
understanding between organizational actors, is arguably self-
defeating. Morrison, (2014). However, this reluctance is often a
display of perceived self-interest. Deciding not to contest the
235
validity claims of organizational actors who possess

considerable powers of sanction can be a display of power and
agency, albeit one that violates what Habermas would see as
the conditions needed for an ideal speech act. Putnam, (2015)
this is often manifest in unequal power relations that are
resistant to consensus. In this view, ideal speech acts as the
foundation of more facilitative forms of leadership are therefore
beside the point. While Habermas‘s emphasis on the role of
validity claims and his criticism of any assumption that some
communicative actors should have privileged rights in making
such claims is useful, a dialectical approach problematizes his
emphasis on agreement as a precondition for rationality or the
basis for the construction of less contested forms of leadership.
It sees the mutual contestation of validity claims as an enduring
feature of leader– follower relations, rather than a prelude to
resolution. Latour (2013, p. 42) suggests, we should recognize
that ―to organize is always to reorganize,‖ and organization is
thus viewed as an ongoing but never-completed process, it
follows that leadership can be best understood as a temporally
bounded communicative process of becoming and
unbecoming, enacted in transient human interactions, during
which differences between actors can be explored but will never
be fully resolved. Burns (1978) proposed that leadership could
be conceptualized in two factor terms, as being either
transactional or transformational. His work is considered
seminal in the field. Within transactional models of the
leadership process, the independence of both leaders‘and
followers‘goals is a given (Flauto, 1999). Burns (1978, p. 425)
critically observed that the object of this transactional
approach ―is not a joint effort for persons with common aims
acting for the collective interests of followers but a bargain to
236
aid the individual interests of persons or groups going their

separate ways.‖ The culture that results from a transactional
approach to leadership is likely to be one characterized by
dissent, which may be more or less tolerated, and reduced
cohesion—outcomes which most leaders instinctively reject.
Hartnell & Walumbwa, (2011). Such theorizing presumes that
the goals leaders determine for followers reflect the unitarist
interests of most or all organizational stakeholders (Bass, 1985;
Bass & Riggio, 2006). Aryee, Walumbwa, Zhou, and Hartnell,
(2012) found that three transformational attributes have been
consistently identified in this literature: charismatic leadership,
individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation (Diaz-
Saernz, 2011). Alvesson & Karreman, (2016) is argued that they
downplay the existence of asymmetrical power relationships in
organizations. They therefore assume that whatever common
interests exist between organizational actors are more
important in shaping relationships than the interests they do
not have in common.
Tourish (2013) argues that there is no a priori reason to presume

that the goals proposed by a transformational leader represent
a deeper mutual interest among organizational partners and
hence express the best interests of all concerned. If a leader
secures sufficient power to adjust the psyche of his or her
followers, in the form of transforming their independently
determined goals in a common direction, such power could be
used for the sectional good of the designated leader. Tourish
(2013, 2014), and Collinson and Tourish (2015). However, some
of these issues have also been acknowledged in work that has
largely promoted the idea of TL. Conger (1990, p. 44),
acknowledges that ― . . . though we tend to think of the positive
237
outcomes associated with leaders, certain risks or liabilities are

also entailed. The very behaviors that distinguish leaders from
managers also have the potential to produce problematic or
even disastrous outcomes for their organizations. For example,
when a leader‘s behaviors become exaggerated, lose touch with
reality, or become vehicles for purely personal gain, they may
harm the leader and the organization. Collinson and Tourish
(2015) stress that the majority of leadership studies still focus on
the positive benefits of leadership, with few of them looking at
dysfunctional leadership. Bales (1953) believed that the
requirements of the task and maintenance functions in a group
are opposed and that too much attention to either causes
problems for the other. What the group needs to do is create
equilibrium, or balance, between task and maintenance
functions. A second property that can help is a division of the
major leadership responsibilities. A group with this property
will have one person responsible for performing the task
leadership functions and another person responsible for the
maintenance leadership behaviors. In such a group, one person
will assume the role of task leader and will be responsible for
making the group work on its task Bales and Slater (1955)
revealed, the person judged to be the "group leader" was the
same person as the "guidance" specialist 78.6% of the time and
the "idea" specialist 59.3% of the time. In either case, these task
leaders tended to be the most talkative members of the group.
However, in more than 70 percent of the cases, the "best liked"
group member was someone other than the "idea" or "guidance"
leader. This member was usually the second of third most
talkative member. Further, the "group leader" was also chosen
as "best liked" only 14.3% of the time. After the first meeting,
members chose the same member as both the "best liked" and
238
as the "idea" leader 64.4% of the time. Thus, in their view, both
task and maintenance leadership functions were performed by
the same person. However, in subsequent meetings, the
functions of task and maintenance became progressively more
divided. By the fourth meeting, the same person was evaluated
as both "best liked" and best on "ideas" only 10.7% of the time.
Similarly, the odds that a group member was chosen as both the
"best liked" and as the "guidance" leader fell from 40.6% after
the first meeting to 17.9% after the fourth.
Turk (1961) conducted a study does not invalidate the

distinction between task and maintenance functions. It also
does not discredit the further distinction between two types of
task functions, substantive (generating and evaluating ideas)
and procedural (moving the group along the decision-making
process).
Benne and Sheats's (1948) essay listing the functional roles that
group members can perform during discussion. This is perhaps
the clearest statement of the functional approach to leadership.
At that time, as described earlier, most researchers concentrated
on the position of "group leader." Similarly, a group member is
performing maintenance leadership when he or she performs
roles such as the encourager, harmonizer, and compromiser.
Rauch and Behling (1984) argued that when a group's task is

very clear, the group does not need very much task leadership
and gets upset if their leader is too task-oriented. Task
performance suffers as a result. Further, they felt that while a
moderate amount of maintenance leadership encourages group
members and helps those to perform their tasks better, a lot of
maintenance leadership can be too much of a good thing.
239
Ancona and Caldwell (1988) claimed that groups within formal

organizations also have to be concerned with their relationships
with other groups and individuals outside of the group. These
other groups and individuals may be part of the organization,
or they may be outside of it. In either case, there are leadership
functions involved in maintaining these relationships. Ancona
and Caldwell called these "external functions." Based on
extensive interviews with members of organizational groups,
Ancona and Caldwell found four basic types of external
functions:
Scout
Activities
Sentry
Activities
Ambassador Guard
Activities Activities
Figure 6; Effective Communication in External Activities of a

Leader; Concept Source; Ancona and Cladwell; Graphic
Scout activities. These are involved in bringing into the group
both the information and resources that the group needs to
perform its task. Scout functions include learning about the
environment in which the group does its work, getting
information that is relevant either to the group's current task or
240
possible later tasks, and getting feedback about the group's

performance.
Ambassador activities. These are involved in getting

information and resources from the group out to other groups
or individuals. Ambassador functions include opening up
channels with these outside parties, informing them about the
group's progress on its tasks, coordinating with the outside
parties when a task is being performed together with them, and
persuading or motivating the other parties to do what the group
wants them to do.
Sentry activities. These are involved in controlling the amount

or type of information and resources that come into the group.
The group can either let information and resources enter the
group as is, modify it in some way, or keep all or part of it out
of the group.
Guard activities. These are involved in controlling the amount

or type of information and resources that leave the group. The
group can deliver it immediately, decide to wait to deliver it
until some later time, or refuse to deliver it at all.
241
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This book SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP prepares management professionals who
are growing as leaders in their respective field and who are specializing in HR
specialization to understand leadership development process in a professional
way can be benefitted out of this book since its entire work is on various
situations which the leader faces in real life. The book also caters to the HR
practitioners and other students of management who specializes in Commerce,
Entrepreneurship Management, BBA, MBA, or Business Strategy related
subjects, Entrepreneurial practitioners, and includes the dynamic concepts of
newer Entrepreneurial Strategies happening across the world, and also caters
to the syllabus for BBA and MBA of all the leading Indian Universities
specifically to Bangalore University, Anna University, Bharathiar University,
Kerala University, Calicut University, and other Indian Universities. These
concepts in this book will prepare all Entrepreneurial professionals who are
evolving into higher level professionals who can use this book for their
challenging and rewarding career. The readers can apply these concepts in
their day to day management strategy functions to have effective practical
advancements in their career.
Prof Dr C.Karthikeyan
Prof Dr C.Karthikeyan, Alumnus of IIM-A., with 25 yrs of
experience in both Industry and Academia is a Ph.D. (HR).,
triple masters in Management Programme from Reputed
Universities, and Institutions with M.B.A in (Human Resource
Management and International Marketing).,M.B.A., in
(Education Management)., M.B.A (International Business).,
besides 4 other Masters in M.Sc (App Psy).,
M.S.,(Psychotherapy)., M.Com., and Post Graduate Diploma in Guidance and
Counselling PG.DGC besides pioneer information of HRIS in the government
sector. Apart from being Director of reputed Institutions in Kerala for the past 13
years, and currently the Director of T.John College, Bangalore, of the
Management Studies, he is also a recognized Ph.D. Guide and Evaluator for
Bharathiar University, Career Point University, ICFAI University, Jharkhand,
Vishwesariya Technological University, Karnataka, Karpagam University., and
important member of other research and evaluation panels. He is a Recognized
International Certified PPA (Personal Profile Analyst) by Thomas UK.
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Book · March 2022

Tearcher's Emotional Compatibility in handling Millennials View project

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Paperback ISBN: 978-93-91145-73-6

First Published in May 2021

Published by Walnut Publication (an imprint of Vyusta Ventures LLP)

6834 Cantrell Road #2096, Little Rock, AR 72207, USA

#722, Esplanade One, Rasulgarh, Bhubaneswar – 751010, India

International House, 12 Constance Street, London E16 2DQ, United

Prof Dr C. Karthikeyan is a professor, and an alumnus of IIM-

He is now Principal and the Director of the reputed institution

He is now initiating series of webinars to bring in avid Industry

He is also the chairperson of the UBA (Unnath Bharath

His previous books are,

Algocratic HRM, Business Ethics

Customer Relationship Management

Human Resource Management

Challenges are Disguised Opportunities

Magical Moments of Happiness

Advances in Strategic Management

Techno-Business Leadership and few more to be released shortly

Author can be contacted at ddprofkarthik@gmail.com

This book SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP prepares management

Who will benefit from this Book?

Organization of the Book

The second chapter alters the thought process of a

The third chapter will entirely alter the mood of the

The Fourth Chapter deals with conflicts and conflict

The Fifth chapter is full of interesting facts about a point

The seventh chapter is another interesting dimension of

The penultimate chapter starts with a new uncovered area and

The ultimate chapter handles a very important area for the

In every chapter preface is added to incite interest as well as to

The book also has various diagrams created for in-depth

The books has various suggestions for further research as part

Hope I have put my best efforts to keep the readers engaging to

After completing almost two and half decades with interaction

I am indebted to so many persons that a complete

Many scholars, writers, and managers are acknowledged

At times we forget in the speed of life, who is assiduously

My love Radhi and Rajieth.

Prof. DR. C. Karthikeyan

Chapter One: HR Leadership Situations (1-18)

Chapter Two: Leadership Challenges against Counter

Chapter Three: Leadership Neuroplasticity (48-73)

Chapter Four: Leadership in Conflict Resolution (74-97)

Chapter Five: Leadership Cannot Be Always Right (98-139)

Chapter Six Leadership Skills to Conceptualize Characters (140-163)

Chapter Seven: Toxic Leadership (164-188)

Chapter Eight: Leadership Blind Spots (189-206)

Chapter Nine: Leadership Communication Paradox (207-241)

Preface: This chapter will address the importance of

Abstract: Strategic Human Resource Management (Strategic

Key Words: Strategic, Human Resource, Challenges, Employees,

Introduction: The challenge for HR strategic decision makers is

capital and develop this valuable resource into a firms

Second Challenge Third Challenge

First Challenge Fourth Challenge

Figure I: The Four Primary Challenges of SHRM: Concept

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