ROCK SLOPE STABILITY

Rock Slope Stability

Rock slope stability is influenced by various forces. Some of these forces induce
instability where other forces resist the tendency of the sliding.
Rock failure is resulted when the forces inducing the instability are more than the
resisting forces.
The rock slope stability analysis involves assessment of these forces and there
interrelationship.
The forces which induce sliding are mainly forces due to gravity and the water forces,
whereas the resisting forces are mainly component of weight of the rock mass and the
shear strength parameters mobilized along the discontinuities.
The important factors which influence the stability of the rock slopes are; Geometry of
the slope – slope height, slope angle and upper slope angle, structural discontinuities
– their preferred orientation, shear strength properties of discontinuities – cohesion
‘C’ and angle of internal friction ‘φ ’, and water saturation conditions.
The influence of each factor may vary from slope to slope. The rock mass may fail in
sliding over the planar discontinuity or may be detached along a set of discontinuities
and fail as a rock fall.
The process of sliding of rock mass may be triggered by natural or by artificial
processes.
Among the natural process toe erosion by streams, water forces developed with in the
discontinuities or earthquake loading may be responsible for triggering the rock slide
or rock falls.
Whereas, the artificial processes involve toe erosion due to construction activities,
steep slope cuttings, slope surcharge due to civil engineering structures, water
impoundment, blasting activities in surroundings etc.

Fig. Road affected by Rock fall in

Himalays, India
Types of Rock Failure
The classification of rock slopes is based on the mode of failure.
In a majority of cases, the slope failures in rock masses are governed by joints and occur
across surfaces formed by one or several joints.
Some common modes of failures are planar failure, wedge failure, circular failure, toppling
failure and raveling slopes (falls).
Rock failures are mainly governed by the discontinuity orientation, geometry of the slope and
the shearing strength parameters, cohesion and angle of friction of the discontinuity planes.
The possible mode of failures in rock slopes can be classified into four types;
(i) Plane mode of failure,
(ii) Wedge mode of failure,
(iii) Circular or Rotational mode of failure,
(iv) Toppling mode of failure,
(v) Raveling slopes or falls
(vi) Rock Falls.
Fig. shows the main types of slope
failures and stereo plots of structural
conditions likely to give rise to these
failures (Hoek and Bray,
1981).
1. Plane Failure
Plane failure in rock slopes occurs when a geological discontinuity, such as bedding
plane, strikes parallel to the slope face and dips into the excavation at an angle greater
than the angle of friction and less than the inclination of the slope.
The base area ‘A’ and the weight ‘w’ of the sliding mass are calculated from the
geometry of the slope and the failure plane.
A tension crack running parallel to the crest of the slope can also be included in the
calculation. Generally, a planar failure depends on joint continuity.
2. Wedge Failure
When two discontinuities strikes obliquely across the slope face their line of
intersection daylights in the slope face, the wedge of rock resting on these
discontinuities will slide down the line of intersection, provided the plunge of line of
intersection of the two wedge forming planes is greater than the angle of friction and
is less than the inclination of the slope.
The wedge failure depends on joints attitude and conditions and is more frequent
than planar failures (Hoek and Bray, 1981).

Wedge mode of failure

3. Circular Failure
When the material is very weak, as in a soil slope, or when the rock mass is heavily
jointed or broken, the failure will be along a circular path.
Such type of failures are common in highly weathered shales.
This failure occurs along a surface which develops only partially along joints, but
mainly crosses them.
These failures can only happen in heavily jointed rock masses with a very small block
size and very weak or heavily weathered rock mass.
It is essential that all the joints are oriented favorably so that planar and wedge failure
are not possible.

Circular Failure Mode

4. Toppling Failure
Toppling failure in rock slopes occurs when the discontinuities are very steep and the following
condition occurs; when Ψ>φ and b/h < tanΨ - toppling & sliding and when Ψ<φ and b/h <
tanΨ - only toppling. Where, Ψ is the dip of the plane, ‘φ ’ is the angle of friction, ‘h’ is the
height of the rock block and ‘b’ is the width.
5. Rock Fall
When rock blocks detach from the rock mass and fall freely under
gravity it is known as rock fall. The rock blocks may role down, bounce
or slide along the surface. Rock fall pose lot of problems in safety and
maintenance of highways in mountainous terrains.

Toppling Failure
6. Raveling Slopes (Falls)
Accumulation of screes or small pieces of rock detached from the rock mass at the base of steep
slopes and cyclic expansion and contraction associated with freezing and thawing of water in
cracks and fissures in rock mass are the principal reason of slope raveling.
A gradual deterioration of material, which cement the individual rock blocks together, may also
play a part in this type of slope failure.
Weathering or the deterioration of certain types of rock exposure will also give rise to the
loosening of a rock mass and the gradual accumulation of materials on the surface, which falls at
the base of the slope. It is important that the slope designer should recognize the influence of
weathering on the nature of the material.

Raveling Slopes
 Slope Stability Measures

The important factors which influence the stability of the slope are;

1) slope angle

2) dip of the failure plane or plunge of the line of intersection,

3) shear strength parameters and

4) water saturation condition.

The required stability conditions for a given slope can be achieved by

adopting several methods, these are listed as below:

1. Designing The Slope
• A considerable stability can be achieved by making concave slope face.
• The safe slope angles for a given slope can be obtained by adopting technique
proposed by Hoek and Bray.
 In this technique, the factor of safety is obtained by assuming different slope angles
and slope heights.
 The factor of safety, as calculated for each combination of slope angle and slope
height, is marked over a graph sheet by taking slope angles on X-axis and height on
Y-axis.
 Later, a contour curve corresponding to a factor of safety equal to 1.2 is drawn.
Thus, the safe slope angles for different slope heights are obtained from this graph.
 Based on these safe slope angles a slope cross section is prepared in which height of
the slope is considered from top to bottom.
Fig. Determining the Safe cut slope angles
2. Slope De-Pressurisation

Water pressure decreases the stability of a slope, it follows that reduction of this water

pressure will increase the stability of the slope.

The following points are important for slope de-pressurisation;

I. Prevent surface water from entering the slope through open tension cracks and

fissures.

II. Reduce water pressure in the vicinity of the potential failure surface by selective

surface and sub-surface drainage.

III. Position the drainage so that it reduces the water pressure in the immediate

vicinity of the slope.

 3. SURFACE PROTECTION OF SLOPES

Slopes in soft rock or soil are prone to serious erosion during heavy rain and some
rock slopes suffer form deterioration due to weathering when exposed.
The protection of the surface of such slopes pose serious problems. Local conditions
and the availability of the material will generally determine the measures which are
taken on any particulars site.
a. Vegetation Cover: Vegetation cover is the best form of the slope protection,
particularly against erosion of soil slopes.
b. Hand Applied Mortar : When the slope rock mass is deeply weathered and the
area is subjected to violent rain storms, hand applied mortar or ‘Chunam’ is very
effective.
c. Shotcrete : For the slopes having conditions prone to rapid weathering and break
down upon exposure, use of pneumatically applied mortar or shotcrete is very
effective.
d. Precast Concrete Member: In the slope protection system interlocking precast
concrete members form an open framework into which a layer of porous no-fines
mortar is placed.
e. Gabions: The use of gabions can be considered for slope protection. Gabions are
rock filled wire baskets which are strong, heavy, flexible and permanent.
APPLICATION OF ROCK MECHANICS
IN UNDERGROUND OPENINGS
INTRODUCTION
 In underground openings
• tunnels excavated in jointed rock masses at relatively shallow depth, suffers
usually wedges falling from the roof or sliding out of the sidewalls of the
openings…
 Wedges are formed by
• intersecting structural features, such as bedding planes and joints, which separate
the rock mass into discrete but interlocked pieces.
When a free face is created by the excavation of the opening,
• the restraint from the surrounding rock is removed….
 One or more of these wedges can fall or slide from the surface
• if the bounding planes are continuous or rock bridges along the discontinuities are
broken…
Roof fall Sidewall wedge
 INTRODUCTION
 Unless steps are taken to support these loose wedges,
 the stability of the back and walls of the opening may deteriorate rapidly

 Each wedge, which is allowed to fall or slide,

• will cause a reduction in the restraint and the interlocking of the rock mass
• in turn, will allow other wedges to fall

 The wedge failure process will continue

• until natural arching in the rock mass prevents further unravelling
• until the opening is full of fallen material

 The step that need to deal with

• Concepts of rock mechanics
-- Proper rock mass characterizations
INTRODUCTION
The steps which are required to deal with this problem are:
1. Determination of average dip and dip direction of significant discontinuity sets…
2. Identification of potential wedges which can slide or fall from the back or walls.
3. Calculation of the factor of safety of these wedges, depending upon the mode of
failure.
4. Calculation of the amount of reinforcement required to bring the factor of safety
of individual wedges up to an acceptable level.
Identification of potential wedges
 The size and shape of potential wedges in the rock mass surrounding an opening
depends upon
• the size, shape and orientation of the opening
• the orientation of the significant discontinuity sets
 The 3‐D geometry of the problem necessitates a set of relatively tedious
calculations..
 UNWEDGE1, was developed specifically for use in underground hard rock mining

SUPPORT TO CONTROL WEDGE FAILURE

 A characteristic feature of wedge failures is with a very little movement in the rock
mass before a failure
 So , the support system has to provide a ‘stiff’ response to movement…
• Supports are installed before any movement has taken place i.e. before the wedge
perimeter has been fully exposed…
Rock-bolt support mechanisms for wedges in the roof and
sidewalls of tunnels.
 EXCAVATIONS IN WEAK ROCK

 Excavation in rock masses which are weak as

• a result of intense jointing
• the rock material itself has a low strength
 Rocks such as shales, mudstones, siltstones, phyllites and tuffs are
typical weak rocks.
 Progressive failure can occur in the rock of an underground excavation
in a weak rock mass,
 is a difficult analytical problem
• no simple numerical models nor factor of safety calculations which
can be used to define acceptable limits to this failure process
EXCAVATIONS IN WEAK ROCK
 Judgment on the adequacy of a support design has to be based upon
an evaluation of a number of factors
• the magnitude and distribution of deformations in the rock
• the stresses induced in support elements such as grouted cables, steel sets or concrete
linings.

Tunneling in weak rock

 Examine some very basic concepts of
• how a rock mass surrounding a tunnel deforms
• how the support systems acts to control this deformation
 Once these basic concepts have been explored, practical support
designs for different conditions will be considered
Deformation around an advancing tunnel
 Deformation of the rock mass starts about 11/2 a tunnel diameter ahead of the
advancing face and reaches its maximum value 11/2 diameters behind the face.
 Whether or not these deformations induce stability problems in the tunnel depends
upon the ratio of rock mass strength to the in situ stress level
3D model of the failure and deformation of the rock mass surrounding the face
of an advancing circular tunnel

The plot shows displacement vectors

as well as the shape of the deformed
tunnel profile
Pattern of deformation in the rock mass surrounding an
advancing tunnel
Estimates of support capacity

Hoek and Brown (1980a) and Brady and Brown (1985) have
published equations which can be used to calculate
• the capacity of
 mechanically anchored rock-bolts,
 shotcrete or
 concrete linings or
 steel sets for a circular tunnel.

Installation of sliding joint top hat section

steel sets immediately behind the face of a
tunnel being advanced through very poor
quality rock.
A row of stress controllers installed in a slot in the shotcrete lining in a
tunnel
Spilling in very poor quality clay‐rich fault zone material
Installation of 12 m long 75 mm diameter pipe fore-poles in an 11 m span tunnel
top heading in a fault zone
ROCKBOLTING ALTERNATIVES INVOLVING INDIVIDUAL
JUDGEMENT