MODULE 4

Livestock Husbandry
Livestock Management
Anatomy and Physiology
Livestock Health and Disease
Game Farming and Game Ranching
Range and Pasture Management

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 HOUSING FOR LIVESTOCK

It is necessary to have houses for domestic animals for the following reasons:
(a) They should be protected from inclement weather e.g. heavy rainfall, high
temperatures, predators and thieves.
(b) Once they are confined they cannot go astray
(c) For easy management e.g. feeding, deworming, control of parasites, and diseases

Type of Housing for broilers

Broilers are kept under deep litter system. Under this system the birds are controlled all
the time. They are closely supervised .The aim is to obtain maximum production from
them.

Deep litter system

In this system the chickens are kept in the house and live there for their whole life time.
The floor of the house is covered to a depth of 20cm with litter. This may consists of
chopped dried grass, maize stalks, saw dust or broken maize cobs. The litter is raked
frequently and topped up to keep it dry.

Advantages of deep litter


Low labour requirements

High stocking rates 10 birds/m2

The manure obtained is very nutritious and can be used to fertilize crops.

Disadvantages
 Chickens are likely to develop vices since they are confined in a small area.
 Diseases are likely to break out if the litter becomes damp.
 A supply of litter may not always be available.
 Feeding troughs can be contaminated by litter if they are not placed well above
the litter.

Qualities of a good livestock house

The house should provide the following:
 Protection from adverse climatic conditions, predators and thieves
 Good ventilation to avoid excessive heat and humidity
 Adequate light
 Enough space for animals kept inside e.g. 10 birds m2 for broilers
 The house should be easy to clean.

STOCKMANSHIP

Stockmanship means the care and handling of animals. It includes animal handling,
record keeping, rearing on young stock and nutrition and feeding practices.
A good stockman will:

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  Assess the health condition of animals.
 Assess productive and unproductive stock
 Ensure adequate feed and water for the stock
 Know the daily and monthly routine operations very well for instance when to
spray or dip
 Ensure that the place where livestock are kept is free from foreign materials
which may injure the animals.

a) Animal handling (broilers)

One could frighten or hurt the chickens without intention. A frightened chicken is an
unproductive chicken. It is therefore vital that the following are considered when
handling and working with chickens:
 Never surprise the chickens - when you approach the chicken house
make noise or sing to alert them that you are coming. Open the door
slowly or gently.
 Move slowly – While inside the chicken house, never flap an empty meal
sack or cloth. They find that very alarming. Even a bucket should be
carried low down and moved slowly.
 Catching birds – it is best done in the evening when they have gone to
roost on their perches. At that time, they would be sleeping and offer no
resistance. If you have to catch them during the day, keep your hands low
and try to grab the legs quickly. A catching hook, made of stiff fencing
wire that just fit over the thin shank of the bird’s leg is useful for catching
in the day time.
 Hold a chicken firmly – so that it cannot struggle and hurt itself. This
means holding it by both wings or by the legs with the head hanging
down.
 Keep a regular routine as regarding provision of water, feed and
cleaning water troughs.
 When moving birds to a new place, it is best to make sure that they are
not crowded in crates. They should be protected from heat and cold while
on transit. Try to arrive before dark to make them get used to their
environment
 Examine the birds everyday to check if they are sick, lame or not eating
and cull unproductive birds

b) Record keeping (broilers)

This means any information kept for future use.
Purpose of keeping records:
 They provide figures for planning and budgeting.
 They tell the farmer as to how much money he is making or losing i.e. check on
profits or losses that he makes some adjustments on expenditure.
 Good records assist farmers to obtain a loan from financial institutions.
 Records help one to compare his performance with those of other farmers, hence
encourage competition.

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  They help farmers to trace the history of the enterprise.

Type of records
 Production records: These include information about what has been produced
e.g. weight gained and when produced (farm diary)
It helps the farmer to identify the problems and remember things for instance
decrease in weight may mean that broilers are affected by diseases.
 Financial records: This is a record of money earned (returns) and money spent
(costs) It is used to determine the profit or loss made

Broiler production records may reflect the following:

 Date of birth
 Mortality
 Total number of birds
 Amount of feed given
 Date of administering certain drugs
 Names of drugs given to birds
 Number of birds culled
 Slaughter weight of birds

c) Rearing of young stock (broilers)

Brooding
Brooding is the care provided to young chicks from the time they hatch from the eggs
until they grow their “true” feathers (2-4 weeks). At the time of hatching chicks are
covered with “downy feathers” which do not protect them from cold, they need warmth
until their “true” feathers develop.

Artificial brooding; the farmer provides the heat/warmth needed by chicks.

The source of heat can be:
 Coal
 Firewood
 Paraffin
 Gas
 Electricity
The farmers’ aim is to provide the same conditions, which the hen provides for her young
ones. Artificial brooders are used to rear a large number of chicks in a poultry farm.
When the heat is inadequate chicks huddle together and they do not eat. If the heat is
enough chicks become evenly distributed around the heat source and they look very
active.

Management of chicks during the brooding period.

As soon as chicks are removed from their boxes they can be encouraged to drink by
dipping their beaks in water. Place them near the drinking trough to assist them to learn
to drink quickly. Spread the feed on the paper laid on the litter for chicks to peck it.
Within 3 days they will feed from the feed troughs.

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Preparation for the arrival of young stock
 Repair, clean and disinfect the building and equipment with a disinfectant as
thoroughly as possible. Leave the building empty for two weeks before the arrival
of chicks.
 In case of a deep litter system cover the floor with litter.
 Ensure that the building as well as brooders reach the desired temperature 25-350c
 Light brooder lamps or any source of heat 24 hours before the arrival of chicks.
 Ensure adequate supply of feed in the store i.e. chick starter mash for broilers
 There should be adequate supply of certain vaccines and drugs. The Newcastle
vaccines and stress pack should be available at the time of arrival of one day old
chicks.
 Fill the feeders and drinkers with fresh feed and water before arrival of chicks.
d) Nutrition and feeding practices
Nutritional requirements
Chicks require a balanced diet with a sufficient supply of the following:
 Carbohydrates and fats - These provide animals with energy. Fats provide 2-3
times as much energy as carbohydrates. In less active (older) animals they add
weight.
 Proteins – used for repair and replacement of worn out tissues and building up
new muscles as the animal grows. They are very important in the diet of young
animals
 Vitamins – The major functions of vitamins include: growth promotion, act as
catalyst in various metabolic reactions, blood clotting, bone formation, and
muscular activity
 Minerals – The major functions of minerals are: constituents of bones and teeth,
constituents of blood, act as components of animal product such as milk, eggs,
meat and wool
 Water-In order for the above nutrients to be utilized effectively water should be
available. Water is needed for digestion, absorption, blood formation and
maintenance of body temperature.

Feed for broilers

Chickens need a balanced diet i.e. food that contains the correct proportion of food
components for an animal at a particular age or stage of development. The proportions of
nutrients vary according to the age of birds.

1. Chick starter mash

This is feed that is given to chicks from one day old to 5 weeks. It contains
high amounts of proteins, minerals and vitamins to build up flesh and bones.
It is also finely ground for easier digestion.

2. Broiler finisher mash /pellets

This is given to broilers when they are 6-8 weeks old (point of slaughter) It is
rich in both proteins and carbohydrates to provide material for rapid growth
and energy production.

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Feeding practices
Broilers are usually fed ad- libitum (ad. lib.); this means that they are given feed as much
as they want. Therefore feed should always be available all the time.
Frequency of feeding– feed should be given twice a day.
Cleaning – Troughs should be positioned such that droppings or litter cannot contaminate
the feed or water. Feeding and drinking troughs should be cleaned. Clean water should be
provided to the chickens all the time.

Rations
Maintenance ration
The quantity of feed that is required by an animal to keep it alive without gaining or
losing weight.

Production ration
The quantity of feed that is provided in addition to the maintenance ration to make an
animal produce more of a particular product e.g. milk, eggs etc

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The reproductive system of cattle

Reproduction in mammals is a process by which the male and female produce young
ones of their kind. Both males and females produce gametes when they are sexually
mature. Age of sexual maturity depends on the feeding of the young animal and the type
of animal. Cattle usually reach puberty between 9-20 months.

The reproductive system of a bull.

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Functions of the parts
Testis
The two testicles hang in a muscular sac called the (scrotum) between the hind legs. The
main function of the testis is to produce sperms (spermatozoa) and testosterone (the male
sex hormone). After their production, they are transported into a large, highly coiled tube
called epididymis.
Scrotum – a muscular sac which contains the testicles
It regulates the temperature of the testis to support sperm production
Epididymis this is the tube which stores sperms and they complete their maturation
there.

Vas deferens (sperm duct)

From the epididymis the sperms pass into the vas deferens which is connected to the
urethra near the seminal vesicles. The sperm duct transports sperm not semen from the
epididymis to the urethra which leads to the penis.

Seminal vesicles - is located next to two glands the Prostrate gland and the Cowper’s
gland, which together produce the seminal fluid or the liquid in which the sperm swim.
The seminal fluid is alkaline to neutralize the acidity of the urethra which would
otherwise kill the sperm. Semen is a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid.

Penis: This organ is inserted into the female vagina to deposit the semen.
Urethra: Conducts semen to the penis and when not mating is used to conduct urine.
Sheath – the skin which covers the penis keeping it moist and protecting it from injury.
The reproductive system of a cow

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Functions of parts

Ovaries produce female gametes (ova). They also produce some hormones which control
oestrus cycle and maintain pregnancy. The ovary is comprised of multiple Graffian
follicles. Each follicle contains an immature egg.

Funnel /infundibulum: it receives the ovum and directs it into the tube of the
oviduct/fallopian tube.
Fallopian tube/oviduct: If the sperm is available fertilization may occur in the fallopian
tube.

Uterus: it is where the ovum or zygote is implanted if fertilization has taken place. The
uterus protects and facilitates the feeding of the feotus until birth.

Cervix: It prevents the entrance of foreign matter into the uterus and widens to allow
birth.

Vagina: a passage where sperms are deposited during mating. A fully grown foetus
leaves the mother through the vagina i.e. birth canal.

Vulva: this is a fold of skin that covers the entrance of the vagina it prevents foreign
matter from entering the reproductive tract.

Oestrus cycle
Oestrous cycle is the period between end of one heat period and the beginning of the
next. In cows it takes twenty one (21) days; during this cycle the cow comes on heat and
an ovum is released from an ovary. The cow becomes receptive to the male only when it
is on heat.

Duration of heat in cows is nineteen (19) hours and ovulation occurs ten (10) hours after
the end of oestrous (heat). That is the best time for breeding. Ovulation: it is the rupture
(bursting) of the Graffian follicle leading to the release of the ovum into the oviduct
through the infundibulum.
It is stimulated by luteinizing hormone (LH). The ruptured follicle then develops into a
yellow body or corpus luteum which produces the hormone progesterone. This hormone
stops heat and maintains pregnancy in case fertilization took place. When fertilization
does not occur the corpus luteum degenerates. Another ovum, inside a Graffian follicle,
starts to grow until it is mature and the cycle repeats.

Signs of heat
 The cow stands when mounted by other animals

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  The cow bellows or it becomes restless
 Reduction in milk output
 Swollen or slightly inflamed and wet vulva
 Clear mucus discharge from the vulva
 The cow may try to mount other cows herself
 Loss of appetite
 Frequent urination

Fertilisation
If an ovum is available in the oviduct and sperms are deposited into the vagina one of the
sperms penetrates into the ovum to form a zygote. The fusion of the sperm and the ovum
is called fertilization. The zygote undergoes cell division and keeps on moving towards
the uterus. After fertilization the embryo gets enclosed by an amnion membrane in the
uterus. The membrane contains amniotic fluid which protects the foetus from mechanical
damage.

Pregnancy: this is the time when a young animal is growing inside the mothers’ uterus.
The length of time it stays inside the mother is called gestation period. At the end of this
period the uterus begins to contract and the young one is born. The gestation period of a
cow is between 280-285 days or 9 months

Hormones
These are chemical substances produced in certain areas of the body which cause changes
to occur in other areas of the body. They are transported through the blood.

Title: Summary of reproductive hormones

Name of hormone Site of production Role/function of the
hormone in the cow
Follicle stimulating Pituitary gland * Stimulates the
hormone (FSH) development of graffian
follicles.
* stimulate the ovary to
secrete oestrogen.
Role/function of the
hormone in the bull
* in males it initiates the
growth of the testis and
induces the production of
sperms.

Leutenizing hormone Pituitary gland *In females it controls *In males it stimulates the
(LH) the rupturing of the secretion of testosterone
follicles thus initiating by testis.
ovulation.

Testosterone Testis *stimulates libido(sex

Absent in a cow drive in) males
*stimulates the
development of secondary
sexual characteristics in

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 growing males.
Oestrogen Graffian follicle of * stimulates the onset of
the ovary heat in females and Absent in a bull
controls the oestrus cycle
*stimulates the
development of the
secondary sex
characteristics of a
female
Progesterone Corpus luteum of * maintains pregnancy Absent in a bull
the ovary *causes heat to subside
and stops the oestrus
cycle
* prepares the uterine
lining for implantation of
the embryo.
* inhibits the release of
LH
* causes mammary
glands to prepare for
lactation

Reproductive system of a hen

The hen has a large single ovary which contains developing eggs at various stages. When
the bird reaches maturity (4-5 months) yolks are released one at a time from the ovary
into the oviduct

Diagram of the reproductive system of a hen

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Functions of the parts
Ovary: Releases the yolk
Infundibulum/Funnel; This catches the yolk. The egg stays only 15 minutes in the
infundibulum. During this time, if the sperms are present, fertilization takes place. In the
hen fertilization takes place in the infundibulum no where else.
Magnum; the egg is deposited into the magnum and will stay there for 3 hours. The
magnum has glands which produce albumen (the egg white) which is deposited around
the yolk.
Isthmus; here the shell membranes are deposited around the albumen. The egg stays in
the isthmus for 1¼ before proceeding to the shell gland.
Shell gland (uterus); here the calcium shell is deposited over the egg membranes. The
egg stays here for 18-20 hours before it passes on.
Vagina: The egg passes very fast through the vagina. Its major function is to receive
sperms during mating and pass them on to the infundibulum.
Cloaca; Once the egg is here, it is ready for laying. It is laid under the influence of a
hormone called oxytocin, only when there is light. The oxytocin activates the muscles of
the cloaca to contract and pass the egg out of the body.
Vent: this is the exit of the reproductive and digestive systems, and the site of sperm
entrance.

NB Once the egg is laid the next follicle ruptures in 30minutes. If there isn’t enough
light to influence the production of oxytocin, the egg will remain in the body of the bird
until there is adequate light.

Reproductive system of a cock

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The cock has two testis which produce sperms. When stimulated to mate by the male sex
hormone the sperm pass along the sperm duct (vas deferens) in a fluid there is no penis
in a cock and for mating to take place the vent of the male must, be pressed against the
vent of the female. When the sperm are released they begin to swim towards the ovary.
If a ripe egg is present in the infundibulum it may be fertilized by a sperm cell.

DIGESTION
This is a process where food is broken down into smaller particles in order to make
absorption into the blood stream possible.
The digestive process takes place in three ways:
(a) By physical or mechanical means (mechanical digestion)
(b) By the action of micro-organisms (microbial digestion)
(c) By the action of enzymes (enzymatic digestion)

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A NON RUMINANT

The alimentary (digestive) tract of a pig

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Mouth
In the mouth food is ground into a pulp by the teeth and mixed with saliva. The saliva is
produced by salivary glands and it contains the enzyme ptyalin. The enzyme acts on
starch converting it to simple sugar (maltose)

Stomach
In the stomach the food is churned (broken down) by the squeezing action of the
muscular walls of the stomach and gastric juice is added to it. The gastric juice is
produced by the gastric glands in the walls of the stomach and contains mucus,
hydrochloric acid, rennin and pepsin. The HCl acid provides an acid environment which
prevents further action of the ptyalin from the saliva. Pepsin breaks down proteins into
peptides. Rennin (present in young animals) is responsible for the breaking down of milk
protein.

The small intestines-consists of the duodenum, and ileum.

Duodenum
Pancreatic juice from the pancreas releases the following enzymes to digest the food:
 Amylase which breaks down starch into maltose
 Trypsin which breaks down proteins into peptides
 Lipase which breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Bile from the liver contains salts that emulsify fats (makes them soluble) so that fat-
splitting enzyme lipase can break them down better. The bile also neutralizes the
acidity of the food coming from the stomach.

Ileum
The intestinal juice is produced by the glands of the small intestines. It contains four
important enzymes:
● Peptidase – converts peptides into amino acids
● Sucrase - acts upon sucrose and changes it into fructose (simple sugar)
● Maltase - changes maltose into glucose (simple sugar)

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 ● Lactase – converts lactose into glucose and galactose (simple sugar)

The ileum is also the main site of absorption. It contains finger like structures (villi)
which increase the surface area for absorption of food. Here, glucose, inorganic salts
and amino acids are absorbed into the blood stream.

Large intestine consists of: caecum, colon and rectum.

The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the chyme.

Caecum: Microbial digestion takes place here with the help of bacteria that form a
symbiotic relationship with the non-ruminant host. The bacteria break down cellulose
and produce vitamins which will be absorbed immediately upon entering the colon

Colon - water is absorbed from the waste material.

Rectum – The waste materials are stored here before they are removed from the body.

Anus – the opening through which waste materials are expelled.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF A RUMINANT-Cattle

Diagram

Mouth
Mechanical digestion or the physical breaking down of food begins in the mouth. Food is
chewed by the large, flat teeth mixing it with saliva to form a bolus. The saliva moistens
the food but unlike the non-ruminant contains no enzymes to break down starch.
Oesophagus

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Food is passed from the mouth to the oesophagus and swallowed. In this part food moves
by a process called peristalsis .The oesophagus opens into the rumen.
Rumen
Ruminants eat fibrous food such as grass, hay and straw. The fibre consists of cellulose
which forms the cell wall of plant cells. In the rumen there are many microorganisms
(collectively called rumen flora) mainly bacteria, protozoan, and fungi. These break down
the cellulose to fatty acids and simple sugars. The fatty acids are absorbed through the
walls of the rumen. The microorganisms produce amino acids and vitamins and release
large quantities of gases eg carbon dioxide and methane. The gases must be expelled
through the mouth by a process called belching. Sometimes these gases get trapped in the
rumen resulting in a condition called bloating. This is a dangerous condition unless
treated it can cause death.
Reticulum
From the rumen the food goes to the reticulum. This compartment sieves or separates
finely ground material from coarse ones. Secondly, foreign material such as stones or
hard pieces of wood is separated from the food for regurgitation. From the reticulum the
food goes back to the mouth for re-chewing (regurgitation). This is known as chewing
the cud.

Omasum
After the food has been re-chewed in the mouth it goes straight to the omasum. The
muscular walls of the omasum grind food to a fine consistency. They also strain the food
and reduce the amount of water.
Abomasum (true stomach)
This is called the true stomach because it functions like the stomach of a non-ruminant.
In the abomasum hydrochloric acid (HCl), and the enzymes pepsin and rennin act on
food. HCl is produced by the glands in the walls of the stomach. The HCl and the
enzymes mix together to form gastric juice of which the pH value ranges between 1and 2.
The function of pepsin is to break down proteins into peptides which are smaller
compounds. The function of rennin is to curdle the milk in young animals to prevent it
from passing through too quickly. By the time all these actions have taken place, the
food becomes a semi-fluid which is called chyme. The chyme passes slowly from the
abomasum into the small intestines.
The small intestine
Once the chyme enters the small intestines, it is moved continuously by the muscular
contraction of the small intestines. This action is called peristalsis. The small intestine is
divided into two main parts:
 Duodenum
 Ileum
Duodenum
Once the chyme is in the duodenum, it is acted upon by the following:
 Pancreatic juice (from the pancreas)
 Bile (produced by the liver is stored in the gall bladder and transported to the
duodenum via the bile duct).

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Pancreatic juice contains:
 Amylase which breaks down complex sugars into glucose
 Trypsin which breaks down proteins into peptides
 Lipase which breaks down fat into fatty acids and glycerol
Bile emulsifies lipids into very fine droplets which mix with the chyme. The other
function of the bile is to reduce the acidity of the chyme.
Ileum
This is a coiled tube of about 40m in cows. It contains finger like structure called villi,
which consists of blood capillaries and lymph vessels. The glands in this part of the
small intestines produce intestinal juice which contains the enzymes: maltase, sucrase
and lactase responsible for breaking down complex sugars into simple sugars. Also,
Peptidase is responsible for breaking peptides into amino acids.
Absorption mainly takes place in the ileum. The villi help to increase the surface area of
the ileum so that maximum absorption takes place. The nutrients that are dissolved in the
chyme pass through the walls of the villi and are carried away. Amino acids and glucose
are absorbed into the blood stream and carried to all parts of the body. Fatty acids and
glycerol are absorbed into the lymphatic system.
The large intestines
It is divided into three parts:
 Ceacum
 Colon
 Rectum.
Caecum
This lies at the junction of the small and large intestines. It contains a lot of bacteria
which break down any cellulose (microbial digestion) which has not been previously
digested.
Colon
This is a wide coiled tube which absorbs large amounts of water from the waste into the
body. The colon is much shorter than the ileum.
Rectum
This is a short tube at the end of the colon where waste materials are stored before
removal from the body. It is closed by muscular sphincters which keep the waste inside
until removed.
Anus
This is an opening through which the waste materials are expelled.

Summary of digestive enzymes

PART JUICE ENZYME FUNCTION

SECRETED
Mouth Saliva Ptyalin Starch maltose
(only in
non-ruminants)
Pepsin Proteins Peptides
Stomach Gastric juice
(Abomasum) Rennin Coagulates milk protein

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 None Neutralizes acid in the chyme
Liver Bile (partially digested food)

Emulsifies fats
Amylase Starch maltose
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Trypsin Proteins + peptides
Peptides
Lipase
Fats fatty acids & glycerol
Peptidase Peptides amino acids

Maltase Maltose glucose

Ileum Intestinal juice
Sucrase Sucrose fructose

Lactase Lactose galactose

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Differences between the ruminants and non-ruminants
Ruminants
Non-ruminants

Chew the cud Do not chew the cud

Have 4 stomach chambers(polygastric) One stomach (monogastric)

No ptyalin in the saliva Ptyalin present in the saliva

Cellulose digested in the 4 chambers & Cellulose digested in the caecum for those
caecum which eat grass

ANIMAL HEALTH

An animal is healthy when its movement, appearance, feeding, body temperature and
excreta are normal i.e. similar to the other animals in the herd or breed. Any deviation
from normal suggests that the animal is sick.

Characteristics of healthy animals

 Appearance; a healthy animal has a normal posture both standing and laying
down
 Behaviour ; it will be up right, alert and responsive to touch
 A healthy animal will have a good appetite for feed if its digestive system is
functioning properly, and will feed to satisfaction if given the food of the right
taste, colour and smell.
 Defaecation; the excreta should be normal i.e. it should neither be too hard nor too
watery
 Skin coat; the coat of a healthy animal should be glossy or shiny in bright light,
streamlined and clean and show complete cover i.e. without patches
 Head held upright
 Eyes are clear and bright
 Pulse rate , respiration rate and temperature; when farm animals are healthy, the
show temperature, pulse rate, and respiration within a specific range for instance
cattle has a temperature range of 38.5 - 39.5 0C; chicken 40.5 - 43.0oC

DISEASES
Classification of animal diseases basing on causative agent and host animal affected
Disease Causative agent Host(s) animal
Tuberculosis Bacteria Poultry, cattle, sheep, goats
Mastitis Bacteria Dairy animals e.g. cattle
Botulism Bacteria Cattle, sheep, goats
Contagious abortion Bacteria Cattle, sheep, goats, donkey
Anthrax Bacteria Cattle
Fowl typhoid Bacteria Poultry e.g. chickens
CBPP (contagious bovine Bacterium (Mycoplasma cattle
pleuro pneumonia) mycoides)

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Disease Causative agent Host(s) animal

Foot and mouth Virus Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs

Rabies Virus Cattle, goats, dogs, cats
New castle Virus Poultry eg chickens
Swine fever Virus Pigs

Trypanosomiasis Protozoa cattle

Coccidiosis Protozoa Poultry eg chicken

Heart water Rickettsia Cattle, sheep, goats

Aphosphorosis Lack of phosphorus Cattle, donkey

Rickets Lack of calcium Cattle, poultry
Piglet anaemia Shortage of iron piglets

General methods of prevention of livestock diseases

 Housing-Suitable living conditions for animals are important. There should be
enough space, light and ventilation in livestock houses, no dampness, no cold
draughts and no overcrowding.
 Suitable diet-Give animals enough, fresh and clean food of the right type.
Malnourished animals have low resistance to diseases.
 Separation of young and old stock to avoid older carriers transmitting diseases
to the young animals that have little resistance.
 Hygiene-There should be regular cleaning and disinfection of drinkers and
feeding troughs. Cleaning and disinfecting of animal houses or cages after one
batch of animals leave, and before another one is brought in.
 Isolation-Sick animals should be separated from the rest of the flock or herd. This
prevents them from passing pathogens to healthy animals
 Control of vermin-Vermin is pests like rats and mice. They eat the food meant
for farm animals and often go into dirty places like drains and rubbish heaps.
This means that they carry pathogens from one place to the other (vectors of
diseases).
 Control of parasites-Ticks, mites, fleas, flies, lice and tsetse-flies are external
parasites living on cattle and other animals. They bite and/or suck blood from the
animal in doing so they may transmit several diseases. Most external parasites are
controlled by regular dipping of stock.

Foot and mouth, FMD

Foot and mouth is a highly contagious and infectious diseases of cloven hooved animals
e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, kudu e.t.c.
Aetiology (cause of the disease)
It is caused by a virus which attacks the mucous membrane of the mouth and coronet
(area below and between the hooves). The virus can persist for over a year in infected

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areas, for ten to twelve weeks on clothing and feed, and up to a month on hair/animal fur.
The virus can also survive in bull semen for at least a month.
Transmission
Foot and mouth is spread by both inhalation and ingestion. The diseases is spread
mainly by the contents of blisters on bursting and by the milk, urine, nasal discharge and
other secretion and excretions which convey the infection directly from a sick animal to
those that are healthy. The spread from pigs to cattle is via movements of people, animals
or abattoir waste in which case ingestion is the likely method of spread. Further spread to
cattle and between cattle is more likely to be by air borne means. The virus can persist in
aerosol form for long periods. It is estimated that sufficient virus to initiate an infection
can be wind borne as far as 100km
Symptoms
 Blisters/lesions in the mouth and tongue, udder and coronets
 Fever- high temperature of about 40 – 41oC
 Dullness and loss of appetite
 Lameness due to wounds in the coronets
 There is abundant salivation, the saliva hanging in strings
 Rapid loss in milk yield occurs during acute periods.
 Loss of weight which may lead to death
 Loss of hooves
Prevention and control
 Control by destroying infected animals i.e all animals slaughtered and burned
 Regular vaccination every six months
 Herds should be placed in a quarantine whenever there is an outbreak
 Suspected cases must be reported to the police or animal health department
 Cordon fence should be used to control movement of the animals.

PARASITES OF LIVESTOCK

These are living organisms that depend on other living organisms for shelter and food.
These can be classified into two groups.
(a) Internal or endo-parasites
 Roundworms
 Tapeworms
 Liver flukes
(b) External or ecto-parasites
 Ticks
 Flies
 Mites
 Lice
 Tsetse fly

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Internal/endo-parasite (Liver fluke)
A liver fluke is an example of an endo-parasite. It is a worm with a flattened body that
lives in the liver of the host. Different species of liver flukes attack all grazing animals
such as sheep, goats and cattle. Animals that feed on wet or swampy pastures are most
likely to be attacked by liver flukes as part of their life cycle is spent in the water.

Life cycle of a liver fluke

1. An adult liver fluke lives in the liver of the primary host (the cow). 2. Their eggs are
passed down the bile duct to the intestines and are passed out with the faeces. The eggs
may be laid in the grass and stay for many months without hatching if the weather is dry.
3. As soon as the water is present, they hatch and the larvae can swim about for up to
two weeks. If they meet a certain species of snail, the larvae bore through its skin. They
live and feed on snails as their secondary host and their numbers multiply. 4. Then they
leave the snail and swim up the stems of grass or other plants in the thin film of water on
the surface. When they are on the grass, they form cysts; this is a resting stage of the life
cycle. They are waiting for animals to eat the grass. When the grass is eaten by an animal,
the cysts hatch into flukes in the intestines. These flukes then burrow through the
intestines and reach the liver where they stay.

Damage caused by liver flukes

 Upset digestion and loss of appetite leading to acute weight loss
 Animal become dull, depressed
 swollen abdomen and pain in acute cases
 Haemorrhages of the liver and anaemia
 Death may follow in a few days

Prevention and control

 Control of snails which are intermediate host by draining all wet and swampy
land and keeping away grazing animals.

21
  Spray snails with copper sulphate
 Treat animal with anthelmintics (medicine that kills internal worm-like parasites)

External /ectoparasites (ticks)

These ecto-parasites belong to a group of parasites which cause major losses in livestock
production, by sucking blood, and transmission of bacterial, viral and protozoan diseases
which they achieve by their habit of moving from one animal to another. There are
several species of ticks, blue tick (Boophilius microplus) Bont tick (Ambloyoma
hebraem), red legged tick (Rhipicephalus evertsi).
Damage caused by ticks on cattle
 They cause a lot of harm by sucking blood and transmission of diseases such as
heart water, east coast fever, red water and anaplasmosis.
 As they suck blood they damage the skin which lowers the hide value
 May cause severe wounds through which pathogens enter the body
 Cause severe weakness due to loss of blood
 Performance of the animal is reduced e.g. milk production may be low
Life cycle
This differs according to the species of tick.
Life cycle of one host tick
1. The tick feeds on the host until it becomes engorged (full of blood). 2. When full of
blood it jumps to the ground and lays eggs on the grass. 3. The eggs hatch into larvae
which have 6 legs. 4. These climb up the grass waiting for a host to pass by. On the host
they undergo a process called moulting a few times before maturing. 5. At maturity they
have 8 legs. They continue feeding from the host and mate until becoming engorged and
the cycle repeats.

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Prevention and control of ticks
Procedures commonly used are:
 Application of acaricide (also called dips) e.g. arsenic trioxide. Acaricide are very
poisonous and must be diluted with water before use. The animal is painted or
dipped in the acaricide to kill ticks and prevent further infestation.
 Burning of pastures to reduce tick population
 Cultivation where land is used for pasture reduces tick population by burying
them deeply
 Natural enemies – certain small animals are known to feed on ticks, ants, birds
consume large numbers of ticks and help reduce their number

GAME FARMING
Definitions
 Game farming is the keeping of wildlife in small enclosures in the wild to semi-or
fully domesticated state e.g. ostrich and crocodile farming. Game farming
requires a high input of capital, expertise and managerial skills.

 Game ranching is an enterprise where game animals are managed on large open
ranges without internal fences, but with peripheral game fence. In Botswana game
ranching occurs mostly in Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) near game
reserves or privately owned game reserves such as Mmokolodi.

 Game and livestock ranching is an agricultural enterprise, where livestock

together with wildlife species are kept in a fenced area under good husbandry.
This is found in some freehold and leasehold farms/ranches

The following are examples of game animals found in Botswana:

Roan antelope, impala, springbok, buffalo, kudu, elephant e. t. c

Importance of game farming

 Source of foreign exchange – export of game products such as live ostriches,
ostrich eggs, meat and skins earns foreign exchange for the country
 Tourist attraction – some tourists visit this country to view game species found
in Botswana and for trophy hunting. This also brings foreign exchange into the
country.
 Conservation of endangered game species – some game ranches contribute to
the build up of populations of conserved game species such as waterbuck in the
Tuli Block ranches and rhino at Khama Rhino sanctuary.
 Creation of employment – game farming contributes towards creation of
employment opportunities in the country.
 Source of raw materials – some products from game farms and ranches are
important raw materials for agribusiness, for example ostrich and crocodile skins

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Ecological principles to consider when selecting a suitable game farm

Size of the area

Larger farms offer game better chances for survival while small farms can easily become
overgrazed and lead to other management problems. The size of the area will also
determine the level of management required i.e. weather intensive farming or extensive
ranching.
Carrying capacity
This refers to the maximum number of animals that can be supported in a particular area
without causing habitat deterioration. Therefore it will largely determine the number of
game that the farm can contain as well as the species that the farm can support. The
carrying capacity of an area is not constant, and is unique because it is based on veld
/range conditions, plant composition and climate. The carrying capacity of an area can be
increased for a given species or combination of game species by veld management and
other forms of habitat manipulation
Number of game (game populations)
The number of game kept on the farm is mainly determined by the carrying capacity, size
of the area and level of management used. If large numbers are desired then the farmer
must ensure that the area is suitable to support them.
Ecosystem concept
The ecosystem basically consists of two components:
1. Biotic factors – consisting of living organisms ranging from the biggest to the
smallest (microbes)
2. Abiotic factors – consisting of non living factors such as soil, water, climate e.t.c

The two components act inter-dependently, influencing one another in many ways. All
are essential for preservation of life in a given area. A change or disturbance in any one
facet (aspect) of an ecosystem has a ripple effect on the whole system. This can lead to a
disruption of the equilibrium (an upset of the balance) which will require adjustments in
the populations and organization of the biotic and abiotic factors. These adjustments can
take 20- 30 years to correct themselves. This time-scale should be considered when
evaluating the impact of management policies on the balance of the ecosystem.

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 Flow of energy

All energy for life originates from the sun. Plants (Producers) convert sunlight energy
into carbohydrates. Then the producers are eaten by the Herbivores which are most of
the animals used for game farming/ranching. Carnivores or Omnivores then eat these
herbivores. In game farming/ranching carnivores/omnivores are mainly people.
Thus, energy flows from the sun to people via plants and herbivores or game animals. If
one aspect of this flow is disturbed all other aspects will also be disturbed creating a
“ripple effect”. Therefore farmers must ensure that plants grow to ensure that game
produce so that the farm can make profit and be successful.

The habitat and geographical preferences of common game animals

Name of game Habitat preference Geographical area

Impala Bushveld and savanna with Chobe
Kudu availability of water close by. Prefers green
grass in summer and pods and twigs in
winter
Buffalo Tall grassveld, forest, savanna and open Tuli Block
Roan grasslands, provided there is plenty of high
quality grasses, enough water and shade
Springbok Short grassveld and shrubs. Prefers grass Kalahari
Eland and leaves for food

Capture of game animals

The major reasons for capturing or immobilizing game animals are:

 To obtain exact measurement e.g. length, body weight.
 To collect samples e.g. blood, parasites
 Marking for future recognition
 For treatment of wounds, and examination of the animal
 For vaccination or diagnosis of diseases e.t.c
 To move them from place to place

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Game capture methods
There are various methods used to capture game, they include the following:
 Movable capture corrals
 Crossbows
 Dart guns
 Game capture drugs
 Capture nets
Only capture corrals will be discussed.

Movable capture corrals

Capture corrals are made from woven, high density, opaque, polythene plastic. Game
animals perceive the opaque walls as solid and therefore impermeable. It is suitable for
capturing most game animals. It can be used to capture large numbers of game with
minimum deaths and injuries among animals. Capture corrals differ in size and shape but
the basic design consists of the following components:

1. Capture funnel
2. Holding area
3. Loading funnel
4. Loading ramp

Advantages of capture corrals

 There is little disruption and physical handling of animals
 Deaths and injuries are minimized
 Large numbers of game can be captured, transported and off loaded within a short
period of time.

Disadvantages
 The purchase, maintenance and replacement of the equipment is expensive

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  Unnatural smell and noise of flapping plastic in strong winds frightens the game
animals.
 Strong winds can sometimes lift the plastic walls and allow the animals to escape
 It’s successful use is limited to areas with adequate natural cover
 The corral must be moved to a new site when game animals become aware of it’s
presence in a specific part of the ranch i.e. it is labour intensive.

OSTRICH FARMING
Importance of ostrich farming
 Kept for meat and eggs
 It’s feathers and egg shells are used for decoration
 The skin is used for making shoes, belts jackets e.t.c

Methods of rearing ostriches

1. Extensive method
The birds are allowed to roam over a large open area which is fenced to prevent them
from escaping. The birds mainly depend on the natural vegetation for survival.
Advantages
 Low feeding costs
 Low labour required
 Doesn’t need much skill to operate
Disadvantages
 Low productivity or hatchability
 Birds and eggs may be eaten by predators
 Birds waste a lot of energy searching for food
 Difficult to control parasites, diseases and breeding

2. Semi- intensive
Under this method birds are kept in medium sized paddocks up to 40 ha. Birds are
allowed to breed and lay eggs freely. The ostrich nests are identified and some of the
eggs are collected and taken to the incubator where they are hatched while birds are
allowed to hatch others. Birds get much of their food from the range but receive regular
supplements from the farmer.
Advantages
 Low feeding costs
 Low labour required
 Higher productivity than extensive system
 Lower mortality rate
Disadvantages
 Birds are not protected from predators
 Difficult to control parasites, diseases and breeding

c. Intensive method

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This is basically a zero grazing system with all feed supplied to birds kept in paddocks.
Pairs and trios are kept in 0.2 -0.5 ha paddocks or pens. All eggs are collected daily and
hatched artificially.
Advantages
● High productivity and hatchability
● The birds are protected from predators,
● Parasites, diseases and breeding are easily controlled
● Low mortality rate
Disadvantages
● High feeding costs
● Expensive to operate
● Needs skilled manpower

Incubation of Ostrich Eggs

Incubation is the process of caring for the egg in a way that will facilitate its hatching. In
nature the parents will provide the necessary requirements but if the egg is incubated
artificially in a man made incubator then the farmer must ensure that the following are
provided for Incubation and subsequent hatching to take place.
1. Time-the egg needs 6 weeks or 42 days for the chick to mature
2. Turning-the egg must be turned at least twice per day to ensure even heating and
to avoid chick deformities.
3. Suitable Temperature-Ostrich eggs require a constant temperature of 36-36.5 º C
4. Humidity-the egg requires 40-42% relative humidity to prevent it from drying out
and dying.
5. Ventilation-The chick requires oxygen to develop and waste gases must be
removed from the incubator to avoid their buildup.

Marking of birds in captivity

It is very important for the farmer to have a means of identifying his/her birds and
distinguishing them from wild birds to avoid theft of captive birds and to prevent the
illegal harvesting of wild birds. The DWNP (Department of Wildlife and National Parks)
in Botswana assists farmers with this marking process by providing equipment and
technical skills in the use of microchips and associated equipment to the farmers.
Microchips are very small, metal pellet-like apparatuses that can store large quantities of
information like a computer. The microchips are very easily inserted beneath the skin on
the neck of the Ostrich using a special tool that acts like a syringe. The chip remains
under the skin for the life of the ostrich. New information can be entered or old
information retrieved using a hand held microchip reader.
Advantages of marking birds with microchips
 able to store large quantities of information
 not easily removed or altered by thieves
 not easily obtained/used outside the knowledge of DWNP thus preventing their
use on illegally captured wild birds.
 Causes no stress or damage to the birds hide
Disadvantages of marking birds with microchips
 requires technical skill to use and insert

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  equipment is expensive

Advantages of Ostrich meat over Beef

 Ostrich meat has less fat than beef
 Ostrich meat has less cholesterol than beef
 Ostrich meat has more protein than beef
Efforts by Government towards game farming development in Botswana
The Botswana Government has put in place a number of initiatives to encourage farmers
to venture into game farming as a means of diversifying the economy.
1. Construction of an Ostrich abattoir at Sebele - this provides farmers with a place to
sell their birds at reasonable rates.
2. Extension workers provide guidance on the rearing and management of ostrich
3. DWNP provides assistance in the marking of birds
4. CEDA and the Young Farmers Fund offer financial assistance to people interested in
beginning or expanding their ostrich farms.

Legislative measures ensuring sustainable use of game and endangered species

The Botswana government and Batswana in general value wildlife and as such have
made efforts to ensure that they are conserved and used wisely. The following are some
legislative measures and international treaties to which Botswana has agreed to uphold.
1. Wildlife conservation policy 1986
Outlines the importance of wildlife and the rules of sustainable use.
2. Elephant management plant 1991
Guides the DWNP in the conservation and management of elephants.
3. Ostrich management policy 1994
Guides in the use and monitoring of wild ostrich for research and other uses such
as hunting and collection.
4. CITIES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) Botswana
became a signatory in 1997
CITIES Controls and monitors trade in endangered plant and animal life
throughout the world.

RANGE AND PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Definitions
Range-The natural vegetation suitable for grazing or browsing livestock
Rangeland: an area covered by natural vegetation such as grasses, shrubs and
trees
Pasture- a fenced area with a planted grass or any other fodder crop and
maintained by the farmer for grazing livestock.
Range/Pasture management-the care and maintenance of the grazing land to
provide the highest yield and better food for livestock.
Factors affecting Range management in Botswana

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1. Rainfall: the growth of vegetation is largely influenced by amount of rainfall,
such that the lower the rainfall for a certain area, the less plant material will be
produced. This will lead to lower carrying capacity.
2. Soils: Most of the country has sandy soils which are deficient in phosphorus
and less organic matter. This results in low fertility and poor water holding capacity.
Therefore plant growth will be poor and hence carrying capacity will be low.
3. Temperature: Due to excessive heat, plants wilt and die or grow poorly
resulting in low carrying capacity.
4. Human activities:
i) Communal grazing system: this type of grazing results in severe overstocking
and overgrazing, causing long term deterioration of the range
ii) Veld fires: this indiscriminate burning of veld destroys vegetation that could
otherwise be grazed by livestock. When coupled with erratic rainfall and high
temperatures, the reestablishment of vegetation is also normally low.

Composition of Ranges in Botswana

All ranges in Botswana have varying amounts of the following
1. Grasses: these provide the main food for grazing animals. There are many
species found in each range and each has its own grazing value. Examples are Panicum
maximum (Guinea grass), Cenchrus ciliaris (buffalo grass)

2. Forbs: also called herbs, these are broad leaved and non-woody plants. They are
usually of little value to grazer’s e.g. Datura ferrox, flannel weed and Mexican poppy.

3. Browse: these include all woody plants, trees, shrubs and bushes. They have
woody stems and are perennials. Many are source of food for browsing animals e.g.
Grewia bicolor (mogwana), Boscia foetida ( mopipi)

4. Bare ground: this is an area where no plants grow. These areas may be a result of
overgrazing, fires, foot paths or insect damage. They are prone to erosion.
5. Occasionally standing water: this is water which does not flow. Animals often
drink this water although it may contain parasites and disease causing organisms.

TYPES OF NATURALVEGETATION FOUND IN BOTSWANA

The vegetation cover of Botswana consists of ground layer of a mixture of grasses and
other smaller plants with an upper layer of scattered trees and shrubs. The density of trees
or shrubs in any one area will vary from place to place depending on rainfall, temperature,
soil and drainage.
The main vegetation types found in Botswana are:

A) Woodland: these are mostly trees and shrubs with a ground cover of a mixture
of grasses. Some of these offer valuable browse for animals especially at the end of the
dry season.eg. - Combretum apiculatum (mohudiri), Grewia flava (moretlwa),
Colophospermum mopane (mophane), Boscia albitrunca (Shepherd’s tree). Found on the
North central of the country.

30
 B) Grassland savannah: this consists mostly of grasses, sedges and herbs. This
grassland can cover large area e.g. in the Makgadikgadi pans. A few trees or woody
plants may be scattered among the grasses. They constitute the most important feed for
the livestock in the rangelands.

C) Forests: this consists mostly of taller trees. There is little grass at ground level.
The area receives a lot of rainfall and has good fertile heavy soils. Found on the Northern
part i.e. Chobe district.

D) Shrub Savannah: in which there are few trees and many scattered shrubs. The
vegetation consists mostly of acacias and they are found in the South west of the country.

Map of Botswana showing the natural vegetation

Explanation of Concepts underlying Range Management

Forage-any vegetative or plant material fed to livestock. eg. Hay, silage, crop
residues, range/pasture grass, etc.
Livestock unit (LSU) is a mature live animal of 500kg.
Generally 6 sheep/goats = 1LSU, suckling calves = 0 LSU, 1donkey/cow/horse = 1LSU
and 1bull = 1.5LSU.
Stocking rate (SR):-the number of livestock actually kept per hectare, or the amount of
grazing land given to a livestock unit. The units of SR are ha/LSU or LSU/ha.
Carrying capacity (CC): -the correct stocking rate for a given area. This is the area of
grazing which should be made available to one LSU so that it can be maintained and
produce efficiently without damaging the grazing area. The units of CC are ha/LSU or
LSU/ha. This is determined by the climatic conditions, soil type, species of vegetation
available, season etc
Calculation of SR
1. Calculate the SR of the following farms

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 A) 250 ha grazing with 160 LSU
B) 1500 LSU grazing in 1000 ha
C) 200 sheep, 200 goats 20 donkeys, 3 bulls, 200 cows and 5 horses all
grazing in a 3200 ha pasture
2. If the CC of each of the farms is 22ha/LSU, comment on the condition likely to occur
on each farm.

Overstocking-when the stocking rate exceeds the carrying capacity. OR When there are
more LSU’s than the range/pasture can support.
Overgrazing-when the grass is grazed to such an extent that it cannot re-grow and it dies.
This is usually a result of overstocking.
Understocking- when the stocking rate is lower than the carrying capacity. OR When
there are fewer LSU’s than the range/pasture can support.
Undergrazing- when the grass is not fully grazed and is allowed to grow old and
become un-nutritious. It is usually the less palatable grasses that are undergrazed. These
then prevent the re-growth of the more desirable grasses resulting in a poor range/pasture.
If SR = CC the pasture is in balance
Mixed species grazing-when two or more different species of animal are allowed to
graze an area together. Eg. Mixing cattle and goats. This can be advantageous as the two
feed differently .The species do not compete for the same plants and therefore the
range/pasture is more fully utilized completely.
Decreasers-the most desirable grass species, which animals graze first usually because
they are more palatable, taller and more nutritious. Hence they decrease with increased
grazing pressure. Eg. Panicum maximum, Kikuyu, Cenchrus ciliaris
Increasers-the less desirable grass species, which animals mostly avoid eating usually
because they are shorter and less palatable. These replace the decreasers when grazing
pressure increases. Hence they increase with increased grazing pressure. Eg.
Eragrostits rigidior, Dactyloctenium aegyptium
Invaders-these are very undesirable, usually annuals, weeds, or unpalatable shrubs that
take over when the decreasers and increasers are weakened by constant grazing pressure.
Eg. Euclea undulate (motlhakolane), Dichapetalum cymosum (Mogau), Pavetta
harborii (logonyana).

EXTENSIVE RANGE MANAGEMENT

This is a system where animals are allowed to roam and graze in open unfenced areas. It
is the oldest and traditional method of looking after livestock in many parts of Africa.
Herd boys (or men, women, or girls) stay with the herds and guide them to the grazing
areas during daytime and kraal them at night.

Advantatages

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  It is cheap
 Animals freely roam around in search of food
 There is no limit to the number of animals one may have
 Anyone is free to have livestock
Disadvantages
 Overgrazing is very common
 Selective grazing occurs
 Difficult to control pest and diseases
 Livestock are easily killed by predators or get lost

Destruction of Rangeland and its avoidance

Destroyed by Avoided by____________________

Uncontrolled burning making fire brakes, avoid burning
Deforestation avoid cutting trees
Overstocking fence the ranges and keep SR= CC
Bush encroachment Control invaders

Use of Indigenous Species to improve rangelands

Sometimes the vegetation in the range is depleted or is not very good for feeding
livestock. The range or pasture can be improved by sowing plant species of high grazing
value which are locally available as they are more adapted to the climatic conditions of
the country. These are over-sown i.e. the original grass layer is left intact and seeds of the
new species are broadcasted on the surface and left to germinate when rains begin.
Some useful indigenous grasses are Panicum maximum and Cynodon dactylon (couch
grass).

Methods of Improving range and pasture utilization-to get the most out of a
pasture/range and reduce wastage farmers can practice any of the following:
(b) Keeping correct stocking rates i.e. SR = CC
(c) practice mixed species grazing
(d) practice rotational, strip or zero grazing
(e) store excess forage as hay or silage
(f) distribute water points in the range

INTENSIVE PASTURE MANAGEMENT

This refers to the condition where the pastures are fenced to control the movement of
livestock.. The pastures are maintained in a good condition to ensure that they provide
quality feed to the livestock throughout the year. An improved pasture provides food for
the animals hence the livestock will grow and reproduce well.

33
Methods of Improving Intensive Pastures
Fencing: the fence confines the livestock within the grazing area and also prevents
unwanted animals from entering and feeding inside. The farmer is also able to control
movement of his livestock to give time for certain areas to re-grow.

Fertilising: This replaces nutrients removed by grazing as well as improving the quality
of the grass. The livestock will therefore feed on a nutritious grass which will improve
their live weight. Examples of fertilizers that can be applied are LAN and urea for leaf
growth and phosphatic fertilizers for root development.

Irrigation: this can be done especially in the dry season, if water is available. It will also
increase the yield hence more food for the livestock.

Re-seeding: the area may be ploughed and planted with new better varieties of grasses or
pasture legumes which can make the pasture more nutritious, faster growing and
palatable

Bush control: remove invaders that compete with fodder crops. They waste space, steal
nutrients and water and prevent the grass from covering the ground
.
Watering points: the points for drinking water should be enough and far enough apart so
that the animals will not spend all the time grazing in one area near the water source.

Types of Intensive Grazing Systems

1. Rotational Grazing: a large area of grazing land is divided into at least 2 paddocks.
The livestock graze one paddock at a time while the other(s) are given time to recover.
Advantages
 A pasture is given time to re-grow
 Diseases and parasites are easily controlled
 Irrigation, fertilization and other maintenance measures can be easily done
 Reduces the danger of selective grazing
 Allows grass to set seeds
Disadvantages
 High cost of fencing and provision of watering points in the paddocks
 Large area of land is needed

2. Zero grazing: in this system, livestock do not graze. Instead fresh food is cut daily and
taken to the animals in a pen. A pasture is still needed to grow the fodder crop.
Advantages
 Animals can gain weight quickly as movement is severely restricted
 Only a small area is needed for the pasture
 The pasture is not spoiled by trampling hence it re-grows quickly
 Livestock can easily be inspected and treated for pests and diseases
 The type of feed can easily be changed as the farmer wishes
 Animals are protected from predators
 A large number of animals can be raised in a small area

34
 Selective grazing and overgrazing are prevented
Disadvantages
 Very high initial cost of establishing the production structures e.g. kraals, watering
points and feeding troughs
 Much labour required to remove dung and carry feed to animals on daily basis
 Animals do not get enough exercise since they are confined to small area hence may
get paralysis.
 A high standard of management is required, e.g. how much of feed to order/ prepare
and how often to feed

3. Strip Grazing: paddocks are divided into narrow strips of pastures using an electric
fence which is moved daily for day to day grazing. Any animal that makes contact with
the electric fence receives a slight shock and therefore moves away.
Advantages
 Fencing allows livestock farmer to control animals during breeding though bulls may
override it
 Animals can gain weight quickly as movement is severely restricted
 The pasture can re-grow quickly
 Animals are protected from predators
 Grass is eaten at its highest grazing value
 Selective grazing and overgrazing are prevented
Disadvantages
 Expensive to install electric fence
 High level of management required

Creep grazing/feeding: - a feeding system aimed at preventing older animals from

consuming feed meant for younger ones. The feed is placed such that the young animals,
because of their small body size, can reach it easily. For example, in pig production, the
pen is divided into two sections; a section which can be reached only by the piglets
(where theier feed is placed) and; a section for both the soar and piglets

disadvantage
 The system requires special structures to separate animals
Poisonous Plants Found in Botswana
A poisonous plant is the one when eaten or consumed in such quantities by man or
livestock exert harmful effects on the system which may lead to death
Common examples are
i) Dichapetulum cymosum (mogau)
ii) Pavetta harborii (logonyana)
iii) Tribulus terrestris (devils thorn)
vi) Datura stramonium (apple thorn)

Methods of fodder preservation

Fodder crops are plants grown to feed livestock. Such plants may be grasses, cereals and
legumes. Examples of such plants are:

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 Grasses Cereals Legumes
Buffalo Millet Lablab
Rhodes grass Sorghum Lucerne
Kikuyu Maize Siratro
Couch grass Bulrush Cowpeas/beans
A

good fodder crop should have high yields, be of a high nutritive value, grow quickly and
continuously and be easy to remove to grow other crops.

The methods of fodder preservation are:

● Hay: The fodder crop is preserved by drying.

Method: The fodder crop is cut when it is green and fresh, before it flowers (after
flowering it is less nutritious). It is left to dry for a day or two in the sun. It is turned so
that it dries evenly and when it is dry to touch it is then ready for collection into bundles
or bales. These bales or bundles of hay must then be stored in a cool dry place out of the
sun. If the hay has not dried correctly (when too wet) it will rot or be unpalatable and less
nutritious. If made and stored well it remain good, nutritious feed for livestock for up to 5
years. As it is dry, water must always be made available when feeding hay.

● Silage: the fodder crop is preserved by fermentation.

Method: the crop is cut at its flowering stage before the stem hardens. Chop the plant into
small pieces and place them in airtight pit or silage heap or silo.
Compress the material to remove most of the air and cover with an air tight plastic. Leave
material for 3-4 weeks to allow it to ferment. The bacteria found naturally on the crop
will ferment the crop changing complex carbohydrates (cellulose) into simpler sugars and
producing acids and alcohols which will preserve the grass. Silage activators may be
added to speed up the fermentation process. Keep on checking. After some weeks or
months, depending on the material used and climate the crop will be fully converted to
silage and will be ready to feed to livestock. If silage is ready, it must have the following:
a mild and pleasant aroma, a slightly acidic taste and a greenish yellow colour. It is
advisable to feed livestock silage in winter as it is moist and warm. The silage may last
for a few months before it begins to spoil and becomes unsuitable for feeding.

Details of one named pasture grass - Kikuyu

Form and habit of growth-It is tufted (many stems emerge from one point like a paint
brush) with fibrous roots and stolons.

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Soil Requirements-requires well drained well aerated soil with good water holding
capacity
Climate Requirements-warm temperatures with evenly spaced rainfall or irrigation
Persistence (length of growing period)-is a perennial
Fertiliser Requirements-Basal dress with Super Phosphate 150 kg/ha to establish a new
pasture. Top dress every year with LAN 100 kg/ha to stimulate new growth
Planting time and method- Broadcast seed over well prepared soil at the beginning of the
rainy season. Seed rate of 2.5 kg/ha. It takes 2-3 years for grass to become established
before it can safely be grazed therefore when it is initially sown it is often “under-sown”
with a cereal crop e.g. Wheat or maize i.e. The grass is sown between the rows of crops.
This will at least allow a crop to be harvested form the land in the first year.
Nutritive value-very high nutritive value before flowering after flowering the value
decreases.

Details of one named pasture legume-Lucerne

Form and habit of growth-It is deep rooting and bushy with many small trifoliate leaves
and small purple flowers.
Soil Requirements-requires deep well drained soils
Climate Requirements-is a cool climate plant that needs rainfall of around 450 mm/yr.
Persistence-it is a perennial.
Fertiliser Requirements-Basal dress with Super Phosphate 400 kg/ha and lime if soil is
acidic.
Planting time and method- Broadcast seed over well prepared soil at the beginning of the
rainy season or under-sow with a cereal crop. Seed rate of 10 kg/ha.
Nutritive value-very nutritious before flowering especially high in proteins (as are all
legumes) after flowering the value decreases.

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