MODULE 7

AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING
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7.1 INTRODUCTION
Definition: Agricultural Engineering is the branch of agriculture that deals mainly with
the machines, equipment, structures and tools and how they are applied (processes) in
order to improve crop and animal production.

Importance of Agric. Engineering

 Reduces labour
 Allows work to be done faster
 Increases production
 Improves quality of products

7.2 IRRIGATION
Definition: Irrigation is the controlled application of water to the land and/or crops.

Importance of irrigation
 Improves yield, growth, photosynthesis, and general productivity.
 Improves crop quality, plant turgidity, and general health.

Three types of irrigation systems

1. Surface irrigation e.g. Basin and flood
2. Subsurface irrigation e.g. furrow
3. Overhead irrigation e.g. sprinkler

1. Surface irrigation-water is applied directly onto the soil surface. Example: Basin
Irrigation
Description of Basin Irrigation- commonly practiced when irrigating fruit trees. A wall
of soil is made in a circle around each tree creating a basin then water is poured into each
basin filling it as much as possible. The water is allowed to slowly drain down through
the soil to the trees roots.
Diagram of Basin Irrigation

Fruit tree

Basin constructed around base of tree

and filled with water.
*Note that diameter of
basin is about the same as diameter of the tree top.
This is to ensure that all the roots receive water.

Advantages of Basin Irrigation

i. Low labour and material costs
ii. Not much water is wasted
iii. Little or no erosion
iv. Low maintenance costs

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v. require basic knowledge and skills to construct and operate

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Disadvantages of Basin Irrigation
i. Only suitable for level land
ii. May result in leaching, capping and soil pans
iii. It is easy to over water
iv. Suitable for areas with plenty of water

2. Subsurface Irrigation-water is delivered below the soil surface/ground level.

Example: Furrow Irrigation
Description of Furrow Irrigation= shallow trenches are dug through the field to carry
water from its source (a lake, dam, river, reservoir, etc.) to the crops which should be
planted in rows.
Diagram of Furrow Irrigation

furrows to carry
water between
rows of crops

main water
channel carrying
water from source

direction of flowing
water

small pile or dam of

soil to diver flowing water
Advantages of Furrow Irrigation
i. Low labour and material costs
ii. Roots get water quickly and efficiently
Disadvantages of Furrow Irrigation
i. Danger of soil erosion therefore not suitable for steep slopes
ii. May lead to leaching
iii. Uneven distribution of water to plants
iv. Not suited to steep slopes
v. Some water wasted/requires large quantities of water.

3. Overhead Irrigation-water is delivered from above the crops. Example: Sprinkler

Irrigation.
Description of Sprinkler Irrigation - Water is pumped from the source to the crops
through pipes at high pressure. Then a sprinkler sprays the water into the air where it falls
like rain onto the plants.

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Diagram of Sprinkler Irrigation

Water sprays from sprinkler

Sprinkler
Crops

main pipe from

water source/pump
Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation
i. Suitable for all types of land
ii. Minimal danger of soil erosion
iii. A controlled quantity of water can be distributed to crops
iv. Uniform distribution of water to crops
Disadvantages of Sprinkler Irrigation
i. Higher labour and material costs
ii. Wets leaves which encourage fungal diseases
iii. Wastage of water due to evaporation.
iv. Not suitable for tall plants, such as fruit trees, as they interrupt the water spray.

7.3 DRAINAGE
Definition: Drainage refers to methods by which excess water is removed from an area
of land that is waterlogged to make the area suitable for farming and other uses.
Advantages of Drainage
i. Field work such as ploughing, harrowing and sowing can be more easily done
ii. Removes excess water which can harbour disease causing organisms affecting man,
crops and livestock
iii. Helps improve soil structure by improving aeration
iv. Improves root development in most plants
v. Encourages the activities of useful soil organisms e.g., earthworms, nitrogen fixing
bacteria, etc.
vi. Reduces the activity of denitrifying bacteria which remove nitrogen from the soil.
Disadvantages of Drainage
i. Results in leaching of important plant nutrients
ii. Drainage structures such as open ditches reduce the surface area available for
farming
iii. Expensive to construct and maintain drainage structures
iv. Some drainage structures, such as open ditches, harbor pests such as rats

Effects of waterlogged soils on crops

 Roots cannot respire as there is not enough oxygen present; hence they have no
energy to grow or absorb nutrients

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  Plants absorb excessive amounts of water which interferes with the diffusion of
nutrients throughout the plant; hence plants grow stunted and produce less.
 Some nutrients are made un-absorbable especially potassium
 Roots of some crops (like cabbage) grow “club” shaped due to lack of air in the
soil.
 Continual dampness at soil level encourages the multiplication of fungi which
cause diseases such as damping off.

Methods used to drain waterlogged soils

1. Open ditches
2. Piped drains

1. Open ditch method

Description= ditches or trenches of 1-2 m deep and 50-100m apart are dug through the
field. The ditches are wider in sandy soils but closer in clay soils. They are positioned
in such a way that they lead water to the lowest point (e.g. into a stream) then the
excess water in the field can flow through the ditches, to the stream and away from the
field. The ditches have the effect of lowering the water table to the level of the bottom
of the ditch (1-2 m deep) so that plant roots can grow in soil which is not waterlogged.
Diagram of Open ditch method of drainage

level of water before

ditch cut new lowered
level of water table
after ditch cut water flow in
bottom of ditch

Advantages of Open Ditch method

i. Low cost of construction

Disadvantages of Open Ditch method

i. Risk of soil erosion
ii. Disturbs movement of tractors and equipment through the field
iii. Occupies space where crops could grow i.e. reduce area available fro farming
iv. Require regular maintenance

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2. Piped drain system
Description= ditches of 1-2 m deep and 50-100 m apart are dug through the field and
clay or perforated plastic pipes are laid at the bottom of the ditches. Then rocks are
laid around the pipes before re-filling the ditches with soil to prevent blockage of the
perforations. The pipes are positioned so that they lead water to the lowest point i.e.
into a stream so that the excess water in the field can flow through the buried pipes, to
the stream and away from the field.
Diagram of piped drain method of drainage
drained soil

soil level

pipe water flows

into pipe
Level of water
table
Advantages of piped drain method
i. Does not disturb movement of equipment through the field
ii. Does not subtract from space for crops
iii. No risk of erosion

Disadvantages of piped drain method

i. High material and construction costs

7.4 FENCING
Definition: An enclosure that restricts the movement of animals or people in an area.

Reasons for fencing:

1. To keep animals away from crops
2. To control breeding
3. To control diseases
4. To practice intensive grazing systems
5. To mark property lines or boundaries
6. For security-keep out thieves
7. Live fences act as windbreaks

Two types of fences: Fences are normally classified into two groups according the type
of material used to construct them.
1. Dead fences
2. Live fences

1. Dead fences= 4 examples

i. Post and wire fences-these are most commonly used for livestock, people, and
boundaries

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 ii. Wooden fences-made of branches of thorn trees with some posts for added
strength or posts with rails attached. These are less durable than wire but may be
an inexpensive alternative for controlling livestock and/or people and marking
boundaries.
iii. Walls/Stone/Concrete-Often used around homes for controlling small stock, and
security, privacy or boundaries.
iv. Trench-A wide “V” shaped trench is dug outside a normal fence to trap strong
wild animals trying to enter the farm. Animals caught are often hurt after falling
into the trench and are usually killed for meat by the farmer.

2. Live fences= 2 examples

i. Hedges and growing trees-These are cheap and easy to construct. They provide
privacy, mark boundaries and act as windbreaks.
ii. Electric fences-A thin gauge wire is strung between movable insulated metal posts
and attached to a portable low voltage battery. They are useful for livestock but are
expensive to maintain (battery charging).

Materials for fence construction (post and wire fences):

1 Posts - For supporting wires and gates they come in two different materials: (wood
and metal)

a. Wood - made from tree branches there are two kinds (untreated and treated)
i. Untreated poles (also called bush poles). Can be collected from the forest or
purchased.
Advantages of untreated wood posts
 Very cheap
Disadvantages of untreated wood posts
Not durable - easily damaged by moisture, and termites
ii. Treated - soaked in protective chemicals to prevent damage by moisture and
termites.
Advantages of treated wood posts
Cheaper than metal
Quite durable
Disadvantages of treated wood posts
More expensive than untreated wood

b. Metal - available in different lengths and thickness

Advantages of metal posts
Very durable
Disadvantages of metal posts
Expensive

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 Posts-Terminology used to describe different posts based on their use within the fence.
Strainers/corner post=large posts used in corners or at the gates to take the
strain of the wire pulling in one direction only.
Struts or supporters=used to prop up (support) strainers. There are two struts
per strainer.
Standards=used to hold up wire between corners. The wire pulls them in both
directions. They are often smaller in length and diameter than strainers.
Droppers=these are thin posts placed between standards. They are installed in
such a way that they do not touch the ground.

2. Wire - three types are commonly used (plain, barbed, and woven)

a. Plain or Gauge wire - a smooth wire of varying thickness (gauge). It is

normally used in combination with barbed wire for perimeter fencing in
animal farms.

Advantages of gauge wire

 Fairly cheap
Material is durable, i.e. lasts long
Disadvantages of gauge wire
 Cannot control movement of animals especially small stock

b. Barbed wire - made of ordinary gauge wire with sharp “barbs” spaced 8-15cm
apart. It is the most commonly used wire on farms for perimeter
fencing.

Advantages of barbed wire

 Fairly cheap
 Effectively controls movement of large stock
Disadvantages of barbed wire
 May damage animals’ skin lowering the value of the hide.
 Deep cuts from the barbs may become infected weakening the
animal

c. Woven wire-made of gauge wire which is woven into various patterns. Often
used for poultry, small stock, and gardens.
Advantages of woven wire
 Effectively controls movement of even small stock
 Can be used to control movement to burrowing animals
 May be used to deter thieves.
Disadvantages of woven wire
 Very expensive

3. Other Materials
a. Fencing staples-small nails sharpened on both ends and bent in a “U” shape.
They are used to attach wires to wooden posts.
b. Concrete-used to fill in the hole of a strainer for added strength.

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Treatment of wooden fence posts
a. Reasons for treating wooden fence posts
 Prevent warping (bending) due to dampness
 Prevent damage by termites and other insects
 Prevent rotting resulting from fungal attack and weathering

b. Method of treating wooden fence posts-Cold soaking method

i. Find a container large enough to hold the posts when laid horizontally.
ii. Fill the container about half full with a suitable chemical such as
Creosote
iii. Completely immerse peeled and dried posts in the preservative for 1-3
days. This allows the chemical to be absorbed fully by the wood.
iv. Remove the posts from the creosote and allow them to drip dry before
use.

Treatment of metal fence posts

a. Reasons for treating metal fence posts
 Prevent rusting due to dampness

b. Method of treating metal fence posts-

i. Clean the posts to remove any soil, dust, rust, or peeling paint.
ii. Paint the post with a zinc or aluminium-based paint using a brush. This
paint forms a thin but strong coat over the metal preventing corrosion.

Construction of a fence (treated wood post and barbed wire)

1. Clear the land where the fence line is to pass to a width of about 2 metres
2. Put pegs at the corners and where standards are to go. The sides of the fence
should be straight as round fences are weak.
3. Dig holes for the strainers, struts, and standards. Strainers – 60 - 90 cm deep,
Standards 40 - 75 cm deep. The distance between posts depends on the
function of the fence but for cattle standards should be around 5 m apart.
4. Set strainers and struts in holes, pour concrete and allow drying.
5. Set standards, in holes and fill with concrete or tightly packed soil.
6. Starting with the top wire, tie wire to a strainer and pull tightly with a wire
strainer before fixing to other posts with fencing staples. 3 or 4 wires will be
needed.
7. Attach droppers to wires using short pieces of gauge wire. Two droppers per 5
meters distance between standards will be needed for cattle.

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 Diagram of a typical fence for cattle
Strainer
Barbed wire standard
Dropper
Gauge wire fencing
Staple

1.5 m 30 cm

45 cm

60- 90 cm 40 -75 cm
5m

Strut
Concrete

Construction of a corner in a fence

7.5 FARM ROADS AND BUILDINGS

FARM ROADS
Importance of farm roads:
 Provide access to key areas on the farm.
 Allow quick and safe movement without damage to vehicles.
 Give minimum trouble and expense in maintenance.

Factors to consider when siting farm roads

 Should be sited along a crest (on higher ground)-not where water normally runs.
 Roads should go straight down a slope not diagonally across it.
 If the road must cross a slope there should be a drain constructed above the road
to prevent the water from flowing across the road.
 Avoid curves where possible-straight roads are easier to construct, maintain and
are safer to use.

Construction of an earth road

i. Survey the area to find the most feasible road line.
ii. Set the centerline of the road with pegs inserted at 15m to 20m intervals (tall
enough to be visible).
iii. Additional pegs to mark the width of the road and area to be covered.
iv. Clearing and marking-After the path of the road has been marked, remove all
obstacles i.e. large stones, trees, stump etc.
v. Gravelling-This is the placing of large quantities of gravel on the marked area for
the road.

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 vi. Grading-This is the spreading of the gravel along the marked area to create the
desired cambered shape for the road. It helps to make the road way even, with
neither high spots no low spots.

**Diagram of a cross section of a road-showing camber shape to allow water to

run off the road into the ditches rather than remain on the road and cause damage.

Road way (4m)

cambered shape
Normal
soil level

Drainage ditches

vii. Compaction-The gravel is “pressed” down with heavy machinery to compact it as

much as possible to create a smooth and hard surface.
viii. Drainage-Ditches must be constructed along the sides of the road to carry excess
water away.
ix. Grids (Cattle guards) - These are sets of metal or wooden bars placed at ground
level across the road normally at the entrance of the farm or in the place of gates.
The grids discourage large animals (cattle, donkeys) from crossing and entering
where they are not wanted. They eliminate the need for many gates in the road.

Maintenance of farm roads:

i. Grading-This re-shapes the road into the correct camber and also helps to remove
corrugations or bumps.
ii. Re-gravelling-Put more gravel to fill pot holes and ruts. This should be done using
soil from outside the road surface
iii. Debushing-Clearing of the side of the road must be done to remove shrubs and
trees that disturb visibility
iv. Clean drainage ditches-Remove rubbish and deposits in blocked drains and
culverts to ensure the water drains away from the road.
v. Install additional drains whenever it becomes necessary

FARM BUILDINGS
Factors to consider when siting farm buildings
 Soil Type-Soil should be free draining, stable and deep but buildings should not
be erected on land suitable for crop production.
 Gradient-Raised ground on gently sloping land is the best as it will allow rain
water to flow away from the building.
 Water source-Most farm buildings will require the use of water inside to clean, or
water livestock so the source should not be too far away.
 Security-Buildings with livestock or other valuables need to be close to the
farmer’s residence to allow frequent attention that may deter theft.
 Accessibility-To ensure easy transport, delivery and marketability of the farm
products the building should have good road access.

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  Prevailing wind direction-Buildings should be situated out of the prevailing wind
when possible otherwise windbreaks should be constructed to reduce the
harmful effects of the wind on the livestock or machinery inside the building.
 Sun-The long (windowed) sides of the building should preferably face east and
west rather than north or south to limit excessive heat from the northern sun or
the cold shadow on the southern side.

Essential features of a building for housing broilers

i. Ventilation-for dangerous gasses to escape and fresh air to enter
ii. Suitable temperature-should be able to maintain temperatures around 20-30 C
iii. Ease of cleaning-floors and walls should be smooth enough to clean and disinfect
and not hide parasites or disease organisms
iv. Security-doors should be lockable, windows barred and wire mesh reinforced to
prevent animals from being stolen. Also there should be no gaps for the entrance
of predators.
v. Light-Artificial light is advantageous as it will increase feeding periods but if it is
not possible there should be at least adequate sunlight entering the building.
vi. Space-Broilers in deep litter require a minimum space of 1m2 per every 10 birds
to maximize growth and limit vices.

Regular maintenance activities for a broiler deep litter house

 Repair cracks in walls and floors
 Repair or replace broken windows
 Patch any leaks in the roof
 Paint wooden doors and window frames to reduce damage by moisture.
 Lubricate hinges on doors to ensure smooth movement
 Oil locks before they seize due to moisture and corrosion

7.6 ANIMAL HANDLING FACILITIES

Three types of handling facilities:
1. Crushes
2. Dip tanks
3. Spray races

1. Crushes - These are structures on the farm used to restrain animals.

Importance of Crushes: Large stock can be held firmly by the crush to facilitate the
following activities:

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 Vaccinations  Artificial insemination
 Branding  Pregnancy checks
 Spraying with acaricides  Dehorning
 Taking blood samples  Milking
 De-worming  Taking temperature

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Types of crushes; There are 3 main types of crushes. They differ by their length and the
number of cattle they can hold at one time.

1. A three-post crush for one animal

Vertical bar to hold loose pole for gate
1m
horizontal rail

crush post at head of

animal enters animal
this way

loose tail bar 1.5 m 1.4 m

slipped in or
out for gate

Crush poles

2. A crush for holding two animals

Sliding bar for gate

animals
enter 1m
here 1.5 m

side rails crush poles

3. A crush for holding many animals

Variable length outlet

holding yard draining gate
yard
1m crush
movement
of inlet gate
animals

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Crush construction
Materials needed
 treated wooden posts 12 cm wide and 2 - 2.5m long
 treated wooden rails/planks 5-10 cm wide
 posts for loose tail bars/gates 10 cm wide and 1.5 m long
 nuts and bolts
 concrete

Method of construction
i. Mark holes for posts. Positions will depend on type of crush (see diagram)
ii. Dig holes for posts 60 - 90 cm deep
iii. Position posts in holes and fill with concrete
iv. Allow concrete to dry
v. Fix rails on inside of posts with spacing of 25 cm between rails
vi. Fasten rails with nuts and bolts
vii. Compact soil on floor and cover with a layer of concrete

Dip tanks and Spray races=these are structures used to apply acaricides to livestock
(mainly cattle) for the control of ticks.
2. Dip tanks-These structures facilitate the total submergence of the animal in the
acaricide.

Diagram and operation of a dip tank

to dripping pen
from collecting pen

footbath 2m

4m exit
ramp

concrete 8m
5m

* The footbath at the entrance helps reduce the amount of mud taken into the main
tank.
* The main tank is roofed to prevent rain from diluting the acaricides.
* As the animals are rushed from the collecting pen they plunge into the dip tank
submerging their bodies completely which ensures that the acaricide covers the
head too.
* Animals swim through the tank until they reach the exit ramp where they are able
to climb out.

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 * After leaving the dip tank cattle are allowed to dry out in a holding area before
returning to pasture to prevent contamination of the pasture with acaricides.
* The concentration of the acaricide must be carefully monitored to ensure its safety
and effectiveness.

Advantages of a dip tanks

 Quick to administer acaricides to large numbers of stock.
 Low labour requirements.
 Dips may be re-used.
 There is proper coverage of the animals’ body with the acaricide.
 Dips are cheap to run if owned communally.

Disadvantages of dip tanks

 Initial cost of construction is high.
 Detection and maintenance of acaricide concentrations requires technical skill.

3. Spray races-These structures allow the animal to be washed or showered with

acaricides rather than totally submerged.

Diagram and operation of a spray race

* As the animal passes through the spray race it is sprayed by top, bottom and side
positioned nozzles which distribute an even shower of acaricide all over the
animals body.
* The spray pump is driven by a small engine and the acaricide is fed from an
adjacent tank.

Advantages of a spray race

 There is less wastage of acaricides than with a dip tank.
 Many animas can be sprayed in a short time.
 Animals receive proper coverage of the acaricide.
 Less labour is required to operate the race.
Disadvantages of a spray race
 It is expensive to construct and maintain.

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7.7 FARM WATER SUPPLIES
Sources of water on the farm

for human use for livestock use for irrigation

o boreholes o boreholes o rain water
o rain water catchment tank
catchment tanks o wells
o wells o rivers
o rivers o lakes
o lakes o dams
o dams o boreholes

**Note that borehole water is the safest water to be used on the farm as it contains no
disease organisms because it is taken from very deep in the ground. It should however be
tested to ensure that its salt content is not too high for human, livestock or crop use.
*The other water sources all have a high probability of be contaminated by disease and
therefore are considered unsafe for human and sometimes animal consumption.

Treatment of water for human consumption

Contaminated water can be made safe for human consumption by first filtering it through
a sand or charcoal filter to remove most impurities and then boiling it for a few minutes
to kill any remaining living organisms.

Water storage
Large quantities of water can be stored for use on the farm in concrete reservoirs, tanks
made of metal or plastic or by the construction of dams.

Dams-This is a structure built across a river to stop the flow of water thereby creating a
large reservoir or “man-made lake” for the purpose of storing water.

Construction of an earth dam

Diagram grass - to prevent
erosion from wind
or rain water inside
overflow pipe - it takes water the dam
through the dam when levels are
high to prevent
the dam being
washed away

concrete
slab - to
prevent
erosion by water
from overflow pipe clay core -
clay is used as it prevents stones to prevent
seepage of water through erosion inside the dam

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 the dam due to wave action

**Note that the dam is triangular shaped (wider at the bottom than at the top) because
water pressure increases with depth. The dam must be wider at the bottom to be strong
enough to resist the water pressure which is greatest at the bottom.

7.8 FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY

Definitions
Tools - these are normally hand held devices without moving parts and are
generally simple in design and function. Examples: rake, trowel, file, fork, spanner,
screwdriver, etc.
Implements - these are usually heavier devices which require some kind of
draught power to operate. Examples: tractor/ox drawn mould board plough, cultivator,
planter, disc harrow, etc.
Machinery - these are devices which have moving parts and need power to do
work. Examples: tractors, combine harvester, etc.

Identification and operation of a knapsack sprayer

pump handle to force air into

tank to increase pressure which will make
chemical come out of nozzle
filter cap-when
opened water is poured in
through this filter to ensure the handle to direct
water contains no large particles the nozzle
which would block the nozzle nozzle
distributes spray
in fine droplets

spray control/triger
shoulder strap turns spray on or off
put over the
shoulder to carry hose pipe
sprayer carries chemical
to the nozzle
tank-filled
with chemical/water
mixture

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4-strokes of petrol and diesel engines

Labeled parts of 4-stroke petrol and diesel engine

The 4-strokes of a petrol and diesel engine

1. Induction or inlet stroke

 piston moving down

 exhaust valve closed
 inlet valve open
 mixture of petrol vapour and air (petrol
engines) or air alone (diesel engines)
enters cylinder via the inlet port

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2. Compression stroke

 piston moving up (due to rotation of crank shaft)

 exhaust valve closed
 inlet valve closed
 mixture of petrol vapour and/or air in cylinder is
compressed

3. Power stroke
 piston moving down
 exhaust valve closed
 inlet valve closed
 (in petrol engine) spark plug ignites petrol-
air mixture which then expands pushing
piston down.
 (in diesel engines) compressed air in
cylinder reaches very high temperature,
diesel is injected into cylinder and
immediately ignites which pushes the piston
down

4. Exhaust stroke
 piston moving up (due to rotation of crank
shaft)
 exhaust valve open
 inlet valve closed
 burnt gases are pushed out of the cylinder
through the exhaust port

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Differences between petrol and diesel engines
DIESEL ENGINES
1. They use low flammable fuels, e.g. diesel
2. They use a compression ignition system, i.e. no
spark is required during ignition. Therefore no
spark plug is necessary.
3. they can operate without a battery
4. They have a very high compression ratio (16-
20:1 air : diesel)
5. They have an injector pump and jets instead of a
carburettor.
6. During induction it is only air that is drawn into
the combustion chamber for compression and
ignition
7. They generally have fewer starting problems
8. They are heavy in weight and stronger in power
output
9. They are more economical in fuel consumption
10. Diesel engines make a lot of noise and produce
more smoke
The lubrication system in petrol and diesel engines
Diagram of lubrication system
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PETROL ENGINES
1. They use highly flammable fuels, e.g. petrol
2. They use a spark ignition system, i.e. they
require a spark plug to produce a spark for igniting
the fuel mixture
3. A battery is always necessary.
4. They have a very low compression ratio (7-8:1
air : petrol)
5. They have a carburettor instead of an injector
pump
6. During induction both air and fuel in the form of
fuel /air mixture are drawn into the cylinder for
compression and combustion
7. They often have more starting problems if the
battery is weak, if plug points are dirty etc.
8. They are lighter in weight and produce less
power
9. They use more fuel for the same amount of work
and petrol is more expensive than diesel
10. They make less noise and produce less smoke
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Functions of parts of the lubrication system
 Sump-This is the reservoir for oil found at the bottom of the engine. It collects oil
after the oil has gone through the engine.
 Oil Pump-It is immersed in oil in the sump, to pump oil round the engine.
 Oil Filter-This cleans the oil as it leaves the oil pump. Only clean oil is therefore
circulated round the engine.
 Oil ways-These are holes drilled throughout the engine to carry oil at the required
pressure to all areas in need of lubrication.
 Oil Pressure Gauge-It is positioned on the control panel for the driver to see if the
oil pressure is being maintained correctly inside the engine.

Importance of lubrication in petrol and diesel engines

 Oil reduces friction. Thus it increases the efficiency of the machine.
 It keeps two touching surfaces cool and in this way prevents overheating.
 Oil reduces the wear and tear of moving parts.
 It acts as a seal between two moving surfaces. In other words, the two surfaces
are prevented from touching each other.
 Oil removes dirt and small metal particles which usually chip off when machines
are in operation.
 It prevents rusting

The electrical system of a petrol engine

Diagram

Functions of the main parts of the electrical system of a petrol engine

 Battery-stores electricity.
 Ignition Switch-Uses a key to connect or disconnect the current from the battery.
 Ignition Coil-Greatly increases the voltage from the battery from 12V to 1000V.
 Distributor-Activates the coil and distributes a spark to each plug at the correct
time.

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  Spark Plug-Provides a spark into the cylinder at the beginning of the power stroke
to ignite the fuel-air mixture.

Other parts not shown in diagram:

 Generator or Dynamo-Generates electricity to recharge the battery.
 Starter motor-Uses electricity from the battery to turn the flywheel and start the
engine.
 Voltage control box-Adjusts the charge from generator to battery and disconnects
when the engine is stopped.

Water cooling system of petrol and diesel engines

Diagram

radiator filter cap top/head tank

top hose thermostat water jacket temperature
oil filter cap valve gauge
piston

radiator
fins

air tube

flow

engine
block drain
tap

bottom
tank bottom water flow
radiator hose direction
drain tap fan water pump
fan belt

Functions of the main parts of the water cooling system of an engine

 Radiator-water is cooled as it moves down through a fine network of fins.
 Hoses-There are two hoses which connect the radiator to the engine. The bottom
hose takes cool water to the engine and the top hose takes hot water to the radiator.
 Water pump-This is turned together with the fan by the fan belt. It forces the
water to circulate around the engine in the water jacket.
 Water jacket or sleeve-The area surrounding the cylinders in which water
circulates.
 Fan-This is turned by the fan belt. It draws cool air through the radiator from the
outside which facilitates the cooling of the water. It also blows the cool air onto
the engine which helps keep it cooler.

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  Thermostat-This is a valve which opens when water temperatures in the water
jacket get too high to allow more water to enter the radiator for cooling. If the
water in the water jacket is not very hot the thermostat will close to prevent the
water from entering the radiator.
 Temperature gauge- It is positioned on the control panel for the driver to see if the
water temperature is being maintained correctly.

Importance of the water cooling system in petrol and diesel engines

*During the power production process an engine produces a lot of heat which must be
removed to prevent the following:
 Expansion of the engine components which may result in cracking, burning of the
valves, or gas leakages.
 Excessive fuel consumption.
 Pre-ignition-the cylinder may become hot enough to ignite the fuel mixture before
a spark occurs from the plug.
 Dilution and contamination of the lubricating oil.

Routine checks
Routine checks before operation of a tractor.
Item Checking procedure
Engine oil Check level using dipstick and add more oil if level is low.
Battery Check level of electrolyte. Add distilled water if below plates. Use hydrometer to check
specific gravity. Clean terminals if corroded and apply grease. Wash spillage with
calcium hydroxide solution Recharge if discharged.
Radiator Check level and add water if low.
Greasing Apply grease with a grease gun.
points or
Nipples
Fan belt Check tension and correct if necessary.
Air filter/ There are different types of air filters. Check for excessive dust. In dry filters remove
cleaner dust by blowing with compressed air. In oil bath filters, when oil is dark, it should be
removed and re-filled with new oil to the recommended level.
Fuel Check level of fuel on fuel gauge and replenish as required.
Nuts and bolts Tighten wherever necessary.
Tyres Check pressure with pressure gauge and inflate or deflate as required.
Fuel sediment Remove any collected dirt or dust.
bowl
Fuel gauge Check level of fuel and replenish if low.

Routine checks during operation of a tractor

Item Checking procedure
Tyres Observe if tyres are inflated and stop to check with a pressure gauge if they look
low. Correct if necessary
Fuel gauge Check level of fuel and replenish if low.
Water temperature Check that safe temperature is maintained. Stop and check water cooling system if
gauge necessary.
Oil pressure gauge Check that sufficient oil pressure is maintained. Stop and check lubrication system
if necessary.
Ammeter Check that charge of the battery is being maintained. Stop and check electrical
system if necessary.

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