Irrigation Engineering Notes-Level 2

MODULE-1
IRRIGATION AND HYDROLOGY

IRRIGATION
Irrigation: Artificial application of water to the crops, in accordance with the crop requirements throughout
the crop period for the full-fledged nourishment of crops. Thus, the water supplied supplements the water
available from rainfall and other sources such as soil moisture.
Necessity of irrigation
i. Need for increased food production.
ii. Deficient rainfall.
iii. Non-uniform distribution of rainfall.
iv. Controlled water supply.
v. Cash crop cultivation.
Advantages of irrigation
i. Increase in food production.
ii. Elimination of mixed cropping: Different crops need different field preparations, watering etc. In the
absence of irrigation, farmer is forced to do mixed cropping, which results in reduced efficiency and
purity of harvest.
iii. Optimum benefits: Maximum yield with lesser water.
iv. General prosperity due to revenue returns.
v. Generation of Hydroelectric power at lower cost from canal falls, etc.
vi. Supplements domestic water supply.
vii. Facility of conveyance along embankments: Inspection roads serve the purpose.
viii. Inland navigation in larger canals.
ix. Afforestation along banks of canal, leading to increased timber wealth and reduced pollution and
soil erosion.
x. Development of fishery in the canals.
Ill-effects/Disadvantages of Irrigation
i. Pollution of underground water and water bodies with fertilizers.
ii. Results in marshy lands and breeding of mosquitos.
iii. Over-irrigation leads to water logging and reduced crop yield.
iv. Expensive and complex at times.
v. Causes damp climate, affecting community health.
vi. Loss of valuable land.
Methods of Irrigation
General Requirements: Uniform water distribution for light and heavy applications.
Allow large concentrated flows for minimising losses.
Possess economic conveyance structure.
Facilitate mechanised farming.
Increased yield with economic usage of water.
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 1

Uncontrolled
Free Flooding
Flooding Check Basin
Flooding
Controlled Flooding
Basin Flooding
Surface Flooding Ring Basin
Furrow Method
Irrigation
Methods
Irrigation Border-strip Flooding

Contour Flooding
Farming
Sprinkler
Pressurized Irrigation
Irrigation
Drip Irrigation
Flooding: Water is delivered to the field, where it flows over the ground, through the crops.
Uncontrolled/Wild flooding: Used in inundation irrigation. Water is spread over vast tracts without
any bunds to guide the flow. Wasteful use of water. Used where water is abundant and inexpensive.
Controlled Flooding methods
Free flooding: Entire area is divided into small strips by means
of field channels, without any bunds. Field channels receive
water from supply channels and discharge excess into waste
channels. Water is applied through feeding points provided at
intervals. For steeper terrain, field channels are aligned along
contour lines. Spacing of field channels depend upon the slope
of the field. Suited for paddy, etc. Considerable area is lost
under field channels.
Basin Flooding: Field is divided
into rectangular (check basin)
or circular (ring basin) plots
guided by bunds on all sides,
forming checks or basins.
Suited for smooth, gentle and
uniform land slopes and for soils having low infiltration rates.
Suitable for orchard trees, grains, fodder, etc. Considerable area is
lost under field channels and bunds.
Border Strip Flooding: Field is divided into a number of
long parallel strips, separated by small border ridges.
Water is released into upstream end of each strip
connected to field channel, which advances downstream.
Longitudinal slope of the strip must be uniform and the
transverse slope must be zero. Suitable for wheat, Leafy
vegetables, fodders. Bunds restrict the use of modern
machinery and takes up some area.
Furrow method: Furrows are sloping channels dug in the soil
with the crops being planted on the ridges. Water is saved, as it is
applied only in furrows instead of being applied on the whole
field. Used for plants like vegetable crops sensitive to ponded
water. Suitable for Cotton, Sugarcane, Potatoes, Carrot, etc.

Furrows serve as field drains in areas of heavy rainfall.
Contour Farming: Practised in hilly areas having steep slopes. Field
operations like ploughing, planting and cultivation are done across the slope,
rather than up/down hill. Area is divided into longitudinal curved plots with
bunds following the contours. Irrigation water stored higher, flows between
the bunds.
Sprinkler Irrigation: Water is applied to the soil in the form of spray through a network of pipes and pumps.
It is a kind of artificial rain.
Types: Permanent system: Main pipes and
laterals are buried in the soil and do not
interfere with the farming operation.
Semi-Permanent system: The main pipes
are buried in the soil and lateral pipe are
portable.
Portable system: Both main pipe and
laterals are portable and the network can be moved from farm to farm.
Advantages: Seepage losses are completely eliminated.
Land levelling is not required.
No cultivation area is lost for making ditches.
Avoid surface run off.
Fertilizer can be uniformly applied by mixing with water.
Better control on quantity of irrigation.
It is labour oriented and 80% efficiency is achieved.
Disadvantages: High wind may distort sprinkler pattern and non – uniform spreading of water on the crops.
In areas of high temperature and considerable evaporation losses of water may take place.
It is not suitable for crops requiring frequent and larger depths of irrigation such as paddy.
It requires large electrical power
A constant supply of water is needed for commercial use of equipment.
Water must be free from sand, etc to prevent damage of sprinklers.
Drip/Trickle Irrigation: Involves slow and frequent application of water to the plant root zone. Components
of a drip irrigation system include Pump, Head Tank, Central distribution system, Main and sub main lines,
Trickle lines and nozzles. Suited to areas where there is scarcity of water. More economical for orchard trees
which are planted in rows and are widely spaced.
Advantages: Water supply at optimum level.
Reduced evaporation and percolation
losses.
No water-logging and over-irrigation.
Flexibility in application rates.
Weed control.
Savings in fertilizers.
No soil erosion.
Suitable for any topography or soil.
Effective pest control at root zone.
Reduced labour cost.
Disadvantages: High initial cost.

Blockage of nozzles.
Frequent replacement of trickle lines due to change in crop and crop-spacing.
Restricts the depth of roots, which may lead to over-topping of trees.
Types of Irrigation
Direct
Irrigation
Perennial
Irrigation
Flow Storage
Irrigation Irrigation
Surface Inundation
Irrigation Irrigation
Irrigation Lift Irrigation
Sub Surface
Irrigation
Flow Irrigation: Water available at a higher elevation is supplied to lower elevation by gravity alone. It is
cheaper than lift irrigation.
Lift Irrigation: Water is lifted up by mechanical or manual means and supplied for irrigation. It is costlier than
flow irrigation and is dependent on operation of machinery. It is more complex system.
Perennial Irrigation: Constant and continuous water supply is assured to the crops in accordance with the
crop requirements throughout the crop period.
Inundation Irrigation: Soil is kept submerged and flooded with water to cause thorough saturation of land.
Moisture soaked by the soil, occasionally supplemented by natural rainfall or minor watering brings the
crops to maturity. It is practised in tracts near rivers and in alluvial regions, where river water level during
hot weather season is sufficiently high. Also known as uncontrolled / flood irrigation.
Direct Irrigation: Irrigation is done by diverting the river water into the canal without storing it. It is practised
where the river has adequate perennial supply to feed the canal system at the times of crop periods.
Storage Irrigation: Dam is constructed across the river to store water during monsoons and then supplied to
the off-taking canals during periods of low flow. It is adopted where the river is non-perennial or the flow in
the river is inadequate during lean period. Storage irrigation has greater irrigation potential than direct
irrigation, but it is costlier due to the construction of dam.
WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
Crop seasons of India
 Rabi Crops: Crops grown in Rabi season, which starts in November and ends in April. Also known as
Winter crops/Spring crops. Crops are sown in winter and harvested in spring. Eg: Wheat, Barley,
Mustard, green peas, Onion, Potato, Oat, etc.
 Kharif Crops: Crops grown in Kharif season, which starts in June and ends in October. Also known as
Autumn crops/Monsoon crops. Crops are sown with the beginning of monsoon and harvested by the
end of monsoon. Eg: Rice, Maize, Bajra, Jowar, Cotton, Ground nut, Ragi, etc.
 Zaid Crops: Crops grown in the short period between rabi and kharif seasons.
Crop seasons of Kerala
 Mundakan: Winter crops. Sown in April-May and harvested in September-October.
 Virippu: Autumn crops. Sown in September-October and harvested in December-January.
 Puncha: Summer crops. Sown in December-January and harvested in March-April.
Dry crops: Crops growing mainly with rain water, without any irrigation. Eg: wheat, barley, oats, olives.
Wet crops: Crops needing plenty of water for growth. Eg: fruits, vegetables, rice, maize, etc.

DUTY
Irrigating capacity of a unit of water. Expressed in ha/cumec. It is the area of land irrigated by unit discharge
of water continuously during the entire base period of the crop.
Methods of expressing duty:
i. Flow Duty: Duty used in direct irrigation, expressed in hectares per cumec.
ii. Quantity Duty: Duty used in storage irrigation, expressed in hectares per million cubic metres of
water available in the reservoir.
iii. Delta: Water requirement expressed in terms of the total depth of water required.
iv. Number of hectare metres expended per hectare irrigated: Used in storage irrigation.
Requirements for precise statement of duty: For precise statement of duty, base period and place of
measurement of duty must be mentioned.
Eg: Duty for a crop is x ha/cumec at field for a base period of y days.
Reason: Duty varies with place of measurement due to conveyance losses. Conveyance loss at source will be
the maximum and that at the destination will be the least. Hence, duty will be minimum at the head of the
main canal and keeps on increasing with flow and will reach its maximum value at field.
Low Duty and High Duty: High duty implies that more area can be irrigated and Low duty implies that only
lesser area can be irrigated using the same quantity of water.
Principal Crops
Food grains Cash crops Plantation crops Horticulture crops
Rice Cotton Tea Fruits
Wheat Jute Coffee Vegetables
Maize Sugarcane Coconut
Millets Tobacco Rubber
Pulses Oil seeds
Duty of important crops in ha/cumec:

Sugar cane- 730, Rice- 775, Other kharif crops- 1500, rabi crops- 1800, perennials -1100, fodder- 2000
Factors affecting duty:
i. Methods and systems of irrigation: Perennial irrigation has lesser wastage and more duty whereas
inundation irrigation has more wastage and hence lesser duty. Flow irrigation has conveyance losses
and lesser duty whereas lift irrigation doesn’t need much conveyance and has more duty.
ii. Type of crop: Less for crops requiring more water and more for crops requiring less water.
iii. Climate and season: Since duty includes the water lost in evaporation and percolation, duty values
vary with climate and season. Hence, duty values are expressed as the average values over the
entire crop period.
iv. Useful rainfall: Useful rainfall is the rainfall falling directly over the irrigated land and is useful for the
growth of the crop. More the useful rainfall, less is the requirement of irrigation water and hence,
the duty of the irrigating water will be more.

v. Type of soil: If permeability of soil is high, percolation losses will be more and hence the duty will be
less.
vi. Efficiency of cultivation: Faulty and inefficient cultivation methods result in wastage of water,
leading to lesser duty. Efficient tillage, irrigation, manuring, etc increases the duty.
vii. Method of assessment: Farmer uses lesser water if assessed for volume of water, improving duty.
Farmer tends to use more water if assessed for area under cultivation, lowering the duty.
Delta: Total depth of water required by a crop during its base period. It is expressed in cm, m, etc.
Crop Period: Time period from the instant of sowing of a crop to the instant of its harvesting. It is slightly
more than base period and is expressed in days.
Base period: Time period from first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to the last watering before
harvesting. It is slightly less than crop period and is expressed in days.
Relation between duty (D), delta (∆) and base period (B):
∆ m, B days, D ha/cumec
∆=Total depth of water required by a crop during its base period
= Total volume of water supplied/Total area irrigated
When water is supplied at 1m3/s for B days, total volume of water supplied =1 x 60 x 60 x 24 x B m 3 and the
total area irrigated is duty. D ha = D x 104 m2
1. If rice requires about 10 cm depth of water at an average interval of about 10 days and the crop period
for rice is 120 days, find delta for rice.
B = 120 days,
No of watering needed = 120/10
∆ = 10 * (120/10) = 120 cm
2. A water course commands an irrigated area of 600 hectares, where the intensity of irrigation of rice is
60%. The transplantation of rice crop takes 10 days and total depth of water required by the crop is 50
cm on the field during the transplantation period. Calculate duty for the crop.
B = 10 days, ∆ = 50 cm
= 172.8 ha/cumec
3. Find delta for a crop if the duty of water from its kor watering on November 15 to its last watering on
April 3 is 1400 ha/cumec.
B = 16 + 31 + 31 + 28 + 31 + 3 = 140 days
= 0.864 m = 86.4 cm
4. A water course has a culturable commanded area of 1200 ha. Intensity of irrigation for crop A is 40% and
for B is 35%, both the crops being rabi crops. Crop A has a kor period of 20 days and crop B has a kor
period of 15 days. Calculate the discharge of water course if the depth for crop A is 10 cm and for crop B
is 16 cm.
Both are rabi crops and hence cultivated during the same period. So discharge required is the sum of the
water requirements for both crops.
Duty for crop A = = 1728 ha/cumec; Duty for crop B = = 810 ha/cumec
Discharge for crop A = = 0.278 cumec; Discharge for crop B = = 0.5185 cumec
Total discharge required = 0.278 + 0.5185 = 0.7985 ≈ 0.80 cumec

HYDROLOGY
Hydrology: Study of water. Involves study of the occurrence and movement of water, the physical and
chemical properties of water, and its relationship with the living and material components of the
environment. Involves study of water cycle, water resources, environmental watershed sustainability, etc.
Hydrologic Cycle/ Water cycle/ Rainfall Cycle
Water transfer cycle occuring in nature. Moisture circulates from the earth into the atmosphere through
evaporation and then back into the earth as precipitation. It consists of four key components:
Precipitation: All forms of water reaching the
earth from the atmosphere-rainfall, snowfall, hail,
frost, dew.
Runoff: Water that flows across the land surface
after a storm event.
Storage: Portion of the precipitation getting
stored as lakes, reservoirs and wetlands or as
ground water.
Evapotranspiration: Combination of evaporation (process of water converting into vapour from open
water bodies) and transpiration (process by which water molecules leave the body of a living plant and
escapes to the atmosphere).
Rainfall
Rainfall is the source of all water used for irrigation purposes and hence, it has to be measured. It is
measured as the depth in centimetres or inches, which falls on a level surface. Measured using rain gauge.
Types of Rain Gauge
Non-recording / Non-automatic rain gauges Recording / Automatic rain gauges
Symon’s Rain Gauge Weighing bucket rain gauge
Tipping bucket rain gauge
Float type/Natural syphon type rain

gauge
Symon’s Rain Gauge: Most common non-recording rain gauge. Rain

falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is measured in a
special measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall. Rainfall is
measured every day at 8:30 hours IST. When there is a heavy rainfall, it
must be measured 3-4
times a day.
Weighing Bucket Rain

Gauge: Most common
self-recording rain gauge.
It consists of a receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever
balance or some other weighing mechanism. The movement of
bucket due to its increasing weight is transmitted to a pen
which traces record or some marking on a clock driven chart. It
gives the mass curve, a plot of the accumulated rainfall values

against the elapsed time.
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge: It has a receiver provided with a funnel to

collect the rainfall. A pair of buckets is pivoted under this funnel in such a
manner that when one bucket is full, it tips discharging its rainfall into the
container, bringing the other bucket under the funnel and so on. Tipping
of bucket completes an electric circuit. A pen moves to mark on a
recording sheet mounted on a
clock driven drum.
Float Type/Natural Syphon Type
Rain Gauge: A funnel receives the
water, which is collected in a
rectangular container. A float is provided at the bottom of container,
and this float rises as the water level rises in the container. The
movement of the float is recorded by a pen moving on a recording
drum actuated by a clock. When water rises, the float reaches the
top and the syphon comes into operation to release the water
outwards through the connecting pipe.
Factors for selecting suitable site for rain gauge station
i. The rain gauge must be level and set-up in an open place.
ii. Distance between the rain gauge and the nearest object should be at least twice the height of the
object.
iii. The rain gauge must be shielded from wind.
iv. The rain gauge must be set sufficiently high to prevent splashing, flooding etc
v. The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at least 5.5m x 5.5m to protect it
from cattle.
Precautions in setting and maintaining rainfall records
Non-Recording type:
i. Remove the funnel of the rain gauge and take out the receiver.
ii. Transfer the rainwater from the receiver into the measure glass carefully without spilling.
iii. While reading the measure glass, hold it upright or place it on a horizontal surface and read the
lower meniscus value. The reading is recorded in mm to one decimal place.
iv. Measurements should be taken in two or more steps depending upon the amount of rainfall.
v. After the first measurement, the rainfall amount is checked by re-measurement, before the
rainwater is thrown away.
vi. During heavy rain, check the rain gauge at hourly intervals to avoid overflow.
vii. All rainfall observations are made at 08:30 hrs IST daily.
viii. If there is no rain, enter 0.0
Recording Type:
i. Fix the chart on the clock drum taking care that the corresponding horizontal lines on the
overlapping portions are coincident.
ii. Ensure that the pen comes down to the zero line on the chart after all the water is siphoned and
touches the 10 mm line when water equivalent to 10 mm rainfall is poured.
iii. The chart is changed at 08:30 hrs IST daily in the morning. First remove the previous day chart and
put the fresh chart on the clock drum and set the instrument.

iv. Put sufficient ink in the pen, wind the clock and set the pen to the correct time.
v. Tabulate hourly rainfall values from the chart.
Average Annual Rainfall
Mean of yearly rainfall observed for a period of 30 to 35 consecutive years.
It depends on: Distance from the ocean
Direction of prevailing winds
Mean annual rainfall
Altitude of the place
Topography
Rainfall Estimation
It is done to determine the average depth of rainfall falling over a catchment.
Methods used: Arithmetical Mean Method, Thiessen Polygon Method, Isohyetal Method
Arithmetical Mean Method:
Simplest method. Rainfall over
a catchment is determined as
the arithmetic mean of all the
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐷
rain gauge readings of the 𝑃𝑎𝑣
catchment. 5 5
∑ 𝑃𝑎𝑣
= 10 mm
Thiessen Polygon Method:
Proposed by Thiessen in 1911.
Thiessen polygons representing the area of influence of each rain gauge are obtained by:
i. Join the rain gauge station locations by straight lines to form triangles
ii. Bisect the edges of the triangles to form the “Thiessen polygons”
iii. Calculate the area enclosed around each rain gauge station bounded by the polygon edges and the
catchment boundary
Rainfall over a catchment is
determined as the weighted
arithmetic mean of all the rain gauge 𝑃𝐴 𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝐵 𝑃𝐶 𝐶 𝑃𝐷 𝐷
𝑃𝑎𝑣
readings over the thiessen polygons. 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
5 55 7 5 35
∑ 𝑃𝑎𝑣
55 7 35
∑ = 10.33 mm
P- recorded precipitation
A- area of Thiessen polygon
Isohyetal Method: Most accurate method. Isohyets are lines joining places having equal amount of rainfall.
Isohyets for the basin are plotted and the areas enclosed between the isohyets and catchment boundaries
are measured with a planimeter. Average rainfall is determined as the weighted mean of the average
isohyetal values over the area.
∑( )
∑ 𝑃𝐼 𝐴
𝑃
( 𝐼
𝑃𝐼𝐼
) 𝐵
𝑃
( 𝐼
𝑃𝐼𝐼
) 𝐶 𝑃𝐼𝑉 𝐷
P- recorded precipitation 𝑃𝑎𝑣
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
5 5
5 7 5 5
𝑃𝑎𝑣
7 5
= 9.89 mm

A- area of the basin between successive isohyets.
Catchment Basin and Catchment Area
• The total land area that contributes water to a river is called a Watershed, Catchment, River basin,
Drainage Basin, or simply a Basin.
• It may also be defined as a geographic area that drains to a common point.
• The terms catchment basin and catchment area are used synonymously, but for the sake of
differentiating, catchment basin may be defined as the three-dimensional geographic region
draining water to a common outlet and catchment area may be defined as the two-dimensional area
draining water to a common outlet.
Good, Bad & Average Catchment
• Catchments are classified as good, average and bad according to the relative magnitudes of yield
they give.
• Yield is the total quantity of water at the outlet of a catchment.
• Good catchment: Catchment giving more yield. It has high run-off coefficient.
• Eg: hilly catchment with steep slope, less forest cover and soil of less permeability
• Bad catchment: Catchment giving less yield. It has low run-off coefficient.
• Eg: catchment with flat slopes, good forest cover and soil of high permeability
• Average catchment: Catchment giving average yield.
• Eg: catchment with moderate slopes, medium forest cover and soil of medium permeability.
Free & Intercepted Catchment
Free Catchment: Part or full extent of total catchment area draining the surface
flows freely without any intermediate interruptions in the valley across which
the project is envisaged.
Intercepted Catchment: Part of the total catchment area, the extent of which is
the catchment area of existing storage works located within the total
catchment area of the project site.
RUNOFF
• Portion of the precipitation from a catchment area draining into stream or meeting the ground
water.
• Types
– Direct Runoff: Runoff reaching the stream
• Surface runoff/Overland flow: Direct runoff over the ground surface.
• Sub-surface runoff/Interflow: Direct runoff flowing laterally after percolation to join
streams.
– Base flow: Runoff percolating deep down the soil to meet the ground water.
Factors affecting Runoff
i. Precipitation characteristics: Runoff increases with increase in intensity, duration, etc.
ii. Meteorological characteristics: High temperature causes evaporation of water, melting of snow, etc
and affects runoff. Wind in the form of storm, accelerates runoff if moving in the direction of stream
and retards if moving in opposite direction.
CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS
iii. Shape and size of catchment: Runoff will be less for
large catchment since uniform rainfall rarely falls
over the entire area. Fan-shaped catchment having
tributaries of same length gives greater runoff since

all water reach the main stream at the same time. Fern leaf-shaped catchment gives lesser runoff
owing to varied lengths of tributaries.
iv. Topography: Mountainous area and areas with steep slope gives greater runoff.
v. Orientation of watershed: Windward side of mountainous watershed receives greater rainfall and
greater runoff. Watershed oriented towards sun causes evaporation of water, melting of snow, etc
and affects runoff.
vi. Geological Characteristics: Pervious soil causes seepage and reduces runoff whereas rocky surface
without fissures gives greater runoff.
vii. Character of catchment surface: Cultivated catchment reduces runoff while bare catchment
promotes runoff. Drained areas lead to greater runoff.
viii. Storage characteristics of catchment: Storages present in the form of lakes, reservoirs, etc reduce
the runoff, but causes greater evaporation losses. Storage into the pervious soil also reduces runoff.
Runoff Coefficient
Ratio of peak runoff rate to the rainfall intensity. Unit-less quantity. It ranges from 0 to 1. It is constant for a
particular drainage area and depends upon all factors affecting the runoff.
Methods of Estimating Runoff
• Linear or exponential regression
• Empirical equations and tables
• Infiltration method
• Unit Hydrograph method
• Rational method
• Empirical Formula
• Runoff Coefficient Method: R=kP; R- runoff in cm, k- runoff coefficient, P- rainfall in cm
River Gauging
River gauging includes obtaining a continuous record of stage, making periodic discharge measurements,
obtaining stage-discharge relations and maintaining a continuous record of discharge from stage
measurement. Stage of a river is defined as its water surface elevation measured above a datum. Depth of
water varies along the cross-section of the river, but the river stage or water level is uniform. The river water
levels are generally measured with reference to a fixed benchmark which is always connected to GTS
benchmark for maintaining uniformity and interrelation with other locations on the river. Depending upon
the necessity the river stage or water levels may be observed once, twice or hourly every day. Continuous
record of the river water levels can be obtained by installing self-recording water level recorders.
Importance of River Gauging
i. Stage data is of utmost importance in design of hydraulic structures, flood warning and flood
protection work.
ii. Serves as a baseline for future data comparisons to identify deviation.
iii. Prediction of future floods and droughts.
iv. The record of river stages can be used to determine the river discharge from the stage-discharge
relationship.
v. Provides idea about the effect of river on the flora and fauna near it.
Site Selection for River Gauging
i. River should be straight for upto ten times the width, upstream and downstream.
ii. Flow should be confined to a single channel.
iii. River-bed should not be subjected to scour.
iv. River-bed should be free of vegetation.

v. Banks must be permanent and high enough to contain the flood.
vi. Discharge site should be well defined.
vii. Easily accessible.
viii. Favour discharge measurements at all stages.
ix. Should be away from junctions with other water bodies to avoid errors due to its influence.
Stage Measurement
Stage of a river is defined as its water surface elevation measured above a datum. It is measured using:
– Manual gauge
• Staff gauge/Gauge post
• Wire gauge
– Automatic stage recorder
Staff Gauge/Gauge Post: 2 m long wooden posts fixed with
enamelled metal plates graduated to 0.01 m and secured in
concrete blocks, constructed along the slope of the banks such that
the top of the lower gauge continues the reading from the bottom
of the next gauge. The gauges are generally constructed on both the
banks on one section line with same levels. It is normally read twice
a day and on hourly basis during the flood season. It reads the
HFL/high flood level and can be used for comparison with danger
level and issue warnings.
Automatic Stage Recorder: It works on the principle of a float. The float line passes over a pulley and
transfers the changes of water level to it. A recording stylus is
attached to the pulley. It moves laterally and traces the water level
fluctuations on a recorder chart connected to a clockwork
mechanism. The water level recorder is a compact unit which is
installed on a platform constructed over a stilling well/open gauge
well.
Open gauge well is constructed with corrugated iron sheet,
concrete or masonry. On the top, a roofed shelter with locking
arrangement is constructed to house and secure automatic stage
recorder. It is connected to the river by means of intakes. A ladder
is provided in the stilling well for inspection and cleaning purposes.
Enamelled gauge plates are fixed from outside to record the water
level by visual observation.
Stream Flow Measurement
Velocity-Area Method: Discharge is obtained as the product of the
velocity of flow and the area of cross-section. Mean velocity is
taken as the velocity at 0.6D for shallow water or averages of the
velocities at 0.2D and 0.8D for deep waters.

Velocity Measurement
Surface float
Float method Sub-surface float
Velocity measurement Velocity rod Twin float
Current meter
Surface Float: Simplest type of float in the form of 10 cm

cubes made of cork and painted red or white with a small flag
attached on top. Influenced by wind and gives the surface
velocity. A rope is stretched between two poles on the banks
and the cross section is divided into compartments by
hanging pendants or tags. Time taken for the float to pass
from c/s 1 to c/s 2 is measured accurately for all
compartments and the velocities are computed by dividing
the distance covered by the time taken. Average of the values
gives the surface velocity. Surface velocities obtained by float
measurement have to be adjusted to obtain the mean
velocity. Float coefficient varies between 0.8 and 0.9.
Velocity Rod: A rod made of hollow metal or wood of
diameter 2.5 to 5 cm
and adjustable length.
Weight is provided at
the bottom of the rod to
keep it vertical. Rod is
sub merged to the
extent of 0.6D to get the mean velocity of flow. Procedure of
measurement is same as the surface float method.
Current Meter: Accurate, operates on the proportionality between flow velocity and the angular velocity of
the meter rotor.
Calibration relation: v = a + bn; v = water velocity, n = speed of
impeller, a, b = constants
Component parts:
 Tail to align the meter in the direction of flow.
 Streamlined weight (fish weight) which keeps the meter in
a vertical position.
 System of conical buckets with wheel, which rotate due to
the flow.
 Dry battery kept on shore or boat to pass electric current
to the wheel.
 Commutator fixed to the shaft of the revolving wheel to
make and break the electrical circuit at each revolution.

 Revolution counter kept on the boat or shore with the battery to register the revolutions.
 Headphone for registering the sound produced upon breaking of electric circuit.
When the meter is lowered in water and kept parallel to the flow, the wheel rotates. Time taken for a
required number of revolutions is noted. Velocity of flow can be read from the rating table for the meter.
Maximum Flood Discharge Estimation
Q- flood discharge, A- catchment area, n- flood index, C- flood coefficient

C and n depends upon (i) size, shape and location of catchment, (ii) topography of catchment and (iii)
intensity and duration of rainfall and distribution pattern of storm over the basin.
Ryve’s Formula
Q- discharge in cumecs, A- area of the basin in sq. km.

Used for South Indian catchments.
Dicken’s Formula
Q- discharge in cumecs, A- area of the basin in sq. km.

Developed for North Indian catchments.
Flood Levels
Normal Flood: Water level of the river is below the warning level.
Above Normal Flood: Water level of the river touches or crosses its Warning
level, but remains below the Danger Level of the site. Yellow colour has
been assigned to this category.
Severe Flood: Water level of the river touches or crosses Danger Level but
remains below the Highest Flood Level of the site. Orange colour has been
assigned to this category.
Extreme Flood: Water level of the river touches or crosses the “Highest
Flood Level” recorded so far. Red colour has been assigned to this category.

MODULE-2
DIVERSION HEADWORKS
Headwork- Hydraulic structure supplying water to the off-taking canal.
 Storage Headwork: Headwork which stores the water by the construction of a dam before supplying
the water to the off-taking canal through a canal regulator.
 Diversion Headwork: Headwork which diverts the water from the river to the canal.
DIVERSION HEADWORKS
Works constructed at the head of the canal, to divert water towards the canal, to ensure a
regulated, continuous supply of silt-free water with a certain minimum head into the canal.
Functions:
i. Regulates the flow in the off-taking canal.
ii. Controls silt entry into the canal.
iii. Raises the level of water in the river. This causes diversion of the river water into the off taking
canal, under gravity flow.
iv. More area is brought into the command of the proposed canal system
v. Reduces fluctuations in level of water in the rivers
vi. Water which gets stored by its construction can be used to augment the short supplies of the river
for a few days.
Factors affecting selection of site:
i. River should be straight and narrow at the site.
ii. Elevation of site should be higher than the area to be irrigated, for gravity flow.
iii. River banks at the site should be well defined and stable.
iv. Valuable land upstream should not be submerged.
v. Construction materials should be locally available.
vi. Road or railway access should be available to the site for conveyance of materials.
vii. Site should be closer to the crop lands for minimizing losses.
viii. Site should provide good foundation for construction of weir or barrage.
Types: Spurs/Bunds (Temporary), Weirs and Barrages (Permanent)
Spurs or bunds: Temporary works, which have to be constructed every year. These bunds cannot sustain
floods and get washed away. Bunds can be constructed on small streams only.
Weir: A solid obstruction, constructed across the river. It is used to raise the water level in the river and then
divert it into the canal. If the major part or the entire ponding of water is achieved by a raised crest and a
smaller part or nil part of it is achieved by the shutters, then this barrier is known as a weir.
Classification: based on floor design: Gravity weirs & Non-gravity weirs
Based on material and design: Vertical drop weir, Sloping weir, Parabolic weir
Barrage/River Regulator: Barrier across a river to raise the water level, primarily by means of gates and a
smaller or nil part by the raised crest. Crest level of barrage is kept low. Gates are raised to allow the flow
and lowered to obstruct the flow.
Weir Barrage
Major ponding by a permanent raised crest Major ponding by gates
High crest with or without small gates High gates with or without small crest
Low cost High cost
Low control on flow Higher control on flow by operating gates
No scope for provision of transport Road or rail bridge can be combined with a
communication along weir barrage

Chances of silting is more Chances of silting is less
Layout of diversion headwork

Components
i. Weir or Barrage
ii. Divide wall
iii. Fish Ladder
iv. Pocket or Approach channel
v. Scouring sluices
vi. Silt prevention devices
vii. Canal head regulator
viii. River training works (Marginal
bunds & Guide banks)
Weir or Barrage: A weir or barrage is
constructed to raise the water level and
is usually aligned at right angles to the
direction of flow.
Divide Wall: An embankment built at
right angles to the axis of the weir, separating the weir and the undersluices. It is normally constructed of
solid masonry and is protected on all sides by stones or concrete blocks. It extends upstream to a little
beyond the beginning of head regulator and downstream to the launching apron. Its functions include:
i. Separates the undersluice portion which has lower floor level, from the weir proper portion which
has higher floor level, preventing turbulence.
ii. Helps in concentrating the currents to scour away the silt deposited in undersluice portion.
iii. Prevents flow parallel to the weir and cross currents, thereby preventing scour.
iv. Provides still pocket of water in front of canal head regulator, encouraging silt deposition.
v. Serves as one of the side walls of fish ladder.
Fish Ladder: Structure which facilitates uninterrupted
movement of fishes from upstream to downstream and vice-
versa. The difference in level between upstream and
downstream sides of the weir is split up into water steps by
means of baffle walls constructed across the inclined chute of
fish ladder. Flow velocity in chute is limited to around 3 m/s for
the safe movement of fishes.

Under Sluices/Scouring sluices: Scours away the deposited silt. It creates a less turbulent pocket of water
near canal head regulator. Crest of under-sluice portion is kept at a lower level than the crest of the weir
proper. It is usually kept equal to the deepest bed level of the river during non-monsoon season.
Undersluiced length of weir is divided into a number of ways by piers and separate gates are installed.
Canal Head Regulator: It is provided at the head of the off-taking canal and may consist of a number of
spans separated by piers and operated by gates. Sill level of head regulator is kept higher than that of
undersluices to prevent the entry of silt. It serves the following functions:
i. It regulates the supply of water entering the canal.
ii. It controls the entry of silt in the canal by two methods: Still pond regulation & Open pond
regulation.
iii. It prevents the river floods from entering the canal.
Silt Control Devices
 Silt Excluder: Device by which silt is
excluded from water entering the canal. It
is constructed in the bed in front of head
regulator. It consists of a number of under
tunnels. Top level of roof of tunnels is kept
the same as the sill level of regulator, so
that silt-free top layer of water enters the
canal and the silted bottom layer is
discharged downstream through the
undersluice. The tunnels are made of
different lengths: the one near head
regulator having length same as the width
of head regulator and the successive tunnels being of decreasing lengths.
 Silt Extractor/Silt Ejector: Device by which
silt is extracted or thrown out after it has
entered the canal. So it is constructed in the
canal, at some distance away from the head
regulator. It consists of a horizontal
diaphragm placed slightly above the canal
bed, which separates the silt-free top layer
from the silted bottom layer. Silted bottom
layer is conveyed through silt tunnels and
discharged back to the river through the
shortest route.
River training works: Engineering works built along a river to direct the flow into a prescribed channel.
 Guide Banks: Provided on both sides of diversion head works in alluvial soil to guide the flow so as
to confine it in a reasonable width of river. It forces the river into a restricted channel to ensure
smooth and axial flow near the weir site.
 Marginal Embankment/Flood Banks: Earthen embankment constructed parallel to river bank on
one or both banks for flood protection. It prevents flood water from submerging valuable land and
protects the area.
Other protective works:

 Groynes: Embankments perpendicular to flow, from bank to river, to protect the bank by deflecting
water from the bank.
 Pitching of bank: Slope protection with one-man stones.
 Launching apron: Pitching extended to the bed, with packed stones.
 Pitched islands: Artificially constructed island in river bed, protected by stone pitching, to attract the
water currents, thereby protecting the banks.
Component parts of a weir
i. Weir wall: Wall constructed to raise
upstream water level. Must be strong
enough to resist water pressure and
uplift pressure.
ii. Impervious Apron: Foundation for the
weir wall. Protects the weir from erosive
forces. Must be thick enough to resist the
uplift pressure.
iii. Crest shutter: Controls flow above crest
level.
iv. Cutoff or pile: Concrete or masonry walls
or sheet piles. It is a cross wall built
under the floor for increasing creep
length, reducing uplift, attaining safe exit gradient and thereby reducing seepage of water.
v. Block protection: Protects the upstream cutoff.
vi. Inverted filter: Filter with coarser material at top and finer at bottom, to relieve seepage water
pressure.
vii. Launching Apron: Provided at upstream and downstream for scour protection.
Discharge conditions in weir
Weir with a free overfall Weir under floatation Weir fully submerged
Some Definitions
Apron: Protective layer of stone or other material extending out from a structure to arrest erosion/scour.
Cutoff: It is a cross wall built under the floor of a hydraulic structure with the object of increasing creep
length of water reducing uplift, attaining safe exit gradient and thereby reducing seepage of water.
Percolation: Percolation is defined as the slow movement of water through the pores in soil or permeable
rock. Surface water percolates down through the permeable soil to meet the ground water table, creating a
continuous zone of saturation. Percolating water exerts pressure on the permeable foundation material.
Percolation gradient: Pressure exerted by the percolating water decreases as it travels downstream.
Variation of the percolation pressure with distance is termed percolation gradient. It can be represented as a
gradually sloping line.

Scour: Scour is a natural phenomenon caused due to the erosive action of flowing stream on alluvial beds
which removes the sediment around or near structures located in flowing water. It means the lowering of
the river bed level by water erosions such that there is a tendency to expose the foundations of a structure.
It is the result of the erosive action of flowing water, excavating and carrying away material from the bed
and banks of streams and from around the hydraulic structures.
Uplift pressure: Uplift pressure is the upward hydraulic pressure exerted on the base of a structure through
the pores of the permeable bed beneath its base. Uplift forces can be a consequence of pressure from the
ground below, surface water and so on. Foundations of hydraulic structures must be designed to resist the
uplift pressure.
Exit velocity: Exit velocity is the velocity of flow when water emerges out from a structure. When
downstream scour is a problem, exit velocity has to be selected in such a way as not to cause objectionable
erosion. Exit velocity can be controlled by adjusting the creep length.
Creep length: The total length covered by the percolating water till it emerges out at the downstream end is
called creep length. Percolation head loss is directly proportional to the creep length. Creep length can be
increased by providing upstream and downstream piles in hydraulic structures. Its calculation is important in
designing the protective works.
Effect of percolation on irrigation works:
i. Water losses by seepage through the dam and foundation.
ii. Uplift pressures that tend to cause overturning of the dam.
iii. Piping that may cause local failure or even total failure of a structure.
iv. Application of forces which affect stability.
Scour protection/Percolation Protection in Weirs and Barrages:
i. Impervious Apron: Foundation for the weir wall. Protects the weir from erosive forces. Must be
thick enough to resist the uplift pressure. Varying thickness is provided at upstream and
downstream.
ii. Upstream and Downstream Cut-offs: Provided in the form of concrete or masonry walls or as sheet
piles at the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor. These are taken to the greater
of the depths given by: level of deepest scour or the depth to cater exit gradient.
iii. Block protection at upstream end of impervious floor: Protects the upstream cutoff. Consists of 0.6
to 0.9 m thick stone or concrete blocks laid on 0.3 to 0.6 m thick loosely packed gravel so that the
blocks do not settle in the softened soil below.
iv. Inverted filter at the downstream of impervious floor: Relieves the uplift pressure due to the
seepage water. Filter is provided as inverted, so that the coarser material at top prevents the
washing away of finer materials along with the upward flowing water.
v. Launching aprons at downstream and upstream ends: Provided at the ends of downstream filter
and upstream block protection for protection against scour. These are made of loose boulders or
precast concrete blocks.
(If asked for protection works in diversion headworks, you may write about the above mentioned works, river
training works and other protective works mentioned in layout of diversion headwork. Figure may be drawn
if score allotted is more)
Solid and Loose Apron
Solid Apron: Solid floor of concrete, masonry, etc to protect the surface of a structure from erosion or to
withstand hydrostatic pressure. Eg: Impervious apron
Loose Apron: A covering of loose stones or blocks laid on the bed of the river to protect it from erosion. Eg:
launching apron

MODULE-3
STORAGE HEADWORKS
Headwork- Hydraulic structure supplying water to the off-taking canal.
 Storage Headwork: Headwork which stores the water by the construction of a dam before supplying
the water to the off-taking canal through a canal regulator.
 Diversion Headwork: Headwork which diverts the water from the river to the canal.
DAM
Dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river to store water on its upstream side. The water
thus stored forms the reservoir.
Types of Dams
Based on hydraulic Based on structural

Based on use Based on materials
design action
Overflow dam Rigid Dam

Storage dam Gravity dam
•Steel dam
•Concrete dam
•Timber dam Arch dam
Diversion dam
Non-overflow •Masonry Dam
dam
Non-rigid dam Buttress dam

Detention dam
•Earth-fill dam
•Rock-fill dam
•Combined Earth and
Rock-fill dam
Based on use:
 Storage dam: Stores the water in its upstream side for future use in periods of deficient supply.
 Diversion dam: Simply raises the water level slightly for diversion of water into canals.
 Detention dam: Stores water during floods, to protect the downstream areas. Debris dam is a type
of detention dam which blocks the entry of sediments into the main reservoir.
Based on hydraulic design:
 Overflow dam: Surplus discharge flows over the crest,
which is kept at a lower level than the top of the
remaining portion of the dam.
 Non-overflow dam: Top of the dam is kept at a higher
elevation than the maximum expected high flood level
and discharge is not permitted to over-top the dam.
Based on materials
 Rigid Dam: Constructed of rigid materials.
 Non-rigid dam: Constructed of non-rigid materials.
Based on structural action
 Gravity dam: Resists the water pressure and other forces by its weight.
 Arch dam: Transfers the water pressure and other forces to the abutments by arch action.
 Buttress dam: A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses.
Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the
foundation.

Factors affecting selection of dam site
i. Topography: For economy, length of the dam should be as small as possible, for which the river should
be narrow, but providing a large basin upstream. Also, bed level at dam site should be higher than the
basin, to minimize the dam height and to facilitate drainage.
ii. Suitable Foundation: Suitable foundation should exist at the site for the particular type of dam.
iii. Good Site for reservoir: As the dam is constructed to store water in the reservoir, the site should have
the following characteristics to make a good site for a reservoir:
a. Large storage capacity
b. Shape of reservoir basin should preferably be cup-shaped
c. Water-tightness of the reservoir
d. Far away from earthquake epicentre.
e. Good hydrological conditions
f. Deep reservoir should be formed
g. Small submerged area
h. Low silt inflow
i. No objectionable minerals
iv. Spillway site: A good site for a spillway should exist at or near the dam site.
v. Availability of materials: The dam requires a large quantity of material for its construction. Suitable type
of material in sufficient quantity should be available at or near the dam site to reduce the cost.
vi. Accessibility: The site should be easily accessible. It should be preferably well-connected by a road or a
railway line.
vii. Healthy surroundings: The surroundings of the site should be healthy and free from mosquitos so that
the labourers can comfortably live in colonies constructed near the dam site.
viii. Low cost of real estate: The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam, dwellings, roads, railways, etc.
should be low.
ix. Minimum overall cost: The site should be such that it gives the minimum overall cost of the project,
including subsequent maintenance.
x. Other considerations: For the development of a particular backward area, the dam may be constructed
in that region.
Types of survey for site selection
i. Reconnaissance survey: Collects information about the size of the catchment area, vegetation, soil type,
slopes, existing ponds, etc. Data is collected physically, without using precise survey equipment. Selects a
number of suitable sites.
ii. Preliminary Survey: It is carried out under experienced supervision with modern instruments.
a. Engineering survey: Prepares contour map of the site.
b. Hydrological survey: Collects data for determining availability of water for the reservoir.
c. Geological survey: Performs sub-surface explorations to study the geological characteristics of
the selected sites.
After preliminary survey, most economical alignment is selected.
iii. Detailed survey/Final location survey: Fixes the alignment of the centre line, width, etc. Eligible
properties for compensation are recorded.
Site investigations
i. Engineering survey: Dam site is surveyed and contour plan is prepared. Also, the following are prepared:
a. Area-Elevation curve.
b. Storage-Elevation curve.
c. Map of area to indicate the land property to be surveyed.
d. Suitable site selected for the dam.
ii. Hydrological investigations: Includes-
a. Study of runoff pattern at a site to determine storage capacity
b. Determination of hydrograph of worst flood, spillway capacity and design.
iii. Geological investigations: Includes investigations on-
a. Water-tightness of reservoir basin.

b. Suitability of foundation for dam.
c. Geological and structural features like folds, faults, etc.
d. Type and depth of overburden (surface deposits).
e. Location of permeable and soluble rocks.
f. Ground water conditions.
g. Location of quarry site for construction materials.
Reservoir Definitions
 Full Reservoir Level/Normal Pool Level: Maximum elevation to which the reservoir water surface will rise
during normal operating conditions. Usually, crest of the spillway is kept at this level.
 Maximum Water Level/High Flood Level:
Maximum level to which the water surface
will rise when the design flood passes over
the spillway. It is higher than the full
reservoir level.
 Minimum Water Level/ Minimum Pool
Level: Lowest level up to which the water
is withdrawn from the reservoir under
ordinary conditions. The minimum pool
level generally corresponds to the
elevation of the lowest outlet (or
sluiceway) of the dam.
 Top Bund Level: Level of the top of the bund, same as the top level of free board. Height of the dam at
any section is the difference between Top Bund Level and ground level.
 Dead Storage: The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called the dead storage. Dead
storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions.
 Live Storage/Useful Storage: The volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL) and the
minimum pool level is called the useful storage. The useful storage is available for various purposes of the
reservoir.
 Free Board: Margin provided between the top of the dam and HFL.
Evaporation losses in reservoirs
Evaporation is the process of water converting into vapour from open water bodies. It accounts to a major loss
from reservoir. It depends upon the water surface area, water depth, humidity, wind velocity, temperature,
atmospheric pressure and quality of water. It is estimated by measuring the standard pan evaporation and
multiplying with pan coefficient. Following measures may be adopted to control evaporation losses:
i. Wind breakers
ii. Covering of the water surface
iii. Reduction of exposed water surface
iv. Use of underground storage rather than surface storage
v. Integrated operation of reservoirs
vi. Use of chemicals like WER (water evapo retardant) for retarding evaporation rate
GRAVITY DAMS
Weight of the dam resists all the forces acting on it.
Component parts of a gravity dam
• Crest: Top most plane on dam. It provides roadway/walkway over Crest
the dam. Free board

HFL
• Reservoir: Portion upstream, where the water is stored. FRL Spillway
• Spillway: Openings in the body of the dam or somewhere else, to Reservoir
Drainage Gallery
convey reservoir water downstream. Sluice
• Heel: Upstream edge of the dam at foundation level.
Heel Toe

• Toe: Downstream edge of the dam at foundation level.
• Drainage Gallery: Transverse or longitudinal openings provided in dam to drain seepage water.
• Sluice: Water channel provided in the dam, controlled by a gate at its head.
Forces acting on a gravity dam
i. Water Pressure, Pw
ii. Uplift Pressure, Pu P
Pwave ice
iii. Force due to earthquake, Peq Pwind
iv. Silt Pressure, Psi Peq
v. Wave Pressure, Pwave
vi. Ice Pressure, Pice Pw
W
vii. Wind Pressure, Pwind Psi
viii. Self-Weight of the dam, W Pu
Failure of gravity dams and remedial measures
i. Overturning: For stability, ∑Restoring moment/∑Overturning moment ≥ 1.5
ii. Sliding: For stability, Sliding resistance/∑Horizontal forces ≥ 1
iii. Compression or Crushing: For stability, maximum normal stress must be less than the allowable
compressive strength
iv. Tension: For stability, resultant must lie within the middle-third of the base. i.e, e ≤ b/6
Limiting height of dam:
( )
f- allowable compressive stress of dam material, - 9.81 kN/m3, Sc- specific gravity of dam material
Low dam: Dams with height less than the limiting height i.e, H < f/ (Sc+1)
High dam: Dams with height more than the limiting height i.e, H > f/ (Sc+1)
Profiles of Dam
Elementary profile of gravity dam Practical profile of low dam
Theoretical shape of gravity dam Actual shape of low gravity dam

Triangular shape with zero top-width and zero Triangular shape is modified to provide top-
free-board width and free-board
Elementary profile is not practically possible. Practical profile needs top-width and freeboard. Need for a
straight top-width for road construction over the top of the dam.
Free board: It is the difference in levels between the high flood level and the top of the dam. It is provided
so that the water may not spill over the top of the dam due to wave action. It also acts as a safety in floods.
Usually 3 to 4% of dam height is provided as free board.
Top width: A straight top-width is needed for road construction over the top of the dam.
Additional load due to free board and top width causes shifting of resultant towards heel and necessitates
additional dam section upstream in the practical profile.

Drainage Gallery
Transverse or longitudinal openings provided in dam to drain seepage water
Functions:
i. They interrupt and drain off the water seeping through the dam body.
ii. They provide access to dam interior for observing and controlling the behaviour of the dam.
iii. Provides enough space for carrying pipes, etc. during artificial cooling to relieve the stresses inside
the dam body due to temperature differences between outside and within the body of the dam.
iv. Provides access for grouting the contraction joints when it cannot be done from the face of the dam.
v. Provides access to all outlets and spillway gates,
valves, etc. by housing their mechanical and
electrical controls.
Size of drainage gallery depends on its function and size
of the dam. Corners are rounded to minimize stress
concentration. Common types include- rectangular,
circular and oval-shaped drainage gallery.
Construction Joints
Horizontal joints provided in gravity dams since the entire concreting work of the dam cannot be completed
in one stretch. In gravity dams, height between joints is limited to 1.5m to provide sufficient cooling
between pours. This limiting height is termed lift. For the first layer on the rock, usually half- i.e, 0.75m is
adopted as the lift.
Types of Spillways
i. Straight Drop spillway: Simplest type of spillway. It is used in small bunds or thin arch dams.
Downstream face is vertical or slightly inclined. It is a low weir and simple vertical fall type structure.
ii. Ogee Spillway/Overflow spillway: Most commonly used spillway. Profile is made in accordance with
the shape of the lower nappe of a free falling jet. It is used with concrete, masonry, arch and
buttress dams.
Straight drop spillway Ogee spillway Chute spillway
Side channel spillway Shaft spillway Syphon spillway

iii. Chute/Trough/Open channel spillway: Simplest type of spillway which can be provided
independently and at low cost. It can be provided on earth, rockfill or concrete dams. It consists of a
steeply sloping open channel.
iv. Side channel spillway: Water overflowing the spillway turns 90˚ to flow parallel to the weir crest. It
is provided in narrow valleys.
v. Shaft spillway: Water from the reservoir enters into a vertical shaft, which conveys water into a
horizontal tunnel, which finally discharges water downstream. For small heights, metal, concrete or
clay tiles are used, whereas for large heights, RCC is used.
vi. Syphon spillway: It consists of a siphon pipe, one end of which is kept on upstream side in contact
with the reservoir and the other discharges water to downstream.
EARTH DAMS
Made of locally available soils and gravels. Most common type of dam used upto moderate heights.
Situations suitable for earth dams
Earth dams can be adopted in locations where:
i. Valley to be covered is wide with gentle slope
ii. Depth of water impounded is less
iii. Water-tightness is not that important
iv. Availability of ample space for formation of section, as it needs wide space
v. Spillways need not be provided in the dam section
vi. Durability is not a prime factor
vii. Materials like stone, silt, clay, sand, etc are available in plenty
Types of Earth Dams
Earth dams
Hydraulic-filled
Rolled-filled dams
dams
Homogeneous Zoned Diaphragm

embankment embankment embankment
type type type
Rolled-filled Dams: Embankment is constructed in successive, mechanically compacted thin layers using
rollers and compactors at optimum moisture content (OMC).
Hydraulic-filled Dams: Materials are excavated, transported and placed by hydraulic methods. Materials,
mixed with the water at borrow pit, is pumped and washed into the flumes laid along the outer edge of
embankment. Coarse materials settle at outer edge and fine materials flow and settle at the centre. No
compaction is done.
(1) Homogenous Embankment Type: Earthen
embankment consists of a single material and is
homogenous throughout. A blanket of relatively
impervious material may be placed on the upstream
face. Used for low to moderately high dams.
(2) Zoned Embankment Type: Usually provided with a

central impervious core, covered by a comparatively
pervious transition zone, which is finally surrounded
by a much more pervious outer zone. The central
core checks the seepage. The transition zone
prevents piping through cracks which may develop in
the core. The outer zone gives stability to the central
impervious fill and also distributes the load over a larger area of foundations.
(3) Diaphragm Type: Diaphragm type embankments
have a thin impervious core, which is surrounded by
earth or rock fill. The impervious core, called
diaphragm, is made of impervious soils, concrete,
steel, timber or any other material. It acts as a water
barrier to prevent seepage through the dam. The
diaphragm must also be tied to the bedrock or to a
very impervious foundation material.
Failure of Earth Dams
Hydraulic failures Seepage failures Structural failures
Overtopping Piping Foundation slide
Wave erosion Sloughing Slide in embankments
Toe erosion Flow slide
Gullying Spreading
Others
•Earthquake
•Slope protection failures
•Burrowing animals
•Water-soluble minerals
Hydraulic failures: Failure due to uncontrolled flow of water over and adjacent to the embankment.
 Overtopping: Occurs if design flood is under estimated or spillway is of insufficient capacity or if
spillway gates are not properly operated. Sufficient free board must be provided as a safety
measure.
 Wave erosion: Waves notch out soil from upstream slope, leading to its slipping. Pitching or rip-rap
should be provided.
 Toe erosion: It is caused by tail water or by cross-currents from spillway. Thick rip-rap must be
provided on downstream slope upto a height above the tail water level.
 Gullying: Heavy rains falling on the downstream face cause erosion and formation of gullies on the
downstream face. It is avoided by proper maintenance, turfing and by providing berms on
downstream side.
Seepage failures: Failure due to uncontrolled seepage through dam body or foundation.

 Piping: Progressive erosion and subsequent removal of soil grains
from within the body of the dam or foundation of the dam. Hollows
get created in the body or foundation, leading to its failure. Proper
compaction, prevention of leaks in conduits, etc can prevent seepage
failure.
 Sloughing: Progressive removal of soil from the wet downstream face.
Occurs at downstream toe. Downstream toe becomes saturated and
gets eroded, initiating a miniature slide, which gets steeper and unstable
upon saturation, and finally leads to dam failure.
Structural failures: Failure involving separation of the embankment material
and/or its foundation.
 Foundation slide: When the foundation of earth dams are made of
soft soils, such as fine silt, soft clay, etc, or founded on fissured rocks,
the entire dam may slide over the foundations, causing its failure. Top
of the embankment gets cracked and subsides, the lower slope moves
outward forming large mud waves near the heel.
 Slide in embankments:
When the embankment
slopes are too steep for
the strength of the soil,
they may slide causing
dam failure. The most
critical condition of the
slide of the u/s slope is the sudden draw-down of the reservoir (reservoir empty condition) and
downstream slope is when the reservoir is full (reservoir full condition)
 Flow slide: It occurs due to liquefaction of foundation soil comprising of loose sand or silt when the
dam face collapses on its foundation.
 Spreading: When the earth dam is located on weak foundation
comprising of stratified layers of soft soil, clay, etc, failure may
occur through spreading of the embankment slope.
Precautions against Failure
i. Sufficient spillway and outlet capacities should be provided so
as to avoid the possibility of overtopping during design flood.
ii. Sufficient freeboard must be provided for wind, wave action, frost action and earthquake motions.
iii. The top seepage line (i.e. phreatic line) should remain well within the downstream face of the dam,
so that no sloughing of the face occurs.
iv. The dam must be as water tight as possible.
v. There should be no possibility of free flow of water from upstream to downstream face.
vi. Proper means for drainage must be provided in the dam.
vii. The embankment slopes must remain safe under critical conditions.
viii. The upstream face should be properly protected against wave action, and the downstream face
against rains and against waves due to tail water. Provision of horizontal berms at intervals in the d/s
face reduces the erosion due to flow of rain water. Riprap should be provided on the u/s slope and
also on the d/s slope near the toe and upto slightly above the tail water so as to avoid erosion.

ix. The upstream and downstream slopes should be so designed as to be stable under worst conditions
of loading. These critical conditions occur for the u/s slope during the sudden drawdown of the
reservoir, and for the d/s slope during steady seepage under full reservoir condition.
Phreatic line/Seepage line/Saturation line
Line below which positive hydrostatic pressure acts. Along the phreatic line, atmospheric pressure
exists, ie, pressure is zero atm. Above the phreatic line, negative hydrostatic pressure may exist by capillary
rise. It must lie well within the body of the dam, to prevent seepage failure.
Saturation Gradient
Slope of saturation line. Value depends upon the type of soil.
Drainage arrangements of an earth dam
Drainage in earthen dams is primarily provided to bring the phreatic line in the embankment well within the
downstream face so that water does not seeps through the body of the dam. It is achieved using filter
material in the earthen embankment. It drains the seepage water in the dam and reduces the pore pressure
and the internal erosion. It also reduces piping failure.
Types of drains: Toe drain, Horizontal Blanket Drain, Chimney
Drain
Toe drain: The major function of the toe drain is to protect the
lower part of downstream embankment. A toe filter is provided
in layers of fine sand, coarse sand and gravel, as a transition
zone between the homogeneous embankment fill and rock toe.
Horizontal Blanket Drain: A horizontal filter collects the seepage
water. It extends from the toe to 25-100 percent of distance
from toe to centre of the dam.
Disadvantage- Makes the soil more pervious in horizontal
direction and causes stratification in the embankment and
seepage cannot be intercepted.
Chimney Drain: A vertical filter is placed along with the
horizontal filter to collect the seepage water. Overcomes the
disadvantage of horizontal blanket drain.
TANK IRRIGATION
Tank
Small sized reservoir formed by earthen bund, with depth less than 12 m. It has the following parts:
 Earthen bund for storage
 Surplus weir to dispose off the flood discharge
 Sluices to feed the channels
 Channels to convey the water to command areas
Tank sluices
Openings in the form of pipes or culverts provided through the tank bund, carrying water from the tank into
the downstream channel as required. Suitable wing walls and other bank connections are also provided as
required at the head and tail end of the culvert. Important
types:
– Tank sluice with head wall
– Tank sluice with tower head
The main components of tank sluice include:
plan of sluice
• Culvert/Barrel: Conveys water through the bund.

– Size should not be less than 60 cm x 76 cm to allow a man for inspections.
– Usually provided as masonry culvert with masonry arch or concrete
slab.
• Headwall or tower head: Provided near upstream end, housing the
regulating arrangements, which consists of one or more circular orifices of
suitable size, made in a horizontal stone, called plug holes and the area of
the opening is regulated by a long coned plugs.
• Cistern or wing walls: Cistern is provided at the tail end of barrel to
dissipate the excess energy and to enable smooth exit of the water from the
sluice. Wing walls may be provided at the head end and tail end of the
barrel to facilitate smooth entry and exit of the water.
Tank Sluice with Head Wall
• Component parts: Culvert, Head
wall, Wing wall
• Heads are built upto sufficient level
to carry a platform at or above
maximum water level.
• Head wall must be connected with
wing walls to retain earthen slopes
of the bund.
Tank Sluice with Tower Head
• Component parts: Culvert, Tower Head, Cistern
• More economical due to the saving obtained by avoiding the heavy wing walls.
• Lesser danger of failure by
cracking and bulging which
frequently occurs in the wings.
• Additional length of barrel is
required.
• Tower-heads or wells are
generally placed in the water
slope of the bund, avoiding the
need for bridge from bank to the
regulation.
Tank surplus works
• Arrangement for spilling away the excess water that may enter into the tank, so as to avoid over-
topping of the tank bund. Performs the role of spillways in dams.
• Types:
– Surplus Weir
– Flush escape
Suitable site for surplus works
i. Tank weir performs the function of spilling excess flow. Therefore it is preferable to locate the weir
away from the tank bund.
ii. To carry surplus flows, a well-defined escape channel is necessary.
iii. Saddle, where natural surface level (N.S.L) is approximately same as full tank level (F.T.L.) should be
given first preference.

iv. Hard foundation, if available at the site, reduces the cost of construction of bed protection works.
v. When site away from tank bund is not available, weir may be located on one end of the tank bund.
vi. Surplus weir may be housed in the body of the tank bund only if there is no other option.
vii. Care should be taken to see that escape channel carrying surplus water does not damage cultivated
areas.
Flush Escape: Also called natural ground escape. Provided where the natural surface level (N.S.L) is
approximately same as full tank level (F.T.L.) and the ground below falls gently to the natural water course.
Economical, since it needs less construction. If the ground surface is hard enough, no special construction is
required, else needs protective works.
Surplus Weirs: Masonry weir connected to the earthen bund by suitably designed bank connections, with its
top i.e. crest level at Full tank level (FTL). Water starts spilling over the weir when the tank is filled to its
crest. Due to the rush of incoming water, the level in the tank rises temporarily above F.T.L. to reach
Maximum Water Level (M.W.L). Length or capacity of surplus escape weir is so designed that water level in
the tank never exceeds MWL, the maximum water level. (i.e, depth over weir = MWL-FTL). Top of the tank
bund is kept at a level to provide suitable free-board above this M.W.L.
Types: Masonry weirs, Rock-fill weirs, Concrete weirs

MODULE-4
IRRIGATION CANALS AND SOIL EROSION
CANALS
Canal: Artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape, constructed on ground to carry water to the fields
from the river, tank or reservoir.
Classification
Based on carrying
Based on nature of Based on financial Based on function Based on boundary capacity and Based on canal
source of supply output of canal surface of canal relative importance alignment
of canal network
Permanent Productive Alluvial canal Main canal Contour canal

Irrigation canal
canal canal
Non-alluvial Ridge/Watersh
Inundation Protective Branch canal
Carrier canal canal ed canal
canal canal
Rigid boundary Major Side-slope

Feeder canal canal distributary canal
Navigation Minor
canal distributary
Water
Power canal course/Field
channel
Permanent canal: A regular graded canal, having permanent masonry works for regulation and distribution
of supplies, fed by a permanent source of supply.
Inundation canal: Canal drawing water from the river, only when there is high stage in the river.
Productive canal: Canals giving net revenue to the nation.

Protective canal: A sort of relief work for protecting an area from famine.
Irrigation canal: Canal carrying water to the agricultural fields.

Carrier canal: Canal carrying water to another canal besides doing irrigation.
Feeder canal: Canal feeding two or more canals.
Navigation canal: Larger canals, serving the purpose of navigation
Power canal: Canal serving the purpose of power generation.
Alluvial canal: Canal excavated in alluvial soils such as silt.

Non-alluvial canal: Canal excavated in non-alluvial soil such as loam, clay, rock, etc.
Rigid boundary canal: Canal having rigid sides and base, like lined canal.
Main canal: Large canal, carrying water from river or reservoir. Feeds branch canals or distributaries.
Branch canal: Branches taking off from main canal. Feeds major and minor distributaries. Carries discharge
of over 5 cumecs.
Major distributary: Takes off from branch canal or main canal. Feeds minor distributaries or field channels.
Discharge varies from 0.25 to 5 cumecs.

Minor distributary: Takes off from major distributary or branch canal. Feeds field channels. Discharge is less
than 0.25 cumecs.
Water course/Field channel: A small channel which feeds water to the irrigation fields. Takes off from a
major or minor distributary.
Ridge/Watershed canal: A canal aligned along a ridge or watershed line. It can irrigate areas on both banks
since it is at a higher elevation and hence a large area can be
brought under cultivation. Also it will not intersect any natural
drainage and hence construction of cross drainage work is not
required.
Contour canal: A canal aligned parallel to the contours of the
area. It can irrigate areas on one side only, since one side will
be at a higher elevation and the other will be at a lower
elevation. A small surface slope is provided to enable gravity
flow. A number of cross drainage works need to be
constructed, as the canal intersects the natural drainages.
Side-slope canal: A canal aligned at right angles to the contours
of the area. Natural drainage flows parallel to the side-slope
canal and hence cross-drainage works are not required. It has steep bed slope.
Cross Section of Canal

FSL/Full supply level: Water level corresponding to the maximum discharge for which a canal is designed.
 A canal is usually constructed with a side slope of 1:1 in cutting and 1.5:1 in filling.
In partial Cutting &
In Cutting In Embankment/Filling
Embankment
Full supply level of canal is
Full supply level of the canal is Bed level of the canal is above above the natural ground level
below the natural ground level the natural ground level and the bed level is below the
natural ground level
Berm: Narrow horizontal strip of land left at ground level between the toe of the bank and the top edge of
cutting. Functions:
i. Protects the bank from erosion due to wave action
ii. Serve as borrow pits
iii. Provide scope for future widening of canal
iv. Silt deposited in berms act as impervious lining
v. Reduces seepage
vi. Strengthens the bank
vii. Acts as inspection path
viii. Helps the channel to attain regime conditions
IS recommendations for berm width: 3D for canal wholly in filling/embankment, 2D for canal wholly in
cutting, 2D for canal in partial cutting and filling, D- Full supply depth
Balancing Depth

A canal section will be economical when the earthwork involved at a particular section has an equal amount
of cut and fill. If the amount of cut and fill are the same, it has to be paid for only once. Also, the necessity of
borrow pit is avoided. For a given cross-section, there is always only one depth of cutting, for which the
cutting and filling will be equal. This depth is known as balancing depth.
Regime Channel/Stable Channel
Ideal, non-silting and non-scouring channel. When water flows through a channel, silting and scouring can
occur. Silting is the deposition of silt/sediments and scouring is the erosion of canal bed and banks. If the
velocity of flow is less, silting occurs and if the velocity of flow in the channel is more, scouring occurs.
Scouring lowers the full supply level and thereby lowers the irrigating capacity. It can also lead to the failure
of canal banks and foundation of irrigation structures. Silting causes reduction of channel section, thereby
reducing the discharge capacity. Silting and scouring can be prevented by proper design. A regime channel or
stable channel is the one in which neither silting nor scouring takes place.
A channel is said to be in a state of regime if the flow is such that silting and scouring needs no
special attention. It is an ideal, non-silting and non-scouring channel, where the velocity of flow is such that
the silt is always kept in suspension and there is no scouring.
CANAL LINING
Lining of earthen surface of channel with more stable materials
Necessity of canal lining: (i) Seepage control
(ii) Erosion control
(iii) Reduction in maintenance
(iv) Retarded growth of weeds
(v) Increased channel capacity
(vi) Increased command capacity
Types of canal lining
Hard Surface Type Lining Earth Type Lining Membrane Type Lining
Pre-fabricated light
Cement concrete lining Soil-cement lining
membrane lining
Bentonite soil and clay

Shotcrete lining Clay puddle lining
membrane lining
Precast concrete lining Sodium carbonate lining Road oil lining
Brick lining
Stone block lining
Asphalt lining
• Hard Surface Type Lining

• Cement concrete lining: Cement concrete of mix 1:4:8 or 1:3:6 is used to line the canals. It
involves high initial cost.
• Shotcrete lining: Mixture of cement and sand is shot at the subgrade through a nozzle.
• Precast concrete lining: Precast, interlocking slabs are used for the lining and then the joints
are sealed with asphalt.

• Brick lining: It consists of a single or double layer of brick masonry with 12 mm plaster.
• Stone block lining: It consists of stone blocks set in mortar.
• Asphalt lining: It consists of a mixture of asphalt and aggregate laid at high temperature and
covered with 30 cm earth layer for protection.
• Earth Type Lining
• Soil-cement lining: Mixture of 90-95% soil and 5-10% cement. Dry mix, add water, compact
and cure for 7 days.
• Clay puddle lining: Clay puddle is produced from clay by exposing it to weather. It is mixed
with water and placed to 30 cm thickness. It is then protected by a layer of earth.
• Sodium carbonate lining: Employed in small canals and water courses, as a mixture of clayey
soil and sodium carbonate.
• Membrane Type Lining
• Pre-fabricated light membrane lining: It consists of matted fibres of asbestos or jute, coated
with asphalt. It is then covered with a layer of earth.
• Bentonite soil and clay membrane lining: It consists of bentonite or clay blanket of 4 cm
thickness, covered with earth.
• Road oil lining: Road oil is sprinkled, which saturates the subgrade. It is then rolled.
Maintenance of canals
For proper and efficient working of canals. Silting, canal breaches/bank failures and weed growth are to be
controlled. Processes followed are:
Silt Removal Strengthening of canal banks Weed Control
Flushing with clear water External silting system Lining of canals
Using bundle of thorny bushes Internal silting system Mechanical means
Formation of berms by
Using iron rakes Chemical means
internal silting
Formation of back-
By reducing area of flow Flow-control
berm
By stirring of silt with water jet
Using dredgers
By manual excavation
• Silt Removal: Silting reduces canal capacity and hence it must be excluded or removed.
• Flushing with clear water: Water with minimum silt is used for flushing to lift up the
deposited silt. Generally flushing is overdone to cause some scouring, so as to reduce the
frequency of flushing.
• Using bundle of thorny bushes: Bundle of thorny bushes are tied together and pressed
down by weight of stones and pulled inside the canal by animals to dislodge fine muddy silt.
• Using iron rakes: Iron rakes are dragged in the canal to dislodge the silt.
• By reducing area of flow: Loaded boats are put across the section to reduce the area of flow
and increase the velocity of flow.

• By stirring of silt with water jet: High velocity water jet is directed to the bed using a pump
placed on a barge and fitted with a pipe and nozzle, to stir the silt and prevent silting.
• Using dredgers: Dredgers may be used to remove the silt, but the method is costly.
• By manual excavation: Generally adopted for clearing silt deposited in smaller canals.
• Strengthening of canal banks: Banks must be strengthened to prevented breaches causing damage
to life and property.
• External silting system: Subsidiary banks are constructed parallel to and outside the canal
banks. Cross bunds are created between the two banks to form compartments. Water is
allowed into the compartment, deposit silt and enter the canal through outlet.
• Internal silting system: Canal banks are set back from their actual positions to enlarge the
canal section, so as to reduce the flow velocity and deposit the silt in the banks.
• Formation of berms by internal silting: Internal silting process deposits silt in the inner
banks to produce berms, which strengthens the banks.
• Formation of back-berm: Seepage failure occurs if saturation line crosses the outside slope
of canal banks. In such cases, additional embankments are provided as back-berms to
strengthen the banks.
• Weed Control: Weeds are the unwanted plants that grow in water. Weeds reduce the discharge
capacity of canals by reducing the area of channel section and velocity of flow.
• Lining of canals: Lining of canals reduces the weed growth to some extent.
• Mechanical means: Weeds can be plucked and burnt when the canal is dry.
• Chemical means: Weeds can be controlled by the application of some chemicals.
• Flow-control: High velocity of flow keeps the silt in suspension and makes water turbid.
Thus, the light rays are cut off and silt is not deposited, preventing weed growth.
CANAL REGULATION WORKS

Structures constructed to regulate the flow parameters in canals for efficient functioning and safety.
Types: Canal Drops/falls, Canal Regulators/Sluices,
Canal Escapes, Canal Outlets and Modules.
• Drop / Fall: Lowers the water level of the
canal
• Head regulator: Controls the amount of
water flowing in to off taking canal
• Cross regulator: Heads up water in the
parent channel to divert some of it
through an off taking canal.
• Escape: Allows release of excess water
from the canal system.
Canal Drops/Canal Falls
Structures constructed to lower down the water level in canals safely. Even though canals have a
designed longitudinal slope, they will have to pass through undulating terrains. When a canal crosses an area
that has a larger natural surface slope, a canal drop or canal fall is provided suitably at intervals. Canal in
embankment increases the cost and seepage losses, in addition to flood on breaches. This also necessitates
inclusion of falls. Falls are located considering economy at balancing depth and regarding larger number of
small falls or lesser number of large falls or in combination with regulators. Meter falls are used to measure
discharge, in contrast to non-meter falls.

Types of Canal Drops
Ogee Fall Rapid Fall Stepped Fall
Notch Fall Vertical Drop Fall Glacis Fall
Cistern
• Provided at the downstream of hydraulic structures to
dissipate the surplus energy.
• Actions:
– Reduce the intensity of impact of jet on
downstream floor.
– Provide cushion to destroy the energy in canal
drops.
– Produce reverse flow by providing end-wall.
Canal Regulators/Canal Sluices
Head regulator and cross regulator control the supplies in the off-taking canal and parent canal respectively.
These are used in pairs.

Head Sluice/Regulator: Masonry or concrete structure constructed at the head of off-taking canal for
regulating its supply.
Functions:
• Exercise control over the supplies into the off-taking canals.
• Act as meter for measuring discharge entering the off-taking channel.
• Controls silt entry into the off-taking canal.
• Shuts off the supplies to the off-taking canal as
and when required.
Cross Sluice/Regulator: Masonry or concrete
structure, constructed down stream of the head-
regulator, across the parent channel for regulating
its supply.
Functions:
• Effective regulation of the whole canal system.
• During low discharges in the parent channel,
the cross regulator raises water level on U/S
side and feeds the off-taking canal in rotation.
• Flow of water D/S of parent channel may be completely closed for the purpose of repairs etc.
• They absorb fluctuations at various sections of the canal system and thus help in preventing possibility of
breaches in tail reaches.
• Water can be stopped, to close the breaches the D/S side of C.R.
• Bridges and roads can be constructed in combination with it.
Canal Escapes
Structures for releasing excess water from a canal. Excess water overtopping the canal banks may cause
erosion and breaches. Canal escapes help in releasing the excess water from a canal at times of emergency
and empties it for repair works.
Functions:
• Act as safety valve for canals (like spillways for dams).
• Escape channels convey the excess water from escapes to natural drains.
• Avoids damage to the canal by surplus water.
• Saves the d/s section of the canal from overflow of banks.
• Enables emptying of canal for repair works.
• Tail escapes maintain the required full supply level at the tail end.
Situations that might suddenly lead to accumulation of excess water in canals:
• Wrong operation of head works in trying to regulate flow.
• Excessive rainfall in the command area leading to reduced demand and consequent closure of
downstream gates.
• Sudden closure of control gates due to a canal bank breach.
Types of Canal Escapes
Weir Escape: Constructed in the form of weirs, without any gate or shutter and spills over when the water
level of the canal goes above its crest level. Tail escape is the weir-type escape provided at the tail end of the
canal to maintain the full supply level at the tail end.
Scouring Escape: It is a gated escape with a very low crest height. It empties the canal to much lower level at
fast rates. Also act as scouring sluices to facilitate removal of sediment.

Weir Escape Scouring Escape
Module/Outlet
Device through which water is released from a distributary channel into a water course or field channel. Acts
as head regulator for a water course which supplies water to the fields.
• Types:
– Non–modular outlet: Discharge depends upon the difference in water levels of both the
distributing channel and the water course and varies with variation of water levels in both.
– Semi-modular outlet (Flexible module): Discharge depends only upon the water level in the
distributary and is independent of the water level in the water course.
– Modular outlet (Rigid module): Discharge is independent of the water levels of both the
distributary and the water course and maintains a constant discharge. eg: Gibb’s module
Gibb’s Module
Inlet pipe
Allows entry of water
Rising pipe
Allows 180˚ change in direction
Eddy chamber with baffles

Develops free vortex flow and makes the discharge
constant for a wide variation in head
CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS

Structure constructed at the crossing of a canal and a natural drain. Drainage water can be disposed
of in the following ways:
 By passing Canal above Drainage: Aqueduct (free-flow) & Syphon Aqueduct (under pressure)
 By passing Canal below Drainage: Super-passage (free) & Canal Syphon (pressure)
 Canal and Drainage at same level: Level Crossing & Inlets and outlets. Mixing of both waters take
place.
(Terms associated with canal: Full supply level (maximum), Normal supply level, etc.
Terms associated with drain: High flood level (maximum), Normal pool level, etc.)

Aqueduct
The hydraulic structure in which the
irrigation canal is taken over the
drainage (such as river, stream etc..) is
known as aqueduct. This structure is
suitable when bed level of canal is
above the highest flood level of
drainage. In this case, the drainage
water passes clearly below the canal
Syphon Aqueduct/Under-tunnel
In a hydraulic structure where the
canal is taken over the drainage, but
the drainage water cannot pass
clearly below the canal. It flows under
siphonic action. So, it is known as
siphon aqueduct. This structure is
suitable when the bed level of canal is
below the highest flood level.
Super Passage
drainage is taken over the irrigation
canal is known as super passage. The
structure is suitable when the bed
level of drainage is above the full
supply level of the canal. The water of
the canal passes clearly below the
drainage.
Syphon/Canal Syphon
drainage is taken over the irrigation
canal, but the canal water passes
below the drainage under siphonic
action is known as siphon super
passage. This structure is suitable
when the bed level of drainage is
below the full supply level of the
canal.
Level Crossing
When the bed level of canal and the stream are approximately
the same and quality of water in canal and stream is not much
different, the cross drainage work constructed is called level
crossing where water of canal and stream is allowed to mix. With
the help of regulators both in canal and stream, water is
disposed through canal and stream in required quantity. Level
crossing consists of following components (i) crest wall (ii)
Stream regulator (iii) Canal regulator

Inlet and Outlet
When irrigation canal meets a small stream or drain at same
level, drain is allowed to enter the canal as in inlet. At some
distance from this inlet point, a part of water is allowed to drain
as outlet which eventually meets the original stream. Stone
pitching is required at the inlet and outlet. The bed and banks
between inlet and outlet are also protected by stone pitching.
This type of CDW is called Inlet and Outlet.
SOIL EROSION
Soil erosion is the process by which the fertile top soil gets displaced. It involves the following steps:
 Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by
agents like wind, water, animals, etc.
 Transportation of soil particles.
 Deposition of transported particles at some places of
lower elevation.
Causes
Predominant causes of soil erosion are either related to naturally-occurring events or influenced by the
presence of human activity. Some of the principal causes of soil erosion include:
i. Rainfall and runoff: In a heavy rain, the water starts to break down the soil and carry it along with
the runoff.
ii. Wind: Wind promotes erosion, particularly if the soil is already loosened. Most susceptible soil to
this type of erosion is sandy or lighter soil that can easily be transported through the air.
iii. Farming: When land is worked through crops or other agricultural processes, it alters the structure
of the soil, making it more susceptible to the effects of rain and water. Tilling is a major contributor
to erosion, as it breaks up and softens the soil.
iv. Topography: Land with a steep slope perpetuates runoff, increasing erosion.

v. Deforestation: Cutting of trees loosens up the soil cover held by their roots and promotes soil
erosion.
vi. Construction: Constructing buildings and roads churns up the ground and exposes soil to erosion.
Completed construction can also contribute to erosion by facilitating runoff.
vii. Recreational Activities: Recreational activities may accelerate soil erosion. Off-road vehicles,
trekking, etc. disturbs the landscape and the area eventually develops bare spots where no plants
can grow.
Effects
i. Loss of fertile land: Soil erosion causes loss of topsoil that is fertile, which leads to reduction in
fertile land.
ii. Flood: Eroded lands have less ability to hold water, which can worsen flood and aggravate erosion.
iii. Reduced organic and fertile matter: Removal of fertile topsoil will reduce the ability of the land to
regenerate new flora or crops, which leads to a cycle of reduced organic and fertile matter.
iv. Reduced crop production: When soil is eroded in an active cropland, new seeds and seedlings get
buried or destroyed. This, in turn, impacts future crop production.
v. Increased soil acidity: When the soil structure gets changed with reduced organic matter, there is a
higher chance of increased soil acidity, which affects the plant growth.
vi. Long term erosion: An area with a history of erosion is more prone to continued erosion.
vii. Water pollution: Runoff from cultivated soils loaded with sediment and contaminants like fertilizer
or pesticide. This sedimentation and pollution can damage freshwater and marine habitats and the
local communities that depend on them.
viii. Damaged drainage networks: Eroded soil causes clogging in waterways and drainage networks,
damaging them.
Prevention
Soil erosion can be prevented by retarding the effects of the erosion agents and by reinforcing the soil
structure.
i. Afforestation: Planting new trees and plants is afforestation. They prevent wind and water erosion
by covering the soil and binding the soil with their roots.
ii. Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is the successive cultivation of different crops in a specified order on
the same field. A well-designed crop rotation can reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and
herbicides by better using ecosystem services from a diverse set of crops. Additionally, crop
rotations can improve soil structure and organic matter, which reduces erosion.
iii. Mulching: Mulching is the placement of any organic or inorganic material over the top of a soil
surface to protect it. Some of the benefits include: reduced soil erosion, less compaction, moisture
conservation, increased control of soil temperature, and a reduction in weed growth. Over time,
mulches made from organic materials break down and increase soil's structure and fertility.
iv. Matting: Matting is the process of covering the soil with biodegradable materials that include mulch,
straw, coconut fibre and wood chips, which is further held together with geotextiles.
v. Terrace farming: In hilly areas, farming is done by cutting steps on the slopes of the hills. This slows
down the flow of water and soil removed from one step is deposited on the next step. Thus, the soil
is never completely lost. This is terrace farming.
vi. Careful tilling: Because tilling activity breaks up the structure of soil, doing less tilling with fewer
passes will preserve more of the crucial topsoil.

vii. Building dams: Dams are built to prevent floods, which not only damage the crops but also wash
away the topsoil.
viii. Shelter belts: Creation of wind breakers by planting evergreen trees around gardens or farmland, to
prevent the wind blowing away the soil. Wind breakers help in protecting crops from damage caused
by strong & severe wind and improve plant health, quality and yield. Crop protected from wind are
able to retain significantly more moisture.
ix. Water control: For those areas where soil erosion is predominantly caused by water – whether
natural or man-made – specialized chutes and runoff pipes can help to direct these water sources
away from the susceptible areas.
x. Increased awareness: A major factor for preventing soil erosion is educating more and more people
who work with the land on why it is a concern, and what they can do to help reduce it.

Irrigation Engineering Notes-Level 2

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Irrigation Engineering Notes-Level 2

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MODULE-1

IRRIGATION AND HYDROLOGY

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 1

Irrigation Border-strip Flooding

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 2

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 3

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 4

Rice Cotton Tea Fruits

Wheat Jute Coffee Vegetables

Maize Sugarcane Coconut

Millets Tobacco Rubber

Pulses Oil seeds

Duty of important crops in ha/cumec:

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 5

Total discharge required = 0.278 + 0.5185 = 0.7985 ≈ 0.80 cumec

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 6

Symon’s Rain Gauge Weighing bucket rain gauge

Tipping bucket rain gauge

Float type/Natural syphon type rain

Symon’s Rain Gauge: Most common non-recording rain gauge. Rain

Weighing Bucket Rain

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 7

Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge: It has a receiver provided with a funnel to

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 8

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 9

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 10

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 11

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 12

Float method Sub-surface float

Velocity measurement Velocity rod Twin float

Surface Float: Simplest type of float in the form of 10 cm

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 13

Q- flood discharge, A- catchment area, n- flood index, C- flood coefficient

Q- discharge in cumecs, A- area of the basin in sq. km.

Q- discharge in cumecs, A- area of the basin in sq. km.

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 14

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 15

Layout of diversion headwork

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 16

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 17

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 18

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 19

Based on hydraulic Based on structural

Overflow dam Rigid Dam

Non-rigid dam Buttress dam

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 20

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 21

the dam. Free board

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 22

Theoretical shape of gravity dam Actual shape of low gravity dam

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 23

Straight drop spillway Ogee spillway Chute spillway

Side channel spillway Shaft spillway Syphon spillway

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 24

Homogeneous Zoned Diaphragm

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 25

Hydraulic failures Seepage failures Structural failures

Overtopping Piping Foundation slide

Wave erosion Sloughing Slide in embankments

Toe erosion Flow slide

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 26

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 27

IRRIGATION ENGINEERING NOTES GPTC CHELAKKARA 28