CHAPTER 1  

Systems of Linear Equations

Section 1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations

• A linear equation is any equation that can be written in the form

ax + b = 0

where a and b are real numbers and x is a variable. This form is

sometimes called the standard form of a linear equation.

• Linear equations in two dimensional has the form

a1 x1 + a2 x2 = b

for a1 , a2 and are constant real numbers. Also, the above equation
is called a linear equation in two variables x1 , x2 .

• A linear equation in n- variables x1 , x2 , · · · , xn has the form

a1x1 + a2x2 + · · · + anxn = b

We call a1 , a2 , · · · , an the coefficients, and b the constant term.

Also, a1 is called the leading coefficient and x1 is called the
leading variable

Note: Linear equations have no products or roots of variable, and no

variables involved in trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential func-
tions, that is variables appear only to the first order (power)
 
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 Example 1 The following equations are linear equations:

1. 2x + 3 y = 17

2. 4x1 − 3x2 = 9
√
3. 4x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 3

4. sin(4)x1 − e3 x2 = π

5. 4x1 − tan(33)x2 + ln(2)x3 = 9

The following equations are non-linear equations:

1. 2xy + 3x = 1

2. ex1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 2

3. x2 − 2 y3 + 3 cos(z) = −1
1
4. + y + 3z = 0
x
5. x + y3 + 4z = e2

Solution of Linear Equation:

• x = 2, y = 1 satisfied the linear equation 2x + 1 y = 5

• Example 2 Parametric Solution: Solve x1 + 2x2 = 4

• Example 3 Parametric Solution: Solve 3x + 2 y − z = 3

System of Linear Equations: Recall that any equation of the form

ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers, is said to be
a linear equation in the variables x and y. The graph of a linear
 
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equation in two variables is a straight line. For real numbers a, b, c
and d, ax + by + cz + d = 0 is a linear equation in the variables x, y
and z is the equation of a plane. In general, an equation of the form

a1x1 + a2x2 + · · · anxn = bn

where a1 , a2 , · · · , an and bn are real numbers, is a linear equation in

the n variables x1 , x2 , · · · , xn . In this section we will study systems of
linear equations.

 
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 A general system of m equations in n unknowns has the form

a11x1 + a12x2 + · · · an1xn = b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + · · · a2nxn = b2
... = ... (1)
am1x1 + am2x2 + · · · amnxn = bm

The coefficients of the unknowns in this linear equations can be ab-

breviated as aij , where i, denotes the row and j denotes the column
in which the coefficient appears. For example a23 is the coefficient of
the unknown in the second row and third column (that is x3 ). Thus,
i = 1, 2, · · · , m and j = 1, 2, · · · , n. The numbers b1, b2, · · · , bm are called
the constants of the system. If all the coefficients are zero, the system
(2) is said to be homogeneous; otherwise is nonhomogeneous.
A solution of as linear system (2) is a set of n numbers x1 , x2 , · · · , xn
that satisfies each equation in the system.

Example: x1 = 3, x2 = −1 is a solution of the system

3x1 + 6x2 = −3
x1 − 4x2 = −1

To see this we replace x1 by 3 and x2 by −1 in each equation:

3(3) + 6(−1) = 9 − 6 = 3 and 3 − 4(−1) = 3 + 4 = 7

A linear system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at

least one solution, and inconsistent if it has no solutions. If a linear
system is consistent, it has either
 
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 • a unique solution (that is, precisely one solution), or

• infinite number of solutions

Example: Verify that x1 = 14 + 7t, x2 = 9 + 6t, x3 = t, where t is any

real number, is a solution of the system

2x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 = 1

x1 − x2 − x3 = 5

Solution Replacing x , x and x in turn by 14 + 7t, 9 + 6t and t, we

1 2 3

have

2(14 + 7t) − 3(9 + 6t) + 4t = 1

14 + 7t − (9 + 6t) − t = 5

For each real number t we obtain a different solution of the system;

in other words, the system has an infinite number of solutions. For

 
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instance,
at t = 0 ⇛ x1 = 14 x2 = 9 x3 = 0
at t = 4 ⇛ x1 = 42 x2 = 33 x3 = 4
Using Back-Substitution to Solve a System in Row-Echelon Form

Example: Solve the system:

x − 2 y + 3z = 9
y + 3z = 5
z=2

Two systems of linear equations are called equivalent if they have

precisely the same solution set. To solve a system that is not in
row-echelon form, first change it to an equivalent system that is in
row-echelon form by using the operations listed below
Operations That Lead to Equivalent Systems of Equations
Each of the following operations on a system of linear equations
produces an equivalent system.

1. Interchange two equations. Ei ↔ E j

2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant. Ei k → Ei , R ∋ k , 0

 
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3. Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.

Ei + kE j → Ei, R ∋ k , 0

 
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 Rewriting a system of linear equations in row-echelon form usually
involves a chain of equivalent systems, each of which is obtained
by using one of the three basic operations. This process is called
Gaussian elimination.

Example: Solve the system:

x − 2 y + 3z = 9
−x + 3 y = −4
2x − 5 y + 5z = 17

Solution

 
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Page 9 of 91▶ 

Example: An Inconsistent System
Solve the system:

x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 1
2x1 − x2 − 2x3 = 2
x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = −1

Solution

 
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Example: A System with an Infinite Number of Solutions
Solve the system:

x2 − x3 = 0
x1 − 3x3 = −1
−x1 + 3x2 = 1

Solution

 
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Example: determine whether each statement is true or false

1. A system of one linear equation in two variables is always con-

sistent.

2. A system of two linear equations in three variables is always

consistent.

3. If a linear system is consistent, then it has an infinite number of

solutions

4. A system of linear equations can have exactly two solutions.

5. Two systems of linear equations are equivalent if they have the

same solution set.

6. A system of three linear equations in two variables is always

inconsistent

Example: The non-linear equation is

√
a x − 2y − z = 3 c 2 x −y−z=1

b x+y=0 d x+z=5

 
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Example: The solution of the system

x − 2y − z = 3
2x − 6 y − 5z = 3
2x − y + z = 0

a x = 8, y = −9, z = 7 c x = −8, y = −9, z = 7

b x = −8, y = 9, z = 7 d x = −8, y = −9, z = −7

 
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Example: The equation 3x + y = 2is

a Consistent with one solution c Consistent with infinite solu-

tion
b Inconsistent

Example: The system

3x + 2 y = 1
6x + 4 y = 1

is

a Consistent with one solution c Consistent with infinite solu-

tion
b Inconsistent

Example: The system

3x + 2 y = 1
5x + 3 y = 0

is

a Consistent with one solution c Consistent with infinite solu-

tion
b Inconsistent

 
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Example: The system

x + 2y = 4
2x + 4 y = 8

is

a Only one solution c Infinite solutions

b no solutions d two solutions

Example: The solution of the system

(− cot α)x + (csc α)y = 1

(csc α)x + (− cot α)y = 0

is

a x = csc α, y = cot α c x = cot α, y = csc α

b x = tan α, y = sec α d x = sec α, y = tan α

 
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Example: The homogeneous system is is

a c

2x + 4 y = 1 2x + 4 y = 0
x − 2y = 0 x − 2y = 0

b d

2x + 4 y = 1 2x + 4 y = 1
x − 2y = 1 x − 2y = 1

Example: The solution of the system

4x1 − 8x2 − 3x3 + 2x4 = 13

3x1 − 4x2 − x3 − 3x4 = 5
x1 − 2x2 − x3 + x4 = 3

is

a x1 = 3t − 2, x2 = t − 3 =, x3 = c x1 = 3t − 2, x2 = t − 3 =, x3 =
2t + 1, x4 = t, ∀t ∈ R 2t − 1, x4 = −t, ∀t ∈ R

b x1 = 3t + 2, x2 = t − 3 =, x3 = d x1 = 3t + 2, x2 = t + 3 =, x3 =
2t − 1, x4 = t, ∀t ∈ R 2t − 1, x4 = t, ∀t ∈ R

Determine whether the equation is linear in the variables x and y

 
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Section 1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimina-
tion

In Section 1.1, Gaussian elimination was introduced as a procedure

for solving a system of linear equations. In this section you will study
this procedure more thoroughly, beginning with some definitions. The
first is the definition of a matrix.
The following array describes the number of hours that a student
spent studying three subjects during a certain week

Mon Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat Sun.

History 2 3 2 4 1 4 2
Math 0 3 1 4 3 2 4
Language 4 1 3 1 0 0 1

If we suppress the headings, then we left the following rectangular

array of numbers with three rows and seven columns called a matrix
   
2 3 2 4 1 4 2 2 3 2 4 1 4 2
   
   
0 3 1 4 3 2 4
  or 0 3 1 4 3 2 4
 
   
4 1 3 1 0 0 1 4 1 3 1 0 0 1

In mathematics one is often faced with handling arrays of numbers

 
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or functions. For example, we shall see that to solve a system of
equations such as

2x − y = 1
3x + y = 4

it is irrelevant what symbols are used to denote variables; the so-

lution of the system depends on only the numbers and their position
in the system.
 We can solve a system by appropriate on the array of
2 −1 1 
numbers   This array is called a matrix.

3 1 4

Definition: Matrix
A matrix is any rectangular array of numbers
 
 a11 a12 · · · a1n 
 
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
 
 .. .
.. 
 
 . 

a a · · · a 
m1 m1 m1

♠ The numbers in the array are called entries or elements of the

matrix.
♠ If a matrix has m rows and n columns, we say that its size is
m by n (written m × n ).
♠ An n × n is called a square matrix or a matrix of order n.
♠ A 1 × 1 matrix is simply a constant.
♠ Throughout this text we shall denote a matrix by a capital letters
such as A, B, C, D.

 
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 ♠ The elements of the matrix may be real numbers or complex num-
bers or any thing.
♠ The entry in the ith row and jth column of an m × n matrix A is
written aij . An m × n matrix A is then abbreviated as A = (aij )m×n .
♠ For an n × n square matrix, the entries a11, a2, · · · , ann are called
the main diagonal entries

Definition: Determinate of the Matrix

Suppose A is an n × n matrix. Associated with A a number called
the determinate of A, denoted by det(A) or |A|. Symbolically, we
distinguish a matrix A from the determinate of A by replacing the
brackets by vertical bar:
   
 a11 a12 · · · a1n   a11 a12 · · · a1n 
   
a21 a22 · · · a2n  a21 a22 · · · a2n 
 
A =  . ... & det(A) = |A| =  . ...
 ..  ..
 

  
  
an1 an2 · · · ann an1 an2 · · · ann

 
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Example:
 
 1 2 3 
1. A =   is a 2 × 3 matrix

0 5 −6
 
 9 7 0 8 
 
 1 
 −2 6 1 
2. B =  2  is a 4 × 4 square matrix or order 4.
 
 0 0 −1 6 
 √
 

 5 3 π −4
The main diagonal entries for this square matrix are 9, −2, −1
and −4
h √ i
3. R = −6 4 8 5 0 is a 1 × 5 matrix and it called row vector
(it has one row)
 
 1 
 
4. C = 5 is a 3 × 1 matrix and it called column vector (it has one
 
 
6
column)
 
 x1 
 
x2 
 
5. X =  .  ∈ Rn is any element in the space Rn
 .. 
 
 
xn
n×1

Elementary Row Operations

In the previous section you studied three operations that can be
used on a system of linear equations to produce equivalent systems.

1. Interchange two equations.

 
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 2. Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant.

3. Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.

In matrix terminology these three operations correspond to elemen-

tary row operations. An elementary row operation on an augmented
matrix produces a new augmented matrix corresponding to a new (but
equivalent) system of linear equations. Two matrices are said to be
row-equivalent if one can be obtained from the other by a finite se-
quence of elementary row operation
Elementary Row Operations

1. Interchange two rows.Ri ↔ R j

2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.kR j → R j , R ∋ k , 0

3. Add a multiple of a row to another row. Ri + kR j → Ri , R ∋ k , 0

An elementary row operation on an augmented matrix produces a

new augmented matrix corresponding to a new (but equivalent) system
of linear equations. Two matrices are said to be row-equivalent if one
can be obtained from the other by a finite sequence of elementary row
operations.

Example: Perform the following sequence of row operation on

A: R1 ↔ R3, −3R1 + R2 → R2, 2R2 → R2, where:
 
 4 −1 0 2 5 
 
A =  0 3 0 −51 2 
 
 
 −2 −2 2 0 1 

 
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Example: Using Elementary Row Operations to Solve a System

x − 2 y + 3z = 9
−x + 3 y = −4
2x − 5 y + 5z = 17

Solution

 
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Definition: The leading Element
For any matrix, the first non-zero element from the left in each
row, is called the leading element.

Example: In the matrix

 
 1 5 0 2 5 
 
 
 0 0 0 −1 0 
 
 
0 2 1 0 1 

the boxed numbers are the leading elements.

Definition: Row-Echelon Form

A matrix A is said to be in a row echelon form if:

1. The first nonzero entry (the leading element) in a nonzero row is

1.

2. In consecutive nonzero rows, the first entry (the leading element)

1 in the lower row appears to the right of the 1 in the higher row.

3. Rows consisting of all zeros are at the bottom of the matrix.

Example: The matrices

 
 1 5 0 2   



  0 0 1 −6 2 2 
 0 1 0 −1  and 






 0 0 0 0 1 4
0 0 0 0 

are in row-echelon form. The reader should verify that the three
criteria for this form are satisfied.

 
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Note: A matrix in row-echelon form is in reduced row-echelon form
if every column that has a leading 1 has zeros in every position above
and below its leading 1.

The matrices listed below are not in row-echelon form and reduced
row-echelon

 
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Gaussian Elimination with Back-Substitution

1. Write the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations.

2. Use elementary row operations to rewrite the augmented matrix

in row-echelon form.

3. Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the ma-

trix in row-echelon form, and use back-substitution to find the
solution

 
Page 25 of 91▶ 

Example: Using Elementary Row Operations to Solve a System
Solve the system:

x2 + x3 − 2x4 = −3
x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 2
2x1 + 4x2 + x3 − 3x4 = −2
x1 − 4x2 − 7x3 − x4 = −19

Solution

 
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Example: A System with No Solution
Solve the system:

x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 4
x1 + x3 = 6
2x2 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 4
3x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 1

Solution

 
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 Gauss-Jordan Elimination
With Gaussian elimination, you apply elementary row operations
to a matrix to obtain a (row-equivalent)reduced row-echelon form.
This method of elimination, called Gauss-Jordan elimination

 
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Example: Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Solve the system:

x − 2 y + 3z = 9
−x + 3 y = −4
2x − 5 y + 5z = 17

Solution

 
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Example: A System with an Infinite Number of Solutions
Solve the linear system:

2x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 = 0

3x1 + 5x2 = 1

Solution

 
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 Solving a Homogeneous System of Linear Equations
We will look at systems of linear equations in which each of the
constant terms is zero. We call such systems homogeneous. For
example, a homogeneous system of m equations in n variables has the
form

a11x1 + a12x2 + · · · an1xn = 0

a21x1 + a2nx2 + · · · a2nxn = 0
... = ... (2)
am1x1 + am2x2 + · · · amnxn = 0

It is easy to see that a homogeneous system must have at least one

solution. Specifically, if all variables in a homogeneous system have
the value zero, then each of the equations must be satisfied. Such a
solution is called trivial (or obvious)

Theorem: The Number of Solutions of a Homogeneous System

Every homogeneous system of linear equations is consistent. More-
over, if the system has fewer equations than variables, then it must
have an infinite number of solutions

 
Page 31 of 91▶ 

Example: Solve the linear system:

x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 0
2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0

Solution

 
Page 32 of 91▶ 

  

CHAPTER 2  

Matrices
Section 2.1 Operations with Matrices

In this chapter, we will devote the arithmetic of matrices, such as

addition, subtraction and other operations.
♠ Equality: Two matrices are equal if and only if they are have the
same size and the corresponding entries are equal
In other words, two m × n matrices A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )m×n
are equal if aij = bij for each i and j.

Example:
   
1 1
 1 1 1
1. the matrices   and   are not equal since the size of the
1 1 1 1 1
first is 2 × 2 whereas the size of the second is 2 × 3
   
 1 2  1 2
2.   , 
 
 since the corresponding entries in the second rows

3 4 4 3
of the matrices are not equal.

   
2 x 1
 and B = 2 10 1  .
 
Example: Consider the matrices: A =    
3 5 7 3 5 y
If A = B, it must be x = 10 and y = 7, but for all values of x and
y the matrices are not equal.

♠ Matrix Addition When the two matrices are of the same size, we
 
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can add them by adding their corresponding entries.
In other words, if A and B are m × n matrices, then their sum is

Cm×n = A + B = (aij) + (bij) = (aij + bij)m×n

Note: Matrices of different size cannot be added or subtracted.

1. The sum of
   
 2 −1 3  4 7 −8
   
A =  0 4 6  and B = 9 3 5 
   
   
−6 10 −5  1 −1 2 

is    
 2 + 4 −1 + 7 3 + (−8)  6 −6 −5
   
A + B =  0 + 9 4+3 6 + 5  =  9 7 11 
   
   
−6 + 1 10 + (−1) −5 + 2  −5 9 −3

2. The sum of
 
 2 −1 3   
  4 7 −8
A =  0 4 6  and B = 
  


−6 10 −5
 9 3 5

is not defined.

♠ Scalar Multiple of a Matrix: If k is a real number, then the scalar

multiple of a matrix A = (aij )m×n is
 
 ka11 ka12 · · · ka1n 
 
 ka21 ka22 · · · ka2n 
 
kA =  . .
 = (kaij)m×n
 .. .. 
 
 
kam1 kam2 · · · kamn
 
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    
 9 7 0 8  27 21 0 24 
   3 
 1 
 −2 6  
1   −6 18 3 
Example: 3  2
  =  2 
 0 0 −1   
6   0 0 −3 18 
 √ √

  
5 3 π −4   15 3 3 3π −12

Note: We note in passing that for any matrix A, the scalar matrix kA
is the same Ak.
The difference of two m×n matrices is defines in the usual manner:
A − B = A + (−B), where −B = (−1)B.
     
2 3 4  0 2 7  9 −6 3 
Example: If A =   , B = 
 
 , and C = 
 
 .

1 3 1 −1 3 −5 3 0 12
1
Find: 2A, −B, 2A − 2B + C.
3

Solution
       
1 4 6 8  0 4 −14 3 −2 1  7 −8 −5
      
2A − 2B + C =   +   +   =   .
3 2 6 2  −2 −6 10   1 0 4   1 0 16 

 
Page 35 of 91▶ 

      
 2 5  1 −2  10 9
Example: If A =   , B = 
 
 , and C = 
 
 .

−4 3 3 4 −7 8
Find the matrix X such that : 2X + 3A − 4B + C = 2I.

Solution

 
Page 36 of 91▶ 

    
a + b c + d  4 6
Example: If   =   . Find the values of a, b, c, and d
  
c−d a−b 10 2

Solution

 
Page 37 of 91▶ 

 ♠ Matrix Multiplication: If A = (aik ) be a matrix of size m × p, and
let B = (bk j ) be a matrix of Size p × n. The product AB is the m × n
matrix  p 
X 
AB =  aik bk j
k=1 m×n

Note: Two quick notes about this definition. First, notice that in order
to multiply A and B, the number of columns of A must be the same as
the number of rows of B (we refer to these as the inner dimensions.
Secondly, the resulting matrix has the same number of rows as
A and the same number of columns as B (we refer to these as the
outer dimensions.

final dimensions are the outer dimension

z }| {
(m × p) × (p ×n)
| {z }
these inner dimensions must match

Example: Find AB, BA for the following matrices in each case:

 
    5 8  
 , B = 9 −2
4 7      −4 −3
(a) A =  (b) A =  1 0 , B = 
  
   
3 5 6 8 
2 7 
 2 0

Solution
      
4 7  9 −2  4.9 + 7.6 4.(−2) + 7.8  78 48
(a) AB =     =   =  
3.9 + 5.6 3.(−2) + 5.8
      
3 5 6 8 57 34

 
Page 38 of 91▶ 

Moreover, we have
    
9 −2 4 7  30 53
BA =   
 
 = 
 


6 8 3 5 48 82

 
Page 39 of 91▶ 

 Systems of Linear Equations:
One practical application of matrix multiplication is representing a
system of linear equations.
Consider the system of m linear equations in n variables

 
Page 40 of 91▶ 

Example: Solve the matrix equation AX = 0, where
 
   x1 
 1 −2 1   
A =   , X = x2 
   
2 3 −2  
x3
 

Solution

 
Page 41 of 91▶ 

Example: Solve the matrix equation AX = 0, where
   
 1
 0 −1 2   x1 
 

−1 1 1 −3
 , X = x2 
   
A = 
 
 1 1 −1 1  x3 
  
   

2 −3 4
3
 x 
4

Solution

 
Page 42 of 91▶ 

Definition: ♠ Trace of a Matrix
If A is a square matrix; then the trace of A, denoted by tr(A), is
defined to be the sum of the diagonal elements of A. This means that,
k=n
X
if A is a square matrix of order n; then tr(A) = akk .
k=1

The trace of the non-square matrix is not defined.

Example:
 
 a11 a12 
If A =   , ⇛
 then tr(A) = a11 + a22 .
a21 a22
 
−1 2 7 0 
 
5 −8 4 

 3
And if B =   , ⇛ then tr(B) = −1 + 5 + 7 + 0 = 11.
 1 2 7 −3

 

4 −2 1 0


Section 2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations

The following theorem will summarize some of the properties of

matrix addition, scalar multiplication, trace and the product of matri-
ces.

 
Page 43 of 91▶ 

Theorem: Suppose A, B and C are three matrices of appropriate size
and k1 and k2 are scalars. Then

1. A + B = B + A (commutative law of addition)

2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (associative law of addition)

3. (k1 k2 )A = k1 (k2 A)

4. 1A = A

5. k1 (A + B) = k1 A + k2 B (distributive law)

6. (k1 + k2 )A = k1 A + k2 A (distributive law)

7. A(BC) = (AB)C (associative law of multiplication addition)

8. A(B + C) = AB + AC (distributive law)

9. A0 = I

10. I2 = I.I = I ⇛ In = I

11. A2 = A.A ⇛ An = A.A · · · A, (Al)s = Asl, Al × As = As+l

| {z }
n−times

12. An Am = An+m

13. tr(A ± B) = tr(A) ± tr(B)

14. tr(AB) = tr(BA)

15. tr(k1 A) = k1 tr(A)

16. The division of matrices is not defined

 
Page 44 of 91▶ 

Example: (Solving a Matrix Equation)
Solve for X , the equation 3X + A = B , for
   
−1 2 −3 4
A =   , B = 
 


0 3 2 1

Solution

 
Page 45 of 91▶ 

Note: If AC = BC , the is not necessarily A = B

An Example in Which Cancellation Is Not Valid

 
Page 46 of 91▶ 

Example: If
 
 1 3
A =  

0 1

Find A3 , AI

 
Page 47 of 91▶ 

Definition: Transpose of a Matrix
If A is any m × n matrix, then the transpose of A, denoted by AT ,
is defined to be the n × m matrix that results from interchanging the
rows and columns of A.

In other words, the rows of a matrix A becomes of its column of

its transpose At .
For example: if
   T  
3 2 −1 3 2 −1  3 6 2
     
A = 6 5 2  ; then A = 6 5 2  =  2 5 1  ,
T
     
     
2 1 4  2 1 4  −1 2 4

   T
5 5
    h i
and if B = 0 , then B = 0 = 5 0 3
T
   
   
   
3 3
Observe that the element aij in the matrix A is the element a ji in
the matrix AT .
In the next theorem we shall give some important properties of the
transpose.

 
Page 48 of 91▶ 

Theorem: Suppose A and B are matrices and k is a scalar. Then

1. IT = I

2. tr(AT ) = tr(A)

3. tr(In ) = n, where In is the identity matrix of order n.

4. (AT )T = A (transpose of the transpose )

5. (A ± B)T = AT ± BT (transpose of a sum),

in general (A ± B ± · · · ± M ± N)t = At ± Bt ± · · · Mt ± Nt

6. (AB)T = BT AT (transpose of a product ),

and in general (A.B · · · .M.N)T = NT .MT . · · · BT .AT

7. (kAT ) = kAt (transpose of a scalar multiple)

Definition: Symmetric matrix For any square matrix A: A is

symmetric if AT = A.
A matrix A is skew symmetric (antisymmetric) if AT = −A.

Example: The matrices:

   
   a h g  0 h −g
 1 2    
, h b f  , ,
  



 −h 0 f 
2 5    
g f c g −f
  
|{z} 0
symmetric matrix | {z } | {z }
symmetric matrix skew- symmetric matrix

 
Page 49 of 91▶ 

Example: Show that (AB)T and BT AT are equal.
   
 2 1 −2  3 1 
   
A = −1 0 3  , B = 2 −1
   
   
 0 −2 1  3 0 

Solution

 
Page 50 of 91▶ 

Note: In the skew-symmetric matrices, the elements of the diagonal elements
equal zero

Example:

1. Show that AAT is symmetric matrix.

2. if A and B are symmetric matrices; then:

(a) (AB + BA) is symmetric matrix.

(b) (AB − BA) is skew-symmetric matrix.

Solution

 
Page 51 of 91▶ 

Example: Prove that for any matrix A, it can be written as a sum
of two matrices, one of which is symmetric and the other is skew-
symmetric.

Solution

 
Page 52 of 91▶ 

Section 2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix

Definition: A square matrix A of order n is called invertible (non-

singular) if there exists a square matrix C of order n such that AB =
BA = In . The matrix A is called the inverse of A, and denoted by
B = A−1. If A has no inverse, then A is called non-invertible (singular)
matrix.

Example: Show that B is the inverse of A where

   
−1 2 1 −2
A =   and B = 
 


−1 1 1 −1 

Solution

 
Page 53 of 91▶ 

 Finding the Inverse of a Matrix by Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Let A be a square matrix of order n

1. Write the matrix [An |In ]n×2n . This process is called adjoining
matrix In to matrix An .

2. If possible, row reduce An to In using elementary row operations

on the entire matrix [An |In ]n×2n . The result will be the [In |A−n 1 ]n×2n .
If this is not possible, then An is non-invertible (or singular).

3. Check your work by multiplying AA−1 and A−1 A to see that

AA−1 = A−1A = I.

 
Page 54 of 91▶ 

  
 1 −1 0 
 
Example: Find the inverse of A =  1 0 −1
 
 
−6 2 3 

Solution

 
Page 55 of 91▶ 

  
 1 2 0 
 
Example: Show that the matrix has no inverse. A =  3 −1 2 
 
 
−2 3 −2

Solution

 
Page 56 of 91▶ 

 The inverse of square matrix of order 2:
 
a b
Let A =   Then the inverse of A is given by

c d
 
1  d −b
A−1 =  
|A| −c a 
 
a b
where |A| =   = ad − bc
 c d

 
Page 57 of 91▶ 

Example: If possible, find the inverse of each matrix
   
 3 −1  3 −1
A =   ,
 B =  

−2 2  −6 2 

Solution

 
Page 58 of 91▶ 

 Systems of Equations with Unique Solutions
For square systems (those having the same number of equations as
variables), you can use the inverse of the matrix of the coefficients
form to determine whether the system has a unique solution.

Theorem: If A is an invertible matrix with inverse A−1 , then the

system AX = B has a unique solution given by X = A−1 B.

Proof . We have AX = B. then

AX = B by multiplying both side by A−1

A−1AX = A−1B
IX = A−1B
∴ X = A−1B

To show that the solution is unique, we let X1 , and X2 be two solu-

tions for AX = B. Then AX1 = B and AX2 = B and by cancellation
law, we get X1 = X2

 
Page 59 of 91▶ 

Example: Solve the system

x1 − x2 = 1
x1 − x3 = 2
−6x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = −1

 
Page 60 of 91▶ 

 Some Properties of the Inverse
If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer, and c is a
scalar not equal to zero, then A−1 , Ak , cAand AT are invertible and the
following are true.
 −1
1. A−1 =A
 −1  k
2. A k
= A × A · · · × A × = A−1
−1 −1 −1

−1 1
3. (cA) = A−1 , c , 0
c
 −1  T
4. AT = A−1

5. If A is symmetric matrix , then A−1 is also symmetric.

Proof .

 
Page 61 of 91▶ 

Example: If A and B are invertible matrices of size n then AB is
invertible and (AB)−1 = B−1 A−1

Proof .

 
Page 62 of 91▶ 

Example: Show that (AB)−1 = B−1 A−1 , if
   
 1 1  −1 −1
A =  
 B =  

3 4 3 4

Proof .

 
Page 63 of 91▶ 

 Revision chapter one & chapter two

Choose the correct answer

1. If a homogeneous system has fewer equations than variables,

then it must have infinite number of solutions

a True b False

2. Every homogeneous system of linear equations is inconsistent.

a True b False

3. Matrices must be of the same order for their sum is to be defined

a True b False

4. The transpose of a matrix is a matrix of the same order

a True b False

5. An m × n matrix has m + n entries

a True b False

6. The (i, j)− entry of a matrix A is (j, i)− entry of AT

a True b False

7. The matrix addition is non-commutative.

a True b False

T
8. For any matrices Amn and Bmn and any scalars α and β , αAmn + βBmn =
αATmn + βBTmn
 
Page 64 of 91▶ 

 a True b False

9. Every system of linear equations has at least one solution

a True b False

10. If a matrix in a row echelon form, then the leading entry of each
nonzero row is 1 .

a True b False

11. Multiplying every entry in a row of a matrix by a scalar is a row

operation.

a True b False

12. A system with one solution is consistent

a True b False

13. The Amn Bnp is a matrix with order np

a True b False
 
 1 2 −1 
14. The matrix  is in a reduced form

0 1 3 
a True b False
 
 1 0 2 
 
 
15. The matrix  0 1 2 is in a reduced form
 
 0 0 0 

 
Page 65 of 91▶ 

 a True b False
 
 1 2 0 
 
 
16. The matrix  0 1 0 is in a reduced form
 
 0 0 1 

a True b False
 
 1 2 3 
 
 
17. The matrix  0 2 0 is in a reduced form
 
 0 0 1 

a True b False
 
 1 2 3 
 
 
18. The matrix  0 1 0 is in a reduced form
 
 1 0 1 

a True b False
 
 1 2 
19. The matrix   is square matrix

0 1
a True b False

20. Let Amn , m , n then A−mn1 exists

a True b False

 
Page 66 of 91▶ 

21. A system of one linear equation in two variables is always con-
sistent.

a True b False

22. A system of two linear equations in three variables is always

consistent.

a True b False

23. If a linear system is consistent, then it has an infinite number of

solutions.

a True b False

24. A system of linear equations can have exactly two solutions.

a True b False

25. Two systems of linear equations are equivalent if they have the
same solution set.

a True b False

26. A system of three linear equations in two variables is always

inconsistent.

a True b False

27. A 6 × 3 matrix has six rows

a True b False
 
Page 67 of 91▶ 

28. Every matrix is row-equivalent to a matrix in row-echelon form.

a True b False

29. If the row-echelon form of the augmented matrix of a system of

linear equations contains the row [1 0 0 0 0] then the original
system is inconsistent.

a True b False

30. A homogeneous system of four linear equations in six variables

has an infinite number of solutions

a True b False

T
31. (A + B) =

a AT − BT c BT − AT

b AT + BT d BT AT

−1
32. (AB) =

a A−1 B−1 c B−1 − A−1

b A−1 + B−1 d B−1 A−1

 
1  1 2 

33. Let k = and A =   then (kA)−1 =
2 −3 −5 
   
 −10 −4   −5 −2 
a  
 c  

6 2 3 1 
   
 1 −3   1 3 
b  
 d  

−1 4 1 4
 
Page 68 of 91▶ 

    
 2x2 + 5x −1 5   3 −1 5 
34. If   =   then x =
  
3 4 1 3 4 1
1 1
a x= or x = 3 c x= or x = −3
2 2
−1 1
b x= or x = −3 d x = or x = −2
2 3
 
 1 2   −1
35. If A =  
  then A

 −1
=
−3 −5
   
 3 2   5 2 
a  
 c  

−4 −5 1 −5 
   
 −11 2   1 2 
b  
 d  

−3 −5 −3 −5 

T
36. If c ∈ R, then (cB) =

a cT BT c BT cT

b cBT d BT − cT

T
37. (AB) =

a AT BT c BT − AT

b AT + BT d BT AT
   
 2 1 3   0 1 −5 
38. 2   − 3   =
  
3 4 1 2 −1 1 
   
 4 1 21   4 −1 21 
a  
 c  
0 11 −1  0 11 −1 
   
 −4 −1 21   4 −1 21 
b  
 d  
0 11 −1  1 11 −1 
 

Page 69 of 91▶ 
  
 1 −2 
39. If A =  , then A−1
 =
−3 5 
   
 −1 −2   5 2 
a  
 c  

−3 −5  3 1
   
 −5 −2   −5 2 
b  
 d  

−3 −1  3 −1 
 
   1 0 −1 
 2 −3 1   
40. The product    1
 −1 0  =
1 1 0   
2 −1 2 
   
 1 2 0   1 2 1 
a  
 c 



−2 −1 −1  2 −1 −1 
   
 1 2 0   1 2 0 
b  
 d 



2 −1 −1  −2 −1 −1 
 
 1 −1 0 
 
41. If A =  1 0 −1 , then [A|I] =
 
 
 −6 2 3 
   
 1
 −1 0 0 1 0   1
 −1 0 1 0 0 
   
a  1 0 −1 0 1 0  c  1 0 −1 0 1 0 
   
 −6 2 3 0 0 1   −6 2 3 1 0 0
   
 1
 −1 0 1 0 0   1
 −1 0 1 0 0 
   
b  1 0 −1 0 1 0  d  1 0 −1 0 1 0 
   
 −6 2 3 0 0 1   −6 2 3 0 1 0

 
Page 70 of 91▶ 

  
 2 −3 1 
42. Let A =   , then AT =

1 5 0
   
 2 1 
 
 2
 −1 
   
a  −3 −5  c  −3 5 
   
 −3 5   −3 5 
   
 2 1   2 1 
   
  
b  3 5  d  −3 5 
   
 −3 5   1 0
 
 1 2 0 
43. The matrix   is of size

0 1 3
a 2 c 3×2

b 2×3 d 6

 2x − 3 y = 23


44. The coefficient matrix of the system  is
 x + y = −10

   
 1 3   2 3 
a  
 c  

2 −1 −1 −1 
   
 2 −3   −2 −3 
b  
 d  

1 1 1 1 




 2x − 5 y + 5z = 17

45. The coefficient matrix of the system  x − 2 y + 3z = 9 is



 −x + 3 y = −4


   
 2 −5 5   2 0 5 
   
   
a  1 −2 3  b  1 −2 3 
   
 −1 3 0   −1 3 0 
 
Page 71 of 91▶ 

    
 2 −5 5   2 −5 5 
   
   
c  1 −2 −3  d  −1 −2 3 
   
 −1 3 0   −1 3 0 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 
46. The operation to transfer the matrix  0 1 0  to a row echelon
 
 2 0 1 
form is

a R3 − R1 −→ R3 c R3 − 2R1 −→ R3
1
b R3 + 2R1 −→ R3 d R3 −→ R3
2
 
 1 2 3 
 
 
47. The operation to transfer the matrix  0 3 6  to a row echelon
 
 0 0 1 
form is

a R2 − 3R1 −→ R2 1
c R2 −→ R2
3
−1
b R3 + 2R1 −→ R2 d R2 −→ R2
3
 
 1 2 3 
 
 
48. The operation to transfer the matrix  0 0 0  to a row echelon
 
 0 0 1 
form is

a R2 ←→ R3 c R2 ←→ −R3

b R2 ←→ R1 d R3 −→ R1

49. The homogeneous system is

 
Page 72 of 91▶ 

  
 x+y+1=0  x+y+3=0

 

c  c 
 x − 2y − 1 = 0
  x − 2y − 1

 
 x+y=0  x+y=0

 

c  d 
 x − 2y = 1
  x − 2y = 0


 
Page 73 of 91▶ 

 



 x − 2y − z = 3

50. The augmented matrix of the system  3x − 6 y − 5z = 3 is



 2x − y + z = 0


   
 −1 −2 −1 3   1 −2 −1 3 
   
  
a  3 −6 −5 3  c  3 6 −5 3 
   
 2 −1 −1 0  2 −1 1 0 
   
 1
 −2 −1 3   −1 −2 −1 3 
 
   
b  −3 −6 −5 3  d  3 −6 −5 3 
   
 2 −1 1 0  2 −1 1 0 

 
Page 74 of 91▶ 

 



 4x1 − 8x2 − 3x3 + 2x4 = 13

51. The solution of the system  3x1 − 4x2 − x3 − 3x4 = 5 is



 x1 − 2 x2 − x3 + x4 =3


 



 x1 = 3t − 2 


 x1 = t − 2
 
 x2 = t − 3  x2 = t − 3

 

 
a  c
= + x3 = 2 t + 1




 x 3 2 t 1




 
 x4 = t  x4 = −t

 

 



 x1 = 3t − 2 


 x1 = 2 − 3t
 
 x2 = t + 1  x2 = t − 3

 

 
b  d
= x3 = 2t + 1




 x3 2t − 3




 
 x4 = t  x4 = −t

 


 
Page 75 of 91▶ 

52. find values of a,b, and c (if possible) such that the system of



 x+y =2

y+z =2



linear equations 




 x+z =2

 ax + by + cz =0



has

(a) unique solution

(b) no solution

(c) an infinite number of solutions

Solution The corresponding augmented matrix is

   
 1 1 0 2   1 1 0 2 
   

 0 1 1 2  (−a)R1 +R4 →R4  0

1 1 2 
[A|B] =   ===========⇒  
 1 0 1 2  (−1)R1 +R3 →R3  0 −1 1 0 
  
   

a b c 0
  0 b−a c −2a 
   
 1 1 0 2   1 1 0 2 
   
2  21 R3 →R3  0

 0 1 1

(1)R2 +R3 →R4
 1 1 2 
==============⇒   ======⇒  
(−(b−a))R2 +R4 →R3   0 0 2 2   0 0 1 1 
  
   
0 c + a − b −2b a − b − c −2b 
0  0 0
 
 1 1 0 2 
 

 0 1 1 2

−(a−b−c)R2 +R4 →R4 
==============⇒ 


(−1)R2 +R3 →R3  0 0 0 1

 

0 0 0 a+b+c
 

(a) The system has only one solution x = y = z = 1 , when

a + b + c = 0.
 
Page 76 of 91▶ 

(b) The system has no solution, when a + b + c , 0

(c) We can not have an infinite solution.

 
Page 77 of 91▶ 

 
12 12
=7


 −
x y





53. Solve 


3 4


+ =0



x y


Solution

 
Page 78 of 91▶ 

54. Find the solution set of the system of linear equations represented
by equivalent augmented matrix
 
 1
 2 −1 1 
 
(a)  0 1 1 4 
 
0 0 1 3
 
 1 2 0 1 4 
 

 0 1 2 1 3 
(b)  
 0 0 1 2 1 

 

0 0 0 1 4


Solution

 
Page 79 of 91▶ 

55. find all values of λ such that the homogeneous system of linear
equations will have nontrivial solutions.

 (λ − 2)x + y = 0


(a) 
 x + (λ − 2)y = 0


 (λ − 1)x + 2 y = 0


(b) 

 x + λy =0

Solution

 
Page 80 of 91▶ 

56. solve the system using either Gaussian elimination
 with back-
 −3x + 5 y = −22




substitution or Gauss-Jordan elimination  3x + 4 y =4



= 32

 4x − 8 y


Solution

 
Page 81 of 91▶ 

  2  −1
57. If A invertible, show that A−1 = A2 invertible.

Proof .

 
Page 82 of 91▶ 

58. Let An be an skew-symmetric matrix over . Let Pn be an arbitrary
matrix. Show that PT AP is skew-symmetric

Proof .

 
Page 83 of 91▶ 

59. If A, B , and are symmetric matrices, then prove that A + B is
symmetric and

Proof .

 
Page 84 of 91▶ 

60. If A2n = An , then prove that An = In or An non invertible.

Proof .

 
Page 85 of 91▶ 

  
 1 k 2 
61. If A =  

−3 4 1 
(a) If A is the augmented matrix of a system of linear equa-
tions, determine the number of equations and the number of
variables.

(b) If A is the augmented matrix of a system of linear equations,

find the value(s) of k such that the system is consistent.

(c) If A is the coefficient matrix of a homogeneous system of

linear equations, determine the number of equations and the
number of variables.

(d) If A is the coefficient matrix of a homogeneous system of

linear equations, find the value(s) of k such that the system
is consistent
Solution

 
Page 86 of 91▶ 

  
 2 −1 3 
 
62. If A =  −4 2 k 
 
 
 4 −2 6 

(a) If A is the augmented matrix of a system of linear equa-

tions, determine the number of equations and the number of
variables.

(b) If A is the augmented matrix of a system of linear equations,

find the value(s) of k such that the system is consistent.

(c) If A is the coefficient matrix of a homogeneous system of

linear equations, determine the number of equations and the
number of variables.

(d) If A is the coefficient matrix of a homogeneous system of

linear equations, find the value(s) of k such that the system
is consistent
Solution

x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 = 1






▶ The solution of the system  
2x2 − x3 + 2x4 = 0 is




x1 − x2 + 3x3 =1



1 5 1
     
A x1 = 1 + t , x2 = t , x3 = t , x4 = t
4 4 2
1 −5 −1
     
B x1 = 1 + t , x2 = t , x3 = t , x4 = t
4 4 2
1 −5 −1
     
C x1 = 1 + t , x2 = t , x3 = t , x4 = t
4 4 3
D None of these
 
Page 87 of 91▶ 

 ▶ The value(s) of λ such that the system will have nontrivial

 (λ − 1)x + 2 y = 0


solutions  is (are)

 x + λy =0

A 1, 2

B −1, 2

C 1

D None of these

 
Page 88 of 91▶ 

  
 1 2 3
 
▶ The following elementary operation to convert the matrix 0 1 0
 
 
2 0 1 
to the echelon form is

A R3 − R1 → R3

B (2)R3 + R1 → R1

C (−1)R1 + R3 → R3

D None of these
2x − 5 y + 3z = 0

▶ The system 

has

 x − 2 y + 3z = 0


A two solutions

B infinite number of solutions

C one solution non trivial

D only trivial solution

▶ A system with one solution is consistent.

A True

B False
▶ Multiplying every entry in a row of a matrix by a scalar is a

row operation.

A True

B False
 
Page 89 of 91▶ 

 ▶ If a matrix in a row echelon form, then the leading entry of

each nonzero row is 1

A True

B False
 
 1 0 −1 2 1 
 
▶ The rank of the matrix 0 0 2 −2 1  is
 
 
0 0 −2 2 −1

A 1

B 2

C 3

D none of these
▶ If a homogeneous system has fewer equations than variables,

then it must have finite number of solutions.

A True

B False

 
Page 90 of 91▶ 

  

CHAPTER 3  

Determinants
Section 3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix

Section 3.2 Evaluation of a Determinant Using Elementary Opera-

tions

Section 3.3 Properties of Determinants

Section 3.4 Applications of Determinants

Section 3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix

Every square matrix can be associated with a real number called

the determinant of the matrix.

 
 a11 a12 
Definition: The determinant of the matrix A =   is given by:

a21 a22
 
 a11 a12 
det(A) = |A| =   = a11a22 − a12a21
a21 a22

Example 1

 
Page 91 of 91▶ 

  
2 −1
1. Let A =   . Then

3 5
 
2 −1 
det(A) = |A| =   = (2)(−5) − (−1)(3) = −10 + 3 = −7.
3 −5

 
2 1 
2. Let A =   . Then

3 5
 
2 1 
det(A) = |A| =   = (2)(5) − (1)(3) = −10 + 7 = 3.
3 5

 
2 1 
3. Let A =   . Then

4 2
 
2 1 
det(A) = |A| =   = (2)(2) − (1)(4) = 4 − 4 = 0.
4 2

4. Let A = [−5]. Then det(A) = |A| = −5

Note:

1. The determinant of a matrix can be positive, zero, or negative.

2. The determinant of a matrix of order 1 is defined simply as the

entry of the matrix.

To define the determinant of a matrix of order higher than 2, it is

convenient to use the notions of minors and co-factors.

 
Page 92 of 91▶ 

Definition: The Minors and Cofactors of a Matrix
If A is a square matrix, then the minor Mij of the element ai j is
the determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting the ith row and
jth column of A. The cofactor Ci j is given by Cij = (−1)i+jMij.

 
Page 93 of 91▶ 

  
 a11 a12 a13 
 
Let A = a21 a22 a23 , find the cofactors of the
 
Pre. Exam
 
a a a 
31 32 33
elements a23 and a31
Solution

 
Page 94 of 91▶ 

 As you can see, the minors and cofactors of a matrix can differ
only in sign. To obtain the cofactors of a matrix, first find the minors
and then apply the checkerboard pattern of +′ s and −′ s shown below.

Note that odd positions (where i + j is odd) have negative signs,

and even positions (where i + j is even) have positive signs.

 
Page 95 of 91▶ 

Example: Find all the minors and cofactors of
 
0 2 1 
 
A = 3 −1 2
 
 
4 0 1 

Solution

 
Page 96 of 91▶ 

Definition: The Determinant of a Matrix
If A is a square matrix (of order 2 or greater), then the determinant
of A is the sum of the entries in the first row of A multiplied by their
cofactors. That is,
n
X
det(A) = |A| = a1 jC1 j = a11C11 + a12C12 + a13C13 + . . . + a1nC1n.
j=1

Note: Although the determinant is defined as an expansion by the

cofactors in the first row, it can be shown that the determinant can
be evaluated by expanding by any row or column.

 
Page 97 of 91▶ 

Example: Find the determinant of
 
 1 2 1 
 
A =  3 0 4
 
 
−1 −2 0

Solution

 
Page 98 of 91▶ 

Note: There is an alternative method commonly used for evaluating
the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix A. To apply this method, copy
the first and second columns of to form fourth and fifth columns.
The determinant of A is then obtained by adding (or subtracting) the
products of the six diagonals, as shown in the following diagram.

 
Page 99 of 91▶ 

Example: Find the determinant of
 
 1 2 1 
 
A =  3 0 4
 
 
−1 −2 0

Solution

 
Page 100 of 91▶ 

Example: Find the determinant of
 
 1
 −2 3 0 

−1

1 0 2 
A =  
 0 2 0 3 

 

3 4 0 −2


Solution

 
Page 101 of 91▶ 

 Triangular Matrices

Theorem: Determinant of a Triangular Matrix If A is a triangular

matrix of order n then its determinant is the product of the entries on
the main diagonal. That is,

det(A) = |A| = a11 × a22 × a33 × . . . × ann

 
Page 102 of 91▶ 

Example: Find the determinant of each matrix.
   
 2 0 0 0  2 1 −3 4   
    2 0 0
−1 −1 

3 0 0 

0 3 0  
(1) A =  (2) B =  (3) C = 0 3 0
  

 0 2 1 0  0 0 −1 4 
  

  
  0 0 5
3 4 0 −2 0 0 0 −2
 

Solution

 
Page 103 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

Example: Solve for x

     
x + 1 −2  x + 3 1  x − 2 −1
(1)   = 0 (2)   = 0 (3)   = 0
 1 x − 2  −4 x − 1  −3 x 

Solution

 
Page 104 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

Example: True or False

1. The -cofactor of a square matrix A is the matrix defined by delet-

ing the ith row and the jth column of A.

2. The determinant of a matrix of order 1 is the entry of the matrix.

3. To find the determinant of a triangular matrix, add the entries

on the main diagonal.

4. When expanding by cofactors, you need not evaluate the cofac-

tors of zero entries.

5. The ijth -cofactor of a square matrix A is the matrix defined by

deleting the ith row and the jth column of A.

6. If A = [−9], then |A| = 9.

 
Page 105 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

Example: Evaluate the determinants to verify the equation

   
w x y z
1.   = −  
 y z w x
   
w cx w x
2.    = c  
 y cz  y z

 
Page 106 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

Example: Evaluate the determinants to verify the equation

 
 w x 
1.   = 0
cw cx
   
w x w x + cw
2.   =  
 y z  y z + cy 

Solution

 
Page 107 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

 
1 x x2 
 
Example: Prove that 1 y y2  = (y − x)(z − x)(z − y)
2
 
1 z z 

Solution

 
Page 108 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

 
a + b a a 
 
Example: Prove that  a a + b a  = b2 (3a + b)
a a + b
 
 a

Solution

 
Page 109 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

Example: Choose the correct answer:

 
−1 1 0 
 
Let A =  0 1 −1. Then |A| =
 
 
 2 −6 3 

a 1 c 2

b −1 d −2

Solution

 
Page 110 of 91▶ 

Example:

Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

 
−1 1 0 
 
Let A =  0 1 −1. Then
 
 
 2 −6 3 

a C11 = −3, C13 = −2, C12 = 2 c C11 = 3, C13 = −2, C12 = −2

b C11 = −3, C13 = −2, C12 = −2 d C11 = −3, C13 = 2, C12 = −2

Solution

 
Page 111 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.1 : Review Exercises

 
−1 1 0 
 
Example: Let A =  0 1 −1. Then
 
 
 2 −6 3 

a C31 = −1, C32 = 1, C33 = −1 c C31 = −1, C32 = −1, C33 = −1

b C31 = 1, C32 = −1, C33 = −1 d C31 = −1, C32 = −1, C33 = 1

Solution

 
Page 112 of 91▶ 

Section 3.2 Evaluation of a Determinant Using Elementary Oper-
ations

Theorem: Let A and B be square matrices

1. If B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows of A, then

|B| = −|A|.
This means, if two rows (or columns) of a determinant are inter-
changed, the value of the determinant is multiplied by −1.

2. If B is obtained from A by adding a row of A to a multiple of

another row of A, then |B| = |A|.

This means, if the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant

are multiplied by a scalar and the new row (or new column),
added to another row (or another column), then the value of the
original determinant unchanged .

3. If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row of A by a non-zero

constant 0 , c ∈ R , then |B| = c|A| .

This means, if the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant

are multiplied by a scalar, then the value of the new determinant
is equal to some scalar times the value of the original determi-
nant.

 
Page 113 of 91▶ 

Example: By using elementary operations, find the determinant of
 
2 −3 10 
 
A =  1 2 −2
 
 
0 1 −3

Solution

 
Page 114 of 91▶ 

Example: By using elementary operations, prove that
 
 1 1 1 
 
A =  a b c  = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
 2 2 2
a b c 

Solution

 
Page 115 of 91▶ 

Example: If a matrix Bn is obtained from the matrix An by the oper-
ation Ri + (k)R j −→ Ri , k =, 0 on An , then |Bn | = |An |

a True b False

Solution

 
Page 116 of 91▶ 

Example: If a matrix Bn is obtained from the matrix An by multiplying
a row by 0 , k ∈ R, then |Bn | = kn |An |

a True b False

Solution

 
Page 117 of 91▶ 

Example: If a matrix Bn is obtained from the matrix An by the oper-
ation Ri ←→ R j on An , then |Bn | = |An |

a True b False

Solution

 
Page 118 of 91▶ 

Example:

1. Interchanging two rows of a given matrix changes the sign of its

determinant.

a True b False

2. Multiplying a row of a matrix by a nonzero constant results in

the determinant being multiplied by the same nonzero constant.

a True b False

3. Adding a multiple of one row of a matrix to another row changes

only the sign of the determinant

a True b False

Solution

 
Page 119 of 91▶ 

Section 3.3 Properties of Determinants

Theorem: Let A and B be two square matrices of order n, then

1. If in A an entire row (or column) is zero, then |A| = 0.

2. If in A two rows (or columns) are equal, then |A| = 0.

3. If in A one row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or

column), then |A| = 0.

4. |A| = |AT |

5. |AB| = |A||B|.

6. |A + B| , |A| + |B|.
1
7. |A−1 | = (= |A|−1).
|A|
8. |An | = |A|n .

9. |cA| = cn |A| for any scalar c ∈ R

10. A is invertible (non-singular) if and only if |A| , 0

 
Page 120 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.3 : Review Exercises

Example: Prove the property

 
 1 1 1 
 
 a b c  = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)(a + b + c).
 3 3 3
a b c 

Proof .

 
Page 121 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.3 : Review Exercises

Example: Let S be an n × n singular matrix. Prove that for any n × n

matrix B the matrix SB is also singular.

Proof .

 
Page 122 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.3 : Review Exercises

Example: Prove the property

 
1 + a 1 1 
1 1 1
   
 1 1 + b 1  = abc 1 + + + .
a b c
1 1 + c
 
 1

Proof .

 
Page 123 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.3 : Review Exercises

Example: If A is an idempotent matrix A2 = A, then prove that the

determinant of A is either 0 or 1

Proof .

 
Page 124 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.3 : Review Exercises

 
Example: Determine whether the matrix is orthogonal A −1
=A
T


 
 1 0 0
 
 
0 0 1 
 
 
0 1 0

Solution

 
Page 125 of 91▶ 

 Section 3.3 : Review Exercises

Example: Prove that if A is an orthogonal matrix, then |A| = ±1

Proof .

 
Page 126 of 91▶ 

Section 3.5 Applications of Determinants

Crammer’s Rule

If a system of n linear equations in n variables has a

coefficient matrix with a nonzero determinant |A|

a11x1 +a12x2 + · · · + a1nxn = b1

a21x1 +a22x2 + · · · + a2nxn = b2
.. ..
a1nx1 +a2nx2 + · · · + annxn = bn

then the solution of the system is given by:

|A1| |A2| |A2| |An|
x1 = , x2 = , x3 = , · · · , xn =
|A| |A| |A| |A|
where the ith column of Ai is the column of constants in
the matrix coefficients of the system of equations.

 
Page 127 of 91▶ 

Example: Use Crammer’s Rule to solve the system of lin-
ear equations.
4x1 − 2x2 = 10
(

3x1 − 5x2 = 11

Solution

 
Page 128 of 91▶ 

Example: Use Crammer’s Rule to solve the system of lin-
ear equations.
−x + 2 y − 3z = 1




+ z=0

2x



 3x − 4 y + 4z = 2



Solution

 
Page 129 of 91▶ 

Example: The matrix A y of the system

x − 2y − z = 3




3x − 6 y − 5z = 3




 2x − y + z = 0



is
   
 1 3 −1   1 −2 3
   
a A y = 3 3 −5 c A y = 3 −6 3
   
   
2 0 1  2 −1 0
   
3 −2 −1   1 −2 3
   
b A y = 3 −6 −5 d A y = 3 −6 3
   
   
0 −1 1  2 −1 0

Solution

 
Page 130 of 91▶ 

Example: The determent of the matrix Ax of the system

x − 2y − z = 3




3x − 6 y − 5z = 3




 2x − y + z = 0



is

a |Ax| = −24 c |Ax| = 18

b |Ax| = 6 d |Ax| = −30

Solution

 
Page 131 of 91▶ 

Example: Use Crammer’s Rule to solve the system of lin-
ear equations for x and y

kx + (1 − k)y = 1
(1 − k)x + ky = 3

For what value(s) of k will the system be inconsistent?

Solution

 
Page 132 of 91▶ 

 The Adjoint of a Matrix

Definition: If A is a square matrix of order n, thenthe

matrix of cofactors of has the form
 
 C11 C12 ··· C1n 
 
C C ··· C2n 
 21 22
C =  . .. .. 

 . ··· 
 
C C ··· Cnn
n1 n2

The transpose of this matrix is called theadjoint of A and

is denoted by adjA That is,
 T  
 C11 C12 ··· C1n   C11 C21 ··· Cn1 
   
C C ··· C2n  C C ··· Cn2 
 21 22
adj(A) = CT =  .  =  12 22

.. ..   .. .. .. 

 . ···   ··· 
   
C C ··· Cnn C1n C2n ··· Cnn
n1 n2

 
Page 133 of 91▶ 

Theorem: The Inverse of a Matrix Given by Its Adjoint
Let An be a square matrix. If An is invertible
(|A| , 0), then
1
A−1 = adj(A)
|A|

Note: From the previous relation we can deduce that

Aadj(A) = |A|I

 
Page 134 of 91▶ 

Example: Use the adjoint of
 
−1 3 2 
 
A =  0 −2 1 
 
 
 1 0 −2

to find A−1.

 
Page 135 of 91▶ 

Example: Use the adjoint of
 
2 1 
A =  
7 3

to find A−1.

 
Page 136 of 91▶ 

Note: If A is an matrix n×n, then the following statements
are equivalent.

1. A is invertible(non-singular).

2. AnXn1 = Bn has a unique solution.

3. AX = 0 has only the trivial solution.

4. A is row-equivalent to In.

5. |A| , 0

 
Page 137 of 91▶ 

Example: Which of the systems has a unique solution?

= 2x2 − x3 = −1
 

 2 x2 − x 3 − 1 


 

+ = 3x1 − 2x2 + x3 = 4
 
3 x − 2 x x 4 &
 

 1 2 3 


 

3x + 2x − x = −4 
 3x + 2x + x = −4
1 2 3 1 2 3

Solution

 
Page 138 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

Example: Let A and B be n × n such that AB = I. Prove

that |A| , 0 and |B| , 0

Proof .

 
Page 139 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

Example: Let A and B be n × n such that AB is singular

matrix . Prove that A or B is singular.

Proof .

 
Page 140 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

Example: Find the value(s) of k such that A is singular

 
 1 0 3
 
A = 2 −1 0
 
 
4 2 k 

Proof .

 
Page 141 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

 
2 0 5
 
Example: If A = 4 −1 6. Find
 
 
3 2 1 
         
A  , A  , A  , AA  , |2A| , and A−1
3 T 2 T

Proof .

 
Page 142 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

Example: Let A and B be square matrices of order 4

such that |A| = −5 and |B| = 3. Find
     
|AB| , A3 , |3B| , (AB)  , and A−1
T

Proof .

 
Page 143 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

Example: Prove the following formula for a (invertible )

nonsingular n × n matrix A

|adj(A)| = |A|n−1

Proof .

 
Page 144 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

Example: Prove the following formula for a (invertible

)nonsingular n × n matrix A
 
adj A −1
= [adj(A)]−1

Proof .

 
Page 145 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises

Example: Prove the following formula for a (invertible

)nonsingular n × n matrix A

adj (adj(A)) = |A|n−2 A.

Proof .

 
Page 146 of 91▶ 

 Chapter 3 : Review Exercises
   
, then Aadj(A) = −2 0 
2 0 
1. If A = 
 
4 −1
  0 −2
a True b False

 
2 0 1 
 
2. The matrix A = 0 −2 3  is singular matrix
 
 
0 0 −1

a True b False

3. Any n × n matrix has an inverse if and only if |A| = 0

a True b False

4. If |A3| = −5 , then |2A3| = −40

a True b False

5. |3I4| = 81

 
Page 147 of 91▶ 

 a True b False

6. |ATn | = −|An|

a True b False

7. If | − A5| = −|A5|

a True b False

 
Page 148 of 91▶