1 System of Linear Equation

System of Linear Equations
System of Linear Equations 1 / 81

Course Overview
Textbook:
W. Keith Nicholson (2019), Linear Algebra with Applications,
Lyrix with Open Texts
Gilbert Strang (2016) Introduction to Linear Algebra, Wellesley -
Cambridge Press, 5th edition
Grade:
▶ Test in class (10%)
▶ Homework (10%) need to be submitted on blackboard after each
session and before the next section.
▶ Attendance (10%) is taken randomly each session
▶ Midterm exam (30%)
▶ Final exam (40%)
Test, midterm exam and final exam are written examination

Course Objectives
1 The course provides the student with basic knowledges in linear

algebra with introduction to applications to cryptography, computer
graphics, image compression . . . , in particular the skill of solving
linear systems of equations using Gauss elimination method.
2 Content
▶ System of linear equations
▶ Matrices,operation
▶ Determinant, diagonalization
▶ Vector space, spanning space, independence and dimension
▶ Linear transformation
▶ Orthogonalization

Chapter Goals
Systems of linear equations lie at the heart of linear algebra, and this
chapter uses them to introduce some of the central concepts of linear
algebra in a simple and concrete setting
1 Gaussian Elimination method to solve system of linear equations
2 Introduction to Rank of a matrix via the row-echelon form and
relationship between rank of matrix with consistency/inconsistency of

a linear system
3 Homogeneous system of linear equations
4 Represent general solutions to a homogeneous system of linear
equations as linear combinations of basis solutions - as an introduction

to fundamental concepts of linear combination and spaning
5 Introduce an application of linear system in network flow and
chemical reaction

Solutions and Elementary Operations
Table of contents
1 Solutions and Elementary Operations
System of Linear Equation
Elementary Operations
2 Gaussian Elimination
Row Reduction and Echelon Forms
Solution of Linear Systems
Gaussian Elimination Method
Rank of Matrix and Consistency of Linear System
3 Homogeneous System of Equations
Homogeneous System
Linear combination, general solution and basis solution
4 An Application to Network Flow
5 An Application to Chemical Reactions

Solutions and Elementary Operations System of Linear Equation
Linear equation of two variables

Graph of equation of form
ax + by = c
is a straight line (if a and b are not both zero), so such an equation is
called a linear equation in the variables x and y

Linear equations
An equation of form
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
is called a linear equation in the n variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn

a1 , a2 , . . . , an : coefficients of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
b : constant term
Each variable in a linear equation occurs to the first power only.

Linear equations
An equation of form
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
is called a linear equation in the n variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn

a1 , a2 , . . . , an : coefficients of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
b : constant term
Each variable in a linear equation occurs to the first power only.
Example
2x1 − 3x2 + 5x3 = 7
is a linear equation; the coefficients of x1 , x2 , and x3 are 2, −3, and 5,
and the constant term is 7

Solution of a linear equation

Given a linear equation
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
a sequence (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) is a solution of the equation if
a1 s1 + a2 s2 + · · · + an sn = b
that is, if the equation is satisfied when the substitutions
x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , ..., xn = sn are made.

Solution of a linear equation

Given a linear equation
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b
a sequence (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) is a solution of the equation if
a1 s1 + a2 s2 + · · · + an sn = b
that is, if the equation is satisfied when the substitutions
x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , ..., xn = sn are made.
Example
Consider the equation 2x − y = 1
(1, 1) is a solution of this equation because
2∗1−1=1
(2, 5) is not a solution of the equation because
2 ∗ 2 − 5 ̸= 1
System of linear equations
Definition
A finite collection of linear equations in the variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn is
called a system of linear equations in these variables

Definition
A sequence of numbers is called a solution to a system of
equations if it is a solution to every equation in the system.

Definition
A sequence of numbers is called a solution to a system of
equations if it is a solution to every equation in the system.
Example
(x = −2, y = 5, z = 0) and (x = 0, y = 4, z = −1) are both solutions to
the system
(
x+y+ z =3
2x + y + 3z = 1

System of ax + by = c

System of ax + by + cz = d

Consistent vs Inconsistent
A system that has no solution is called inconsistent

A system with at least one solution is called consistent.
▶ unique solution
▶ infinitely many solutions

Example
The system equation (

x + 2y = 1
x + 2y = 3
has no solution =⇒ inconsistent

Example
For arbitrary values of s and t,
x1 = t − s + 1
x2 = t + s + 2
x3 = s
x4 = t
is a solution to the system

(
x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 + x4 = −3
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 − x4 = 0
=⇒ has infinitely many solution =⇒ consistent

Example
For arbitrary values of s and t,
x1 = t − s + 1
x2 = t + s + 2
x3 = s
x4 = t
is a solution to the system

(
x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 + x4 = −3
2x1 − x2 + 3x3 − x4 = 0
=⇒ has infinitely many solution =⇒ consistent

The quantities s and t in are called parameters, and the set of solutions ,
described in this way, that is (t − s + 1, t + s + 2, s, t) , is said to be given
in parametric form and is called the general solution to the system.
Example
Describe all solutions to 3x − y + 2z = 6 in parametric form.

Example
Describe all solutions to 3x − y + 2z = 6 in parametric form.

Solution
Solving the equation for y in terms of x and z, we get y = 3x + 2z − 6. If
s and t are arbitrary then, setting x = s, z = t, we get solutions
x=s
y = 3s + 2t − 6
z=t
where s and t are arbitrary

Algebraic method
Two systems are said to be equivalent if they have the same set of
solutions.
A system is solved by writing a series of systems, one after the
other, each equivalent to the previous system.
Each of these systems has the same set of solutions as the original
one; the aim is to end up with a system that is easy to solve.
Each system in the series is obtained from the preceding system by a
simple manipulation chosen so that it does not change the set of
solutions.

Solve system of linear equation with eliminating

Consider the system
x + 2y + 3z = 6 (1)
2x − 3y + 2z = 14 (2)
3x + y − z = −2 (3)
To eliminate x in Eq (2)-(3), we take Eq (2) - 2Eq (1) and Eq (3) - 3Eq

(1) and obtain a system of 2 variables y and z
−7y − 4z = 2 (4)
−5y − 10z = −20 (5)
Divide Eq (5) by -5
−7y − 4z = 2 (6)
y + 2z = 4 (7)

Interchanging equations
y + 2z = 4 (8)
−7y − 4z = 2 (9)
Eliminate y in Eq (9 ) by Eq (8) + 7Eq (9)
10z = 30 or z = 3
After eliminating process, we obtain
x + 2y + 3z = 6 (10)
y + 2z = 4 (11)
z=3 (12)
Substitute z = 3 to Eq (11) to get y = −2 and then substitute value of y

and z to Eq (11) to obtain x = 1. Back substitution procedure
Hence the solution is (x, y, z) = (1, −2, 3).
Name of variables does not matter
Repeat all the above steps to solve the system equations



 x + 2x2 + 3x3 = 6
 1
2x − 3x + 2x = 14
1 2 3

3x + x − x = −2

1 2 3
We only need to replace x, y, z by x1 , x2 , x3 and keep the same

coefficients and constant terms in the eliminating process.

Simplify Computation of Algebraic Method With Matrix

A rectangular array of numbers is called a matrix
In augmented matrix, each row of the matrix consists of the

coefficients of the variables (in order) from the corresponding equation,
together with the constant term
Solutions and Elementary Operations Elementary Operations
Example
Solve

Solution
Apply algebraic method

Solution
The corresponding augmented matrix

Solution
The corresponding augmented matrix
Solution (x, y) = (0, −1)

Elementary operations
The following operations, called elementary operations, can routinely be

performed on systems of linear equations to produce equivalent
systems.
1 (Interchange) Interchange two equations.
2 (Scaling) Multiply one equation by a nonzero number.
3 (Replacement) Add a multiple of one equation to a different equation.

Use Elementary Row Operations

The following are called elementary row operations on a matrix.
1 Interchange two rows.
2 Multiply one row by a nonzero number.
3 Add a multiple of one row to a different row.
To Produce a Matrix Of the Form

Use Elementary Row Operations

The following are called elementary row operations on a matrix.
1 Interchange two rows.
2 Multiply one row by a nonzero number.
3 Add a multiple of one row to a different row.
To Produce a Matrix Of the Form
But this does not always happen.

Example
Find all solutions to the following system of equations.
3x + 4y + z = 1
2x + 3y = 0
4x + 3y − z = −2

Solution
Reduction the augmented matrix
   
3 4 1 1 1 32 0 0
 r1 ↔r2 
2 3 0 0 −
− − −→ 3 4 1 1  create a 1 in the upper left corner
 
  1 
r
4 3 −1 −2 2 2 4 3 −1 −2
 
1 23 0 0
r3 −4r1 
−−−−→ 0 − 12 1 1  creat zeros in other position in col 1

r2 −3r1
0 −3 −1 −2
 
1 32 0 0
−−−→ 0 1 −2 −2 creat 1 leading row 2
 
−2r2
0 −3 −1 −2
 
1 32 0 0
r3 +3r2 
−−−−→ 0 1 −2 −2 creat zero in position below 1 leading in col 2

0 0 −7 −8

Creat 1 leading in row 2

 
1 23 0
− 17 r3
0
−−−→ 0 1 −2 −2
 
8
0 0 1 7
The corresponding system of equations





x + 32 y =0
y − 2z = −2

 8
 z= 7
which give the unique solution (x = − 37 , y = 72 , z = 87 ).

Gaussian Elimination
Table of contents
Homogeneous System

Gaussian Elimination Row Reduction and Echelon Forms
Row-Echelon Form

Stair form of row echelon matrix
The leading 1s proceed “down and to the right” through the matrix. All
entries below and to the left of them are zero.

Which is a row-echelon matrix?

Reduced row-echelon matrix

It is a row-echelon matrix
Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column

Which is a reduced row- echelon matrix?

Carry a matrix to (reduced) - echelon form - Gaussian

Algorithm
Every matrix can be brought to (reduced) row-echelon form by a series of
elementary row operations

Carry a matrix to (reduced) - echelon form - Gaussian

Algorithm
Every matrix can be brought to (reduced) row-echelon form by a series of
elementary row operations
Gaussian Algorithm
Step 1 If the matrix consists entirely of zeros, stop
Step 2 Otherwise, find the first column from the left containing a nonzero
entry (call it a), and move the row containing that entry to the top
position.
Step 3 Now multiply the new top row by 1/a to create a leading 1.
Step 4 By subtracting multiples of that row from rows below it, make each
entry below the leading 1 zero.
Step 5 Repeat steps 1–4 on the matrix consisting of the remaining rows.

Ilustrate a part of Gaussian Algorithm

Example
Carry the matrix

 
2 6 −2 2
−2 −3 11 4
 
3 11 3 0
to
1 row - echelon form
2 reduced row - echelon form

Solution - Carry to echelon - form

Continue to carry to reduced echelon - form

Example
Solve the system equations




3x + y − 4z = −1
x + 10z = 5


4x + y + 6z = 1

Solution
Augmented matrix
   
3 1 −4 −1 1 0 10 5
 create first leading 1 
1 0 10 5  −−−−−−−−−−−−→ 3 1 −4 −1
 
r1 ↔r2
4 1 6 1 4 1 6 1
   
1 0 10 5 1 0 10 5
r3 −4r1 
−−−−→ 0 1 −34 −16 −−−−→ 0 1 −34 −16
  
r2 −3r1 r3 −r2
0 1 −34 −19 0 0 0 −3
The following reduced system of equations





x + 0y + 10z = 5
0x + y − 34z = −16

0x + 0y + 0z = −3

is equivalent to the original system.

Solution
Augmented matrix
   
3 1 −4 −1 1 0 10 5
 create first leading 1 
1 0 10 5  −−−−−−−−−−−−→ 3 1 −4 −1
 
r1 ↔r2
4 1 6 1 4 1 6 1
   
1 0 10 5 1 0 10 5
r3 −4r1 
−−−−→ 0 1 −34 −16 −−−−→ 0 1 −34 −16
  
r2 −3r1 r3 −r2
0 1 −34 −19 0 0 0 −3
The following reduced system of equations





x + 0y + 10z = 5
0x + y − 34z = −16

0x + 0y + 0z = −3

is equivalent to the original system. The last system has no solution hence
the origin system has no solution.
Example
Solve the following system of equations.



 x − 2x2 − x3 + 3x4 = 1
 1
2x − 4x + x
1 2 3 =5

 x − 2x + 2x − 3x = 4

1 2 3 4

Solution
The augmented matrix
   
1 −2 −1 3 1 1 −2 −1 3 1
 r −r1 
2 −4 1 0 5 −−3−−→ 0 0 3 −6 3
 
r2 −2r1
1 −2 2 −3 4 0 0 3 −6 3
   
1 −2 −1 3 1 1 −2 0 1 2
r3 −r2 
−−−−→ 0 0 1 −2 1 −−−−→ 0 0 1 −2 1
  
1
r r1 +r 2
3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Solution
The augmented matrix
   
1 −2 −1 3 1 1 −2 −1 3 1
 r −r1 
2 −4 1 0 5 −−3−−→ 0 0 3 −6 3
 
r2 −2r1
1 −2 2 −3 4 0 0 3 −6 3
   
1 −2 −1 3 1 1 −2 0 1 2
r3 −r2 
−−−−→ 0 0 1 −2 1 −−−−→ 0 0 1 −2 1
  
1
r r1 +r 2
3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The corresponding reduced system of equation


x − 2x2
 1

 + x4 =2
x3 − 2x4 =1


 0=0
The leading ones are in columns 1 and 3 here, so the corresponding

variables x1 and x3 are called leading variables.
Solve for the leading variables in terms of the nonleading variables x2 and
x4

x − 2x2
 1

 + x4 =2
x3 − 2x4 =1


 0=0
Set x2 = s, x4 = t then
x1 − 2s + t = 2 and x3 − 2t = 1
The solution is given by
x1 = 2 + 2s − t
x2 = s
x3 = 2t + 1
x4 = t
where s and t are arbitrary.

Gaussian Elimination Solution of Linear Systems
To solve a linear system, the augmented matrix is carried to reduced

row-echelon form
the variables corresponding to the leading ones are called leading
variables
Because the matrix is in reduced form, each leading variable occurs in
exactly one equation, so that equation can be solved to give a
formula for the leading variable in terms of the nonleading variables
call the nonleading variables “free” variables
label ”free” variables by new variables s, t, ..., called parameters
every variable xi is given by a formula in terms of the parameters
s, t, . . .
every choice of these parameters leads to a solution to the
system, and every solution arises in this way

Gaussian Elimination Gaussian Elimination Method
Gaussian Elimination
To solve a system of linear equations proceed as follows:

1 Carry the augmented matrix to a reduced row-echelon matrix
using elementary row operations.

h i
2 If a row 0 0 0 · · · 0 1 occurs, the system is inconsistent.
3 Otherwise, the system is consistent. To find solution, assign the
nonleading variables (if any) as parameters, and use the equations
corresponding to the reduced row-echelon matrix to solve for the
leading variables in terms of the parameters with back substitution
.

Back Substitution Procedure
The nonleading variables are assigned as parameters.

The last equation (corresponding to the row-echelon form) is used to
solve for the last leading variable in terms of the parameters.
This last leading variable is then substituted into all the preceding
equations.
Then, the second last equation yields the second last leading variable,
which is also substituted back.
The process continues to give the general solution.

Example
Find a condition on the numbers a, b, and c such that the following

system of equations is consistent. When that condition is satisfied, find all
solutions (in terms of a, b, and c).
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = a
−x1 − 2x2 + x3 = b
3x1 + 7x2 − x3 = c

Solution
Augmented matrix
   
1 3 1 a 1 3 1 a
 r3 −3r1 
−1 −2 1 b  −−−−→ 0 1 2 a+b
 
r2 +r1
3 7 −1 c 0 −2 −4 c − 3a
   
1 3 1 a 1 0 −5 −2a − 3b
−−−−→ 0 1 2 a + b  −−−−→ 0 1 2 a+b 
   
r3 +2r2 r1 −3r2
0 0 0 −a + 2b + c 0 0 0 −a + 2b + c
1 If −a + 2b + c ̸= 0, there is no solution
2 If −a + 2b + c = 0, the system is consistent. The lastest matrix
become  
1 0 −5 −2a − 3b
0 1 2 a+b 
 
0 0 0 0
Set x3 = t then the general solution is
x1 = 5t − (2a + 3b), x2 = (a + b) − 2t, x3 = t
Gaussian Elimination Rank of Matrix and Consistency of Linear System
Rank of a Matrix
The rank of matrix A, denote by rank(A), is the number of leading 1s

in any row-echelon matrix to which A can be carried by row operations.

Rank of a Matrix
The rank of matrix A, denote by rank(A), is the number of leading 1s

in any row-echelon matrix to which A can be carried by row operations.
Theorem
Suppose a system of m equations in n variables is consistent, and that the
rank of the augmented matrix is r.
1 The set of solutions involves exactly n − r parameters
2 If r < n, the system has infinitely many solutions.
3 If r = n, the system has a unique solution.

Example
Recall the system of equations



 x − 2x2 − x3 + 3x4 = 1
 1
2x − 4x + x
1 2 3 =5

 x − 2x + 2x − 3x = 4

1 2 3 4
has m = 3 linear equations in n = 3 variables.
The rank of augmented matrix is r = 2. So the set of solution has

n − r = 3 − 2 = 1 parameter.

Three possibilities
h i
1 No solution (inconsistent) when a row 0 0 0 · · · 0 1 occurs.
2 Unique solution when every variable is a leading variable.
3 Infinitely many solutions when the system is consistent and there
is at least one nonleading variable

Three possibilities
h i
1 No solution (inconsistent) when a row 0 0 0 · · · 0 1 occurs.
2 Unique solution when every variable is a leading variable.
3 Infinitely many solutions when the system is consistent and there
is at least one nonleading variable
Theorem
Let Ax h= b bei a system of linear equation with n variables and augmented
matrix A b then
h i
1 rank( A b ) is either rank(A) or rank(A) + 1
h i
2 The system is consistent if rank( A b ) = rank(A) = r
▶ if r = n, the system has unique solution
▶ if r < n, the system has infinite many solution
h i
3 The system is inconsistent if rank( A b ) = rank(A) + 1

Example
Find the conditions on a, b such that the system has no solution, one
solution, and infinitely many solutions
x − 2y = 1
ax + by = 5
Solution
" # " #
1 −2 1
We have coefficient matrix A = , constant matrix b = and
a b 5
" #
h 1 2 1
i
the augmented matrix A b = .
a b 5
Need to carry the augmented matrix to a reduced row-echelon matrix

Solution (cont)
We have this system has m = 2 linear equation with n = 2
" #
h i 1 −2 1
A b −−−−→
r2 −ar1 0 b + 2a 5 − a
" #
1 −2
A has a same reduced echolon form as . Hence
0 b + 2a
" #!
1 −2
rank(A) = rank
0 b + 2a
h i
Reduced echolon form of both A and A b has at least one 1 leading
and no more
h thani two 1’s leading. So 1 ≤ rank(A) ≤ 2 and
1 ≤ rank( A b ) ≤ 2.
h i
The system has no solution if rank(A) < rank( A b ). It happens
h i
when rank(A) = 1 and rank( A b ) = 2. It is equivalent to
b + 2a = 0 and 5 − a ̸= 0.
Solution (cont)
The system has one

h solution
i when
rank(A) = rank( A b ) = n = 2. It is equivalent to b + 2a ̸= 0.
The system has infinite many solutions if
h i
rank(A) = rank( A b ) < n
The conditions are b + 2a = 0 and 5 − a = 0. So a = 5 and b = −10

Exercise
Find the conditions on a, b and c such that the system has no solution,
one solution, and infinitely many solutions

3x + y − z = a


x − y + 2z = b

5x + 3y − 4z = c


Practice
Three Nissans, two Fords, and four Chevrolets can be rented for $106 per
day. At the same rates two Nissans, four Fords, and three Chevrolets cost
$107 per day, whereas four Nissans, three Fords, and two Chevrolets cost
$102 per day. Find the rental rates for all three kinds of cars.

Practice
A school has three clubs and each student is required to belong to exactly
one club. One year the students switched club membership as follows:
ClubA. 40% remain in A, 10% switch to B, 5% switch to C
Club B. 70% remain in B, 20% switch to A, 10% switch to C.
Club C. 60% remain in C, 20% switch to A, 20% switch to B.
If the fraction of the student population in each club is unchanged, find
each of these fractions.

Homogeneous System of Equations
Table of contents
Homogeneous System

Homogeneous System of Equations Homogeneous System
Homogeneous system of equations
Definition
A system of equations in the variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn is called homogeneous
if all the constant terms are zero that is, if each equation of the system
has the form
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = 0
trivial solution: x1 = 0, x2 = 0, . . . , , xn = 0
Any solution in which at least one variable has a nonzero value is called a
nontrivial solution

Homogeneous system of equations
Definition
A system of equations in the variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn is called homogeneous
if all the constant terms are zero that is, if each equation of the system
has the form
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = 0
trivial solution: x1 = 0, x2 = 0, . . . , , xn = 0
Any solution in which at least one variable has a nonzero value is called a
nontrivial solution
A homogeneous system has either uniques (trivial) solution or infinitely
may solution

Example
Show that the following homogeneous system has nontrivial solutions.


 x − x2 + 2x3 − x4 = 0
 1
2x + 2x
1 2 4 +x =0

3x + x + 2x − x = 0

1 2 3 4
Solution
The reduction of augmented matrix to reduced row- echelon form
   
1 −1 2 −1 0 1 −1 2 −1 0
 r3 −3r1 
2 2 0 1 0 −−−−→ 0 4 −4 3 0
 
r2 −2r1
3 1 2 −1 0 0 4 −4 2 0
   
1 −1 2 −1 0 1 0 1 14 0
r3 −r2   −r3 
−−−−→ 0 1 −1 4 0 −−−−→ 0 1 −1 34 0
3 
1
r r1 +r2
4 2
0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 1 0

Solution (cont)
 
r2 − 34 r3
1 0 1 0 0
−−−−− → 0 1 −1 0 0
 
r1 − 14 r3
0 0 0 1 0
Assign x3 = t so x1 = −t, x2 = t, x4 = 0. Taking t = 1, we get a non

trivial solution x1 = −1, x2 = 1, x3 = 1, x4 = 0.

Solution (cont)
 
r2 − 34 r3
1 0 1 0 0
−−−−− → 0 1 −1 0 0
 
r1 − 14 r3
0 0 0 1 0
Assign x3 = t so x1 = −t, x2 = t, x4 = 0. Taking t = 1, we get a non

trivial solution x1 = −1, x2 = 1, x3 = 1, x4 = 0.
In general, the solution of this system equation has parametric form

 
−t
 t 
x= 
 
 t 
0
All component of general solution is multiple of the corresponding

component in the above non trivial solution
Homogeneous System of Equations Linear combination, general solution and basis solution
Equality of rows/columns
As for rows, two columns are regarded as equal if they have the same
number of entries and corresponding entries are the same
Sum and scalar of columns

       
x1 y1 x 1 + y1 kx1
If x = . . . and y = . . . then x + y =  . . .  and kx =  . . . 
       
xn yn x n + yn kxn
Linear combination
A sum of scalar multiples of several columns is called a linear combination
of these columns.
same idea for rows

Example
For example, sx + ty is a linear combination of x and y for any choice of
numbers s and t.
Example
" # " # " # " # " #
1 −1 2 −3 −1
x= and y = then 2x + 3y = + =
3 1 6 3 9

Example
h i h i h i h i
Let x = 1 0 1 , y = 2 1 0 and z = 3 1 1 . If v = 0 −1 2
h i
and w = 1 1 1 , determine whether v and w are linear combination of
x, y, z.

Example
h i h i h i h i
Let x = 1 0 1 , y = 2 1 0 and z = 3 1 1 . If v = 0 −1 2
h i
and w = 1 1 1 , determine whether v and w are linear combination of
x, y, z.
Solution
For v, we need to determine whether there exists number r, s, t such that
v = rx + sy + tz, that is
h i h i h i h i
0 −1 2 = r 1 0 1 + s 2 1 0 + t 3 1 1
Equating the corresponding entries gives a system of linear equation
r + 2s + 3t = 0
s + t = −1
r+t=2
By gaussian elimination, the solution is r = 2 − k, s = −1 − k, and t = k

where k is a parameter. Taking k = 0, we see that v = 2x−y is a linear
combination of x, y, and z.

By gaussian elimination, the solution is r = 2 − k, s = −1 − k, and t = k

where k is a parameter. Taking k = 0, we see that v = 2x−y is a linear
combination of x, y, and z.
What’s your answer for w?

Interest of linear combination
Linear combination is one of the best ways to describe the general solution
of homogeneous system of linear equations
If x and y are two solutions to a homogeneous system with n variables.

Then any linear combination sx + ty of these solutions turns out to be
again a solution to the system
Any linear combination of solutions to a homogeneous system is again a

solution

Basis solution of homogeneous system

General solution of the system of homogeneous linear equations




x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 − 2x4 = 0
−3x + 6x + x
1 2 3 =0

−2x + 4x + 4x − 2x = 0

1 2 3 4
is x1 = 2s + 15 t, x2 = s, x3 = 35 t, x4 = t and can be written in matrix form

1
   

1
 2s t
2s + 5t  s   50 
x= s  =   +  3  = sx1 + tx2
     
3  0   5 t
5t t
0 t
1
   
2
1  05 
where x1 =   and x2 =  3  which are called basis solutions
   
0 5
0 1
Definition (Basic solutions)

The gaussian algorithm systematically produces solutions to any
homogeneous linear system, called basic solutions, one for every
parameter.
Convention
Any nonzero scalar multiple of a basic solution will still be called a basic
solution
Theorem
Let A be an m × n matrix of rank r, and consider the homogeneous
system in n variables with A as coefficient matrix. Then:
1 The system has exactly n − r basic solutions, one for each parameter.
2 Every solution is a linear combination of these basic solutions.

Example
Find basic solutions of the homogeneous system with coefficient matrix A,

and express every solution as a linear combination of the basic solutions
where  
1 −3 0 2 2
−2 6 1 2 −5
A=
 
 3 −9 −1 0 7 

−3 9 2 6 −8

Solution
The reduction of the augmented matrix to reduced row-echelon form is
  
1 −3 0 2 2 0 1 −3 0 2 2 0
−2 6 1 2 −5 0
 0 0 1 6 −1 0
 

 3 −9 −1 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
  
−3 9 2 6 −8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The general solution is x1 = 3r − 2s − 2t, x2 = r, x3 = −6s + t, x4 = s,

xt = t where r, s, t are parameters.
In matrix form, this is
         
x1 3r − 2s − 2t 3 −2 −2
x   r  1  0   0 
 2        
x = x3  =  −6s + t  = r 0 + s −6 + t  1 
         
         
x4   s  0  1   0 
x5 t 0 0 1

Solution (cont)
Hence the basic solutions are

     
3 −2 −2
1  0   0 
     
x1 = 0 , x2 = −6 , x3 =  1 
     
     
0  1   0 
0 0 1

Exercise
Find a set of basic solutions and express the general solution as a linear
combination of these basic solutions.
x1 + x2 − x3 + 2x4 + x5 = 0
x1 + 2x2 − x3 + x4 + x5 = 0
2x1 + 3x2 − x3 + 2x5 + x5 = 0

An Application to Network Flow
Table of contents
Homogeneous System

Network Flow Analysis
There are many types of problems that concern a network of conductors

along which some sort of flow is observed. Examples of these include an
irrigation network and a network of streets or freeways. There are often
points in the system at which a net flow either enters or leaves the system.
The basic principle (junction rule) behind the analysis of such systems is
that the total flow into the system must equal the total flow out.

Example
A network of one-way streets is shown in the accompanying diagram. The
rate of flow of cars into intersection A is 500 cars per hour, and 400 and
100 cars per hour emerge from B and C, respectively. Find the possible
flows along each street.

Solution
Equating the flow in with the flow out at each intersection, we get
f1 + f2 + f3 = 500
f1 + f4 + f6 = 400
f3 + f5 − f6 = 100
f2 − f4 − f5 = 0
The reduction of augmented matrix is

   
1 1 1 0 0 0 500 1 1 1 0 0 0 500
1 0 0 1 0 1 400 0 1 0 −1 −1 0 0 
→
   
0 0 1 0 1 −1 100 0 0 1 0 1 −1 100
 
0 1 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 0 0
Use f4 , f5 , f6 as parameters, the general solution is
f1 = 400 − f4 − f6 , f2 = f4 + f5 , f3 = 100 − f5 + f6
All possible flows are solutions of the system of equation which satisfy the
constraints on flows
f1 ≥ 0, f3 ≥ 0, f4 + f6 ≤ 400, f5 − f6 ≤ 100

An Application to Chemical Reactions
Table of contents
Homogeneous System

Balance for Chemical Reaction
H2 + O2 → H2 O
Individual atoms are neither created nor destroyed, so the number of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms going into the reaction must equal the
number coming out (in the form of water)
2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O
In this case the reaction is said to be balanced

In order to balance the reaction, we need to find positive integers x, y, z

such that
xH2 + yO2 → zH2 O
Equating the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on each side give
(
2x = 2z
2y = z
which can be written as a homogeneous linear system

(
2x − 2z = 0
2y − z = 0
and solved by gaussian elimination. Set z = t then x = t and y = 2t.

x, y, z must be positive integers so the smalles value of t is 1. Hence
x = 1, y = 2, z = 2 and the balance reaction is
2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O

Exercise
Balance the following reaction for burning octane C8 H18 in oxygen O2 :
C8 H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2 O

1 System of Linear Equation

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System of Linear Equations

System of Linear Equations 1 / 81

System of Linear Equations 2 / 81

1 The course provides the student with basic knowledges in linear

System of Linear Equations 3 / 81

2 Introduction to Rank of a matrix via the row-echelon form and

relationship between rank of matrix with consistency/inconsistency of

4 Represent general solutions to a homogeneous system of linear

equations as linear combinations of basis solutions - as an introduction

System of Linear Equations 4 / 81

System of Linear Equations 5 / 81

Linear equation of two variables

System of Linear Equations 6 / 81

is called a linear equation in the n variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn

System of Linear Equations 7 / 81

is called a linear equation in the n variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn

System of Linear Equations 7 / 81

Solution of a linear equation

System of Linear Equations 8 / 81

Solution of a linear equation

(2, 5) is not a solution of the equation because

System of linear equations

System of Linear Equations 9 / 81

System of linear equations

System of Linear Equations 9 / 81

System of linear equations

System of Linear Equations 9 / 81

System of Linear Equations 10 / 81

System of Linear Equations 11 / 81

A system that has no solution is called inconsistent

System of Linear Equations 12 / 81

The system equation (

System of Linear Equations 13 / 81

is a solution to the system

=⇒ has infinitely many solution =⇒ consistent

System of Linear Equations 14 / 81

is a solution to the system

=⇒ has infinitely many solution =⇒ consistent

Describe all solutions to 3x − y + 2z = 6 in parametric form.

System of Linear Equations 15 / 81

Describe all solutions to 3x − y + 2z = 6 in parametric form.

where s and t are arbitrary

System of Linear Equations 15 / 81

System of Linear Equations 16 / 81

Solve system of linear equation with eliminating

To eliminate x in Eq (2)-(3), we take Eq (2) - 2Eq (1) and Eq (3) - 3Eq

System of Linear Equations 17 / 81

Eliminate y in Eq (9 ) by Eq (8) + 7Eq (9)

After eliminating process, we obtain

Substitute z = 3 to Eq (11) to get y = −2 and then substitute value of y

Name of variables does not matter

Repeat all the above steps to solve the system equations

We only need to replace x, y, z by x1 , x2 , x3 and keep the same

System of Linear Equations 19 / 81

Simplify Computation of Algebraic Method With Matrix

In augmented matrix, each row of the matrix consists of the

System of Linear Equations 21 / 81

Apply algebraic method

System of Linear Equations 22 / 81

Apply algebraic method

The corresponding augmented matrix

System of Linear Equations 22 / 81

Apply algebraic method

The corresponding augmented matrix