Module 9_1

Introduction
• The human body can be divided into the head,
distinct neck and trunk.
• The somewhat round-shaped head, with
prominent facial bones houses the brain, and other
sense organs like the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth.
• The distinct neck that supports the head is
anchored to the trunk.
• The trunk is the biggest segment of the body.
The trunk houses the three body cavities:
• Thoracic cavity: bounded by the ribs and the diaphragm
• Abdominal cavity: bounded by the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles
• Pelvic cavity: surrounded by the pelvic bones
 Homeostasis
• Humans need to maintain homeostasis in
order to survive.
• Existence and maintenance of a relatively
constant internal environment.
• Homeostasis is maintained by negative and
positive feedback mechanisms
 Negative feedback turns off the original stimulus
 Positive feedback enhances and up-regulates the initial stimulus
(is usually harmful to the body)
Several components that allow man to maintain a state of balance:

1. There is a stimulus which may come from either the external

environment or internal systems.
2. Set point- should maintain the ideal normal value (body temperature)
3. There is a sensor or receptor that continuously monitors any change in
the variable.
4. There is an afferent pathway that transmits information from the point of
stimulation to the integrating system of the body.
5. The integrating system of the body analyzes, sets up an appropriate
response that corrects or manages the stimulus sent.
6. Through the efferent pathway, the integrating system is able to send out
its responses to the organ systems involved for an active response to be
performed. The response elicited pursues the goal of maintaining
homeostasis.
7. The effectors are responsible for performing the task sent out via the
efferent pathway.
8. An adaptive response could be observed as an answer to the initial
stimulus.
Example of how the human body maintains homeostasis
Integumentary system
Functions of the Integumentary System
• Consists of the skin, hair, glands, and nails
• Functions
1. Protection
– Against abrasion and UV light
– Prevents entry of microorganisms
– Prevents dehydration
2. Sensation
– Sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure,
and pain
3. Temperature regulation by controlling
– Blood flow through the skin
– Sweat gland activity
4. Vitamin D production
5. Excretion of small amounts of waste products
 Skin
• SA – 1.2-2.2 m2 and weighs 4-5 kg (9-11 lbs)
• Consists of three major regions
• Epidermis: outermost region (superficial)
• Resists abrasion
• Reduces water loss
• Dermis: middle region (bulk of skin)
• Responsible for most of the structural strength of the skin
• Leather is produced from the dermis of animals
• Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): deepest region
• Not really part of the skin
• Connects the skin to underlying muscle or bone
Layers of the skin
 Cells of the Epidermis

• Keratinocytes
• Most abundant cell type
• Produce the fibrous protein keratin
• Gives skin its protective properties
• Melanocytes
• Produce the brown pigment melanin
• Found in the deepest layers of the epidermis
• Langerhans’ cells
• Epidermal macrophages
• Help activate the immune system
• Merkel cells
• Touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings
Layers of the Epidermis
• Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)
• Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis
• Structural strength is provided by desmosomes and hemidesmosomes
• Consists of a single row of the youngest keratinocytes
• Cells undergo mitotic divisions ~every 19 days
• 10-25% are melanocytes
• Stratum Spinosum
• Melanin granules and Langerhans’ cells are abundant in this layer
• Melanin is taken up by the keratinocytes and accumulates on the “sunny
side” to protect the nucleus from UV damage
• Stratum Granulosum
• Drastic changes in keratinocyte appearance occurs
• Keratohyaline and lamellated bodies (waterproofing) accumulate in
the cells of this layer
• Above this layer the epithelial cells die because they are too far
from the dermis
Layers of the Epidermis
• Stratum Lucidum
• Thin, transparent band superficial to the Stratum Granulosum
• Consists of a few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes
• Present only in thick skin
• Stratum Corneum
• Outermost layer of keratinized cells
• Accounts for three quarters of the epidermal thickness
• 20-30 cell layers thick, all dead.
• Millions rub off everyday. Totally new every 25-45 days.
• Functions include:
• Waterproofing
• Protection from abrasion and penetration
• Rendering the body relatively insensitive to biological, chemical, and
physical assaults
 Dermis

• Second major skin region containing strong, flexible

connective tissue
• Cell types include fibroblasts, a few adipose cells
and macrophages
• Composed of two layers: papillary and reticular
 Layers of the Dermis
• Papillary layer
• Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers
• Its superior surface contains peg-like projections called
dermal papillae
• Genetically determined
• Responsible for fingerprints and footprints (films of sweat)
• Contains blood vessels that supply the overlying epidermis
• With nutrients
• Remove waste products
• Aid in regulating body temperature
• Reticular layer
• Dense irregular connective tissue
• Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness of the
skin
• Collagen fibers in this layer add strength and resiliency
to the skin
• Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
• Striae (stretch marks) are caused when skin is
overstretched, the dermis ruptures and leaves visible
lines
 Accessory Skin Structures

• Glands
• Hair
• Nails
 Sebaceous Glands

• Simple or compound alveolar glands found all over the body

except on the palms and soles
• Soften skin when stimulated by hormones
• Secrete an oily secretion called sebum
• Acne is an active inflammation of the sebaceous glands.
 Sweat Glands
• Different types prevent overheating of the
body
• Secrete cerumen and milk
• Up to 3 million/person
• Merocrine sweat glands produce sweat,
which cools the body: most numerous in
the palms and soles of the feet
• Apocrine sweat glands: Found in axillary
and genital areas. Ducts empty into hair
follicles. Produce an organic secretion
that can be broken down by bacteria to
cause body odor
• Ceruminous glands: modified merocrine
glands in external ear canal that secrete
cerumen (ear wax)
• Mammary glands: specialized sweat
glands that secrete milk
 Nails
• Nails are one of those key parts
of our body, which are not only
the primary focus of wellness
regimes of many men and
women, but also serve as a
potent indicator of a person’s
health.
• The nail is Stratum Corneum
containing hard keratin
• Nails protect the distal phalanx,
the fingertip, and the soft
tissues around it from
accidents.
 Parts and Functions of Nails
• Nail Bed: This is the portion of skin upon which the nail plate
rests. It has very rich supply of blood and lymph vessels to keep
nail healthy. The function of the nail bed is to supply nourishment
and protection.

• Nail Plate: The nail plate is composed of layers of keratinized skin

cells. The layers are packed very closely together with fat but very
little water content. The nail gradually grows over the nail bed
and becomes free edge. There are no blood vessels or nerves in
the nail plate. The pink color of the nail plate derives from the
blood vessels that passes beneath it. The main function of the nail
plate is to protect the living nail bed of the fingers and toes.
• Free Edge: The nail plate leaves the end of the finger and forms a projection that is called the
free edge. This is attached to the nail bed and appears as white. The function of the free edge is
to protect the fingertip and the hyponychium. This is the part we file and shape!
• Hyponychium: This is a part of the epidermis under the free edge of the nail plate. Its function
is to protect the nail bed from infection.
• Nail Grooves: This lies alongside of the edge of the nail plate. The function of the nail groove is
to keep the nail growing in a straight line.
• Matrix: This is the growing area of the nail and sometimes called as the nail root. The shape and
size of the matrix determines the thickness of the nail. The process of the keratinization takes
place in the epidermal cells of the matrix, forming the hardened tissue of the nail plate. The
function of the matrix is to produce new nail cells.
• Nail Mantle: The nail mantle is the layer of epidermis at the base of the nail, before the cuticle.
The function of the nail mantle is to protect the matrix from physical damage.
• Lunula: This is located at the base of the nail, lying over the matrix. It is white in color and
known as half-moon. The nail is slightly soft in this area and can be easily damaged.
• Cuticle: The overlapping epidermis around the base of the nail is called the cuticle. The function
of the cuticle is to protect the matrix from infection.
• Nail Walls: These are the folds of the skin overlapping the sides of the nails. The function of the
nail wall is to protect the nail plate edges.
• Perionychium: This is the collective name given to the nail walls and the cuticle area.
• Eponychium: This is the extension of the cuticle at the base of the nail plate, under which the
nail plate emerges from matrix. The function of eponychium is to protect matrix from infection.
 Skin Cancer
• most common type of cancer
• development is associated with
exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light from
the sun
• develop on the face, neck, or hands
• fair-skinned people & ages 50
up=prone to skin cancer
• 3 main types of skin cancer
Basal Cell Carcinoma
• Least malignant and most common skin cancer
• Stratum Basale cells proliferate and invade the dermis and
hypodermis
• Slow growing and do not often metastasize
• Can be cured by surgical excision in 99% of the cases
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• Arises from keratinocytes of Stratum Spinosum
• Arise most often on scalp, ears, and lower lip
• Grows rapidly and metastasizes if not removed
• Prognosis is good if treated by radiation therapy or removed
surgically
Melanoma
• Cancer of melanocytes is the most dangerous type of skin
cancer because it is:
• Likely to metastasize
• Resistant to chemotherapy
 Melanoma
• Melanomas have the following characteristics (ABCD rule)
• A: Asymmetry; the two sides of the pigmented area do not
match
• B: Border is irregular and exhibits indentations
• C: Color (pigmented area) is black, brown, tan, and sometimes
red or blue
• D: Diameter is larger than 6 mm (size of a pencil eraser)
• Treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by
immunotherapy
• Chance of survival is poor if the lesion is over 4 mm thick
Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
• Epidermal replacement of cells slows and skin becomes
thinner
• Decreased elasticity and loss of subcutaneous tissue leads to
wrinkles
• Subcutaneous fat layer diminishes, leading to intolerance of
cold
• Skin becomes dry and itchy
• Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active, and the number
of melanocytes decreases
• Age spots= increase of melanocytes in some areas