UNIT – 3

CANAL AND
DIVERSION
STRUCTURES
CONTENT OF UNIT

1. Diversion Head Works

2. Canal Falls
3. Cross Drainage Works
4. Canal Regulation Structures
DIVERSION HEAD WORKS

Definition

Types and Location

Advantages and Disadvantages

Lay out and Components

DEFINITION:
An irrigation canal takes its supplies from a river or stream.
In order to divert water from river in to canal it is necessary
to construct certain works or structure across the river and
the head of off-taking canal. These works are known as
Canal Head Works or Head Works.

A Storage Headworks consists of a dam constructed across

the river to create a reservoir in which water is stored
during the period of excess flow and supplied to the canal
in required quantity as per demand.
A Diversion Head works serves to raise the water level in the
river and divert the required quantity in to the canal.
Location

 Rocky stage or Hilly stage

 Boulder stage

 Trough stage or Alluvial stage

 Delta stage

Types

 Temporary diversion headworks

 Permanent diversion headworks

COMPONENTS OF DIVERSION HEADWORKS:
1. Main Weir portion
1. Weir
2. Barrage

2. Divide Wall

3. Under Sluice

4. Fish Ladder

5. Canal Head Regulator

6. Silt Control Devices

7. Guide Banks

8. Marginal Bunds
WEIR
A weir is the structure constructed across a river to raise its
water level and divert the water in to the canal.

Weirs may be classified according to the material of

construction and certain design features into the following
three types;
1. Masonry weirs with vertical drop or vertical drop
weirs

2. Rockfill weirs with sloping aprons

3. Concrete weirs with a downstream glacis.

BARRAGE
In the case of a barrage the crest is kept at a low level and
the raising up of water level is accomplished mainly by
means of gates.

During flood these gates can be raised clear off the high
flood level and thus enable the high flood to pass with
minimum of afflux.

A barrage provide better control on the water level in the

river but it is comparatively more costly.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF WEIRS ON PERMEABLE
FOUNDATION AND THEIR REMEDIES:

Due to seepage or subsurface flow

 By piping or Undermining

 By uplift pressure

Due to surface flow

 By suction due to standing wave or Hydraulic jump

 By scour on the u/s and d/s of the weir

 BLIGH’S CREEP THEORY
In 1910 W. G. Bligh presented a theory for the subsurface flow in
his book ‘Practical Design of Irrigation Works’. This theory
came to be known as Bligh’s Creep Theory.

Bligh assumed that the percolating water creeps along the base
profile of the structure which is in contact with subsoil.

The length of the path thus traversed by the percolating water

is called the length of creep or creep length.

He further assumed that the head loss per unit length of creep
which is called H.G is constant throughout the percolating
passage.
 Max. Water
Level (H)

D1
D2 D3

B
Creep length L = b + 2d1 + 2d2 + 2d3 + ……

Hydraulic gradient = H / L,

And reciprocal of hydraulic gradient is known as Bligh’s

coefficient of creep C = L / H

According to Bligh, to ensure the safety of the impervious

floor against the two possible way in which failure may be
caused by subsurface flow, following criteria are required to be
satisfied.
 Safety against piping:
 Safety against uplift pressure:
As there are two causes of failure of the structure so Bligh’s
give two different equations;
1. Safety against piping:

Creep Length, L = H * C

where, H = height of water stored u/s

C = Coefficient of creep

2. Safety against uplift pressure:

Thickness of Pucca floor, t = H / ( G - 1 )

where, G = sp. Wt. of material

LIMITATIONS OF BLIGH’S CREEP THEORY
There is no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep

Its method holds good so long as the horizontal distance

between the pile lines is greater than twice their depth.

He don’t made distinction between the effectiveness of the

outer and inner face of sheet piles.

Bligh did not indicate any significance of exit gradient.

According to him the head loss is proportional to the creep

length, but it is not true.

Necessity of provision of cutoff at down stream end.

KHOSLA’S THEORY
In 1926-27, some siphons on Upper Chenab canal, designed on
Bligh’s theory, gave trouble.

Actual pressure measurements made with the help of pipes inserted

in the floors of two of these siphons did not show any relationship
with the pressure calculated on the basis of Bligh’s theory.

Then, Khosla and his associates took in to account the flow pattern
below the impermeable base of hydraulic structures, to calculate the
uplift pressure and exit gradient.

Various cases were analyzed mathematically to appreciate the

essential difference between two theories.
KHOSLA’S CONCEPT OF FLOWNET
Stream Line:
The streamlines represent the paths along which the water
flow through the sub-soil.
Every particle entering the soil at a given point u/s of the
structure, will trace out its own path and will represent a
stream line.
The first streamline follow the bottom contour of the
structure and is the same as Bligh’s path of creep.
The remaining streamlines follow smooth curves, transiting
slowly from the outline of the foundation to a semi-ellipse.
Equipotential Line:
 Treating the d/s bed as datum and assuming no water on the
d/s side, it can be easily stated that every streamline
possesses a head equal to H1 while entering the soil, and
when it emerges at the d/s end in to the atmosphere, its head
is zero.
 Further, the fact of residual head that still to be dissipated is
applicable to every streamline and hence, there will be points
on different streamline having the same value of residual
head.
 If such points are joined together, the curve obtained is
called an equipotential line.
Exit Gradient:
 The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the direction
of flow and tangential to the streamlines. This force has an
upward component from the point where the streams turns
upwards.
 For soil grains to remain stable, the upward component of this
force should be counterbalanced by the submerged weight of
the soil grain.
 The disturbing force at any point is proportional to the
gradient of pressure of water at that point.
 This gradient of pressure of water at the exit end, is called the
exit gradient.
CRITICAL AND SAFE EXIT GRADIENT
The exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing
force on the grain is just equal to the submerged weight of the grain
at the exit.

When a factor of safety equal to 4 or 5 is used, the exit gradient can

then be taken as the safe exit gradient.

In other words, an exit gradient equal to 1/4 or 1/5 of the critical

exit gradient is ensured, so as to keep the structure safe against
piping.

dh/dl = (1 – n ) ( G – 1 ) for most of the river sand G = 2.65 and n =

0.4
KHOSLA’S METHOD OF INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES FOR DETERMINATION OF
PRESSURE AND EXIT GRADIENT:
In order to know as to how the seepage below the foundation
of a hydraulic structure is taking place, it is necessary to
plot the flownet.

The approach, signing of hydraulic structure such as weir or

barrage on pervious foundations, Khosla has evolved a
simple, quick and accurate approach, called the Method of
Independent Variables.
In this method of independent variables, a complex profiles, each
of which can be solved mathematically.

Mathematical solutions of flownets for these simple standard

profile have been presented in the form of equations and curves
given, which can be used for determining the %age pressure at the
various key points.

1. A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet

pile line on the u/s end or at d/s end.

2. A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but without

any cut-offs.

3. A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet

pile line at some intermediate point.
The percentage pressures at these key points for the simple
forms in to which the complex profile has been broken is
valid for the complex profile itself, if corrected for,
Correction for the mutual interference of piles;
C = 19 [√ (D/b’)] [ (d + D) / b ]
where,
D = depth of pile which is interfering
d = depth of pile for which interference is finding
b’ = distance between two piles
b = total width of floor
Correction for thickness of floor:

Find out by interpolation

Correction for the slope of the floor.

+ve for downward slope

-ve for upward slope

Slope (V:H) Cor. Fac. Slope (V:H) Cor. Fac.

1:1 11.2 5:1 2.8

2:1 6.5 6:1 2.5

3:1 4.5 7:1 2.3

4:1 3.3 8:1 2.0

EXIT GRADIENT (G E)

It has been determined that for a standard form consisting of

a floor length b with a vertical cutoff depth d, the exit
gradient at its downstream end is given by,
GE = (H/d) (1/π√λ)

Where, λ = {1 + √ ( 1 + α2)}/2

and α = b/d
EXAMPLE NO. 1

DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PRESSURE

AT VARIOUS KEY POINTS IN FIG. ALSO
DETERMINE THE EXIT GRADIENT AND
PLOT THE HYDRAULIC GRADIENT LINE FOR
POND LEVEL ON U/S AND NO FLOW ON D/S.
Sr. Points of %age Correction Final
No. pressure pressure %age
Thickness Interference Slope pressure
1 ΦE1 100% Nil Nil Nil 100%

2 ΦD1 88.60% Nil Nil Nil 88.60%

3 ΦC1 83.57% 0.84 1.88 Nil 86.29%

4 ΦE2 40.58% 0.73 1.88 Nil 37.97%

5 ΦD2 36.21% Nil Nil Nil 36.21%

6 ΦC2 32.26% 0.66 2.88 0.34 35.46%

7 ΦE3 21.21% 1.29 0.77 Nil 19.15%

8 ΦD3 14.56% Nil Nil Nil 14.56%

9 ΦC3 0.00% Nil Nil Nil 0.00%

10 Exit Gradient
EXAMPLE NO. 2

DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PRESSURE

AT VARIOUS KEY POINTS IN FIG. ALSO
DETERMINE THE EXIT GRADIENT AND
PLOT THE HYDRAULIC GRADIENT LINE FOR
POND LEVEL ON U/S AND NO FLOW ON D/S.
Sr. Points of %age Correction Final
No. pressure pressure %age
Thickness Interference Slope pressure
1 ΦE1

2 ΦD1

3 ΦC1

4 ΦE2

5 ΦD2

6 ΦC2

7 ΦE3

8 ΦD3

9 ΦC3

10 Exit Gradient
 DIVIDE WALL
The divide wall is a masonry or a concrete wall constructed at
right angle to the axis of the weir, and separates the weir
proper from the under sluices.

The divide wall extends u/s to a little beyond the beginning of

the head regulator and d/s to the launching apron of the under
sluice.

Functions of divide wall:

(1) Prevent Turbulent Action (2) Concentrating Scouring
Action (3) Prevention of Cross Current (4) Silt Control
FISH LADDER
Large rivers are
generally inhabited by
several types of fish,
many of which are
migratory. Such
migratory fish, called
anadromous fish, move
from one part of river
to another part,
according to seasons.
It has been established that most kinds of fish can travel u/s
against a flow velocity of about 3 to 3.5 m/sec. Usually, there is
a head difference of 5 – 6m. Between u/s of the weir and d/s
water level in the river.

A structure which enables the fish to pass u/s is called a fish

ladder. It is a device by which the flow energy can be dissipate
in such a manner as to provide smooth flow at sufficiently low
velocity.

There are main two types of ladder used (1) Pool type and (2)
Channel type.
UNDER SLUICE
The under sluices or the scouring sluices maintain a deep
channel in front of the head regulator and dispose of heavy silt
and a part of flood discharge on the d/s side of the barrage.

Functions of scouring sluices:

1. They preserve a clear and defined river channel approaching

the regulator.

2. They control the silt entry into the canal.

3. They scour the silt deposited in the river bed above the
approach canal.
4. They provide greater waterway for floods and pass the low
flood without dropping the shutter of main weir.

Capacity of under sluices

 To ensure proper scouring, its capacity should be at least
double the canal discharge.

 The under sluices should have sufficient capacity to

discharge winter freshlet (with canal inflow) without the
necessity of dropping weir shutters.

 During high flood, they should be capable of passing about

10-15% of maximum flood discharge.
CANAL HEAD REGULATOR
A head regulator is a structure constructed at the head of a canal
taking off from a reservoir behind a weir or a dam.

A head regulator may consists of numbers of spans separated by

piers and operated bay gates similar to that provided in a barrage.

The modern tendency is to use bigger spans of 6-18 m controlled by

stony gates or sector gates.

Functions of head regulator:

1. To make regulation of supply in the canal

2. To controlled the silt entry in to the canal

3. To shut out river floods

SILT CONTROLLED DEVICES
Silt Excluders:
 Silt excluders are those works which are constructed on the bed
of the river, u/s of the head regulator.
 The clear water enters the head regulator and the silted water
enters in silt excluder.

Silt Ejectors or Silt Extractors:

 Silt ejectors, are those devices which extract the silt from the
canal-water after the silted water has travelled a certain distance
in the off-take canal.
 Those works are constructed on the bed of the canal and little
distance d/s from head regulator.
CANAL FALLS
Definition:

Location for falls:

Types of falls:
DEFINITION:
Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than
the designed bed slope of the channel, the difference is
adjusted by constructing vertical ‘falls’ or ‘drop’ in the canal
bed at suitable interval.

Such a drop in a natural canal bed will not be stable and, and
therefore, in order to retain this drop, a masonry structure is
constructed.

Such a pucca structure is called a canal falls or canal drop.

LOCATION OF FALL:
For the canal which does not irrigate the area directly, the fall
should be located from the consideration of economy in cost of
excavation of the canal with regards to balancing depth and
the cost of falls itself.

The location of the fall may also be decided from the

consideration of the possibility of combining it with a
regulator or a bridge or any other masonry structure.

For canal irrigating area directly a fall may be provided at a

location where the FSL outstrips the ground level but before
the bed of the canal come in to filling.
 TYPES OF FALL

Ogee falls: Vertical drop falls:

Rapid Falls: Montague types falls:

Trapezoidal notch falls: Inglish falls or Baffle falls:

Steeped falls:

Siphon well drops:

Straight glacis falls:

CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
A cross drainage work is a structure which is constructed at
the crossing of a canal and a natural drain, so as dispose of
drainage water without interrupting the continuous canal
supplies.

In whatever way the canal is aligned, such cross drainage

works generally become unavoidable.

In order to reduce C/D works, the artificial canals are

generally aligned along the ridge line called watershed.
TYPES OF CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
1. By passing the canal over a drainage:
1. Aqueduct:
2. Syphon Aqueduct:

2. By passing a drainage over a canal:

1. Super Passage:
2. Syphon:

3. By passing a drain through the canal:

1. Level Crossing:
2. Inlets and Outlets:
CANAL REGULATION STRUCTURE

Canal Escape:

Metering Flumes:

Canal Modules:
CANAL ESCAPE:
As the name implies, an escape is a side channel constructed to
remove surplus water from an irrigation channel into a natural
drain.

It can be stated that escapes are the safety valves of canal and must
be provided at regular intervals depending upon the importance of
the canal.

There are two types of escapes are used

1. Weir type or Tail escape
2. Regulator type or Scouring escape

When it is used as scouring escape in such cases its sill level kept 0.3
m below the canal bed level.
METERING FLUMES
A meter is a structure constructed in a canal for measuring its
discharge accurately.

A metering flume is an artificially flumed section of the

channel, which can be utilized for calculating the discharge in
the channel.

The normal u/s section of the channel is narrowed by masonry

walls with a splay of 1:1 to 2:1 to a rectangular section called
Throat.
From where, the channel is slowly diverged so as to attain its
normal section by means of masonry wings with splay of 2:1
to 10:1.

More gradual the convergence and divergence, less will be the

loss of head in the flume.

There are two types of metering flumes which are generally

used and work on the principle of Venturimeter.
Non modular venturiflume or drowned venturiflume

Standing wave flume or modular venturiflume or free flow

venturiflume
CANAL OUTLETS OR MODULES
A canal outlet or a module is a small structure built at the head of
the watercourse so as to connect it with a minor or a distributary
channel.

The control and maintenance of the entire network of canals up to

the module falls under the jurisdiction of the State Government,
and beyond the module, the entire working of the watercourse or
field channel is taken care by the cultivators themselves.

These outlet play a very prominent role in controlling the flow of

water to different areas, so as to effect an equitable distribution of
available water in accordance with the needs of the whole area.
REQUIREMENT OF GOOD MODULES
The module should fit well to decided principles of water
distribution.

The module should be simple, so that it can be easily

constructed or fabricated by local persons.

It should work efficiently with a small working head.

The outlet should be cheaper, since they are required in larger

numbers.

It should be sufficiently strong with no moving parts, thus

avoiding periodic maintenance.
TYPES OF MODULES
1. Non-modular Outlets:
1. Open sluice

2. Drowned pipe or Submerged pipe outlet

2. Semi-modular Outlets:
1. Pipe outlet discharging freely in to the air

2. Venturi-flume outlet or Kennedy's gauge outlet

3. Open flume outlet

4. Adjustable orifice semi-module

3. Rigid Modules or Modular Outlets:
1. Gibb’s module

2. Khanna’s rigid module

3. Foote module
 RL = 120 m

RL = 114 m

2:1
(V;H)
RL = 110 m

10 m
R

8m

20 m
10 m

25 m
RL = 102 m
A B Fig No. 1
RL = 97
 RL = 200 m

RL = 195 m

3:1
(H:V)

RL = 192 m

12 m
R

9m

18 m
13 m

RL = 182 m 28 m
RL = 184 m
B
Fig No. 2
A RL = 17
 RL = 117 m

RL = 113 m

3:1
(H:V)
5:1
RL = 110 m (H:V)

10 m
R

9m

22 m
25 m

RL = 102 m 25 m
RL = 102 m B
A Fig No. 3
RL = 97
RL = 99 m