MODULE 1: Parts and Functions of Computers

BASIC PARTS OF COMPUTER

1. System Unit
- is the core of a computer system.
- rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are may electronic
components that process information.
- The most important of this component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily
stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is
erased when the computer is turned off.
Almost every part of your computer connects to the control panel by using cables. The cables are
plugged into specific ports (openings), typically at the back of the system unit. Hardware that is not part
of a network configuration is often referred to as a peripheral computer or device.

2. The Mouse
- The mouse is used to communicate with the objects on the computer screen.
- You can move objects, open them, change them, throw them away, and perform other actions,
all by pointing and clicking your mouse.
Kinds and parts of Mouse
● Mouse ball: A little rubber ball lies in a mouse 's belly; you roll the little ball, too, as you push the
mouse. Moving the ball tells the computer the direction and speed to move the on-screen
pointer.
● Optical: Optical mice ditch the ball/roller mechanics for a small glowing light and a sensor.
● Trackball: Trackballs are, in essence, upside-down mice.
● TrackPoint/AccuPoint: Found on some laptops, this pointing device looks like a pencil eraser
protruding from the middle of your keyboard.
● Touchpads: Found on many laptops, this square pad lets you move the cursor by dragging your
finger across its surface.
● Wireless: Wireless mice work just like their keyboard counterparts; in fact, some share the same
receiver unit that plugs into the USB or PS/2 port of your computer.

3. The Monitor
- Video circuits on your PC send images to your monitor, where you can see the action.
- Because monitors and video circuits on your PC (known as video cards or display adapters) work
together as a team.
Monitors come in different types
● CRT (cathode ray tube)
- CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors mimic small (but expensive) television sets.
- Although some CRT monitors call themselves "flat screen," their glass screens are relatively
flat, that means only. They are not flat panel monitors, an honor which only belongs to LCD
monitors.
● LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
- LCD Monitors look slim and hip on any desktop.
- The most popular monitor today, LCD monitors look much like large laptop screens mounted
on a stand. LCD monitors are also called flat-panel monitors.
● Quantum dot LED
- A display technology that emits light using quantum dots. QLED is expected to be more
effective than OLED, and to be less costly to manufacture. Also, QLED is ultrafine, translucent
and versatile.
● OLED (organic light emitting diode)
- A display technology that provides bright, colorful images for sports and action movies with
a wide viewing angle, low power, high contrast ratio and fast response time. In plasma and
LCD/ LED monitor / display the OLED technology varies greatly from the displays.
● LED (light emitting diode)
- An LED display is a flat panel display that uses a range of light-emitting diodes to display
videos. An LED panel is a small display, or the larger display component.
4. Keyboard
- Keyboard is the main way to enter information into your computer.
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:
● Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and
symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
● Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform certain
actions. The most frequently used control keys are Ctrl, Alt, the Windows logo key and ESC
● Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled as F1, F2,
F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.
● Navigation keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or webpages and editing
text. They include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up, Page Down, Delete, and Insert.
● Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are
grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.

Additional Information:
● Keyboard comes with three ports supported technology USB, PS2, and
● Wireless.
● Specialized keyboard keys require special drivers. Those specialized keys won’t work until you
install the keyboard’s bundled software.
● Wireless keyboards bear no cords, making for tidy desktops. Most come in two parts: the
keyboard and a receiving unit, which plugs into your PC’s USB part. Unfortunately, they’re
battery hogs.

5. Speaker
- Speakers are used to play sound.
- They can be built into the system unit or connected with cables.
- Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects from your computer.

6. Printer
- It is a useful tool which helps document management.
- It allows a user to print objects, such as letters and photographs, on paper.
Kinds of Printer
a. Inkjet
- Popular for their low price and high quality, inkjet printers squirt ink onto a page, creating
surprisingly realistic images in color or black and white.
b. Laser
- Laser printers might sound dangerous, but these printers) use technology similar to their
ho-hum counterpart, copying machines; with toner, they scan images in the paper.
c. All-in-one (AIO)
- This type of printer is popular with small offices and incorporates a laser or inkjet printer,
copying machine, scanner, and fax machine into one compact package.
MODULE 2: System Unit
➢ is the box-like case that contains the electronic components of a computer including the
motherboard, CPU, RAM, and other components.
➢ It also includes the case that houses the internal components of the computer.

The following are the components of the system unit:

1. Motherboard
- It is sometimes called the system board or main board
- It is the main circuit board of a microcomputer
- This component contains the connectors for attaching
additional boards.

2. Power Supply Unit

- This is the device that supplies power to your personal
computer.
- It regalates the voltage to eliminate spikes and surges
common in most electrical systems.

3. Hard Disk Drive

- This is the computer's main storage device used to store all
data on the computer permanently.
- There are two types of HDD according to its connector:
1. SATA (Serial ATA)
2. EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics)

4. Optical Disk Drive

- This type of drive allows a user to retrieve, edit and delete
the content from optical disks such as CDs, DVDs and
Blu-ray disks.
- There are two types of ODD according to its connector:
1. SATA (Serial ATA)
2. EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics)

5. RAM (Random Access Memory)

- It is the memory which stores data until the machine is
working.
- It allows stored data to be accessed randomly.

6. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

- It is the brain of the computer.
- Responsible for processing arithmetic & logical operations
- It runs the operating system and applications, constantly
receiving input from the user or active software programs.

7. CPU Cooling System

- Also known as CPU Fan & Heatsink
- It is designed to reduce the ambient temperature from the CPU to
keep the computer in running condition.

8. EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics) Cable

- It is a standard interface used to connect EIDE type of Drives such as
Hard Disk Drive (HDD), CD-ROM or DVD-ROM.
9. SATA (Serial ATA) Cable
- It is used to connect SATA type Drives such as HDD, Optical Drives and
Solid State Drives (SSD).

10. Video Card

- It is also known as graphics card
- It is used to generate and display the output images to a computer
monitor.
- Can be connected to monitor using The following data cable:
1. VGA Cable
2. HDMI Cable
3. DVI Cable

11. NIC (Network Interface Card)

- Also known as LAN Card or network adapter card
- It is use connect computers to a network using network cables.

12. Wireless NIC (Network Interface Card)

- It is use connect computers to a network using (radio frequency)
- Capable of establishing wireless network

13. Sound Card

- It is also known as Audio Card Adapter
- It provides input and output of audio signals to and from a computer
under control of computer programs.
MODULE 3: Parts of Motherboard & Their Functions
Motherboard
➢ Is one of the components of the system unit that performs major functions to run our computer.
➢ All the devices (input & output) we use and other important parts of our computer are attached
to our motherboard.

PARTS OF MOTHERBOARD & THEIR FUNCTIONS

CPU Socket
➢ Also known as CPU Slot or CPU Holder
➢ This component of the motherboard
holds the CPU (Central Processing Unit)
and allows replacing of the component
without soldering.

RAM Holder
➢ Also known as Memory Holder or
Memory Slot
➢ This component is where the memory
module or memory card will be
inserted.
➢ Some motherboards come with two to
four slots.

Power Supply Connector

➢ This part of the motherboard is where
the power supply unit cable connector
can be connected
➢ Types of PSU Connector
1. 24 pins – main power connector
that provides power to the
motherboard
2. 4 pins – provides power to the CPU
3. 8 pins – provides power for faster
dedicated graphics cards
Northbridge Chipset
➢ Also known as Memory Controller Hub
➢ This chipset handles the data-transfer
of memory, CPU, and Video Card thus
responsible for tasks that require the
highest performance

Southbridge Chipset
➢ This chipset component provides
support for a wide variety of devices
with many differing bus speeds and
designs.
➢ Control over secondary buses such as
USB, IDE, PS/2, BIOs and Ethernet.

CMOS or BIOS Chipset

➢ (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semi-conductor) is also a chipset which
contains the BIOS (Basic Input Output
System).

EIDE Slot/Port
➢ This part of the motherboard is where
the IDE cables are connected intended
for drives including Hard Disk Drive
(HDD) and Optical Disk Drive (ODD).

SATA Port/Slot
➢ This is used to connect SATA drives into
the motherboard including Hard Disk
Drive (HDD) and Optical Disk Drive
(ODD).
➢ SATA (Serial ATA) has a faster transfer
rate than IDE

AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port)

➢ It was designed specifically for AGP
video cards.
➢ It was originally designed as a
successor to PCI-type connections for
video cards.

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Slot

➢ It is a built-in slot on a motherboard
that allows for the attachment of
various hardware components such as
network cards, modems, sound cards,
disk controllers and other peripherals.
PCI-EXPRESS Slot
➢ PCIe was designed to replace PCI, PCI-X,
and AGP.
➢ It is the most recent and
high-performance standard for
expansion cards that is generally
available on modern personal
computers.

Front Panel Pins

➢ These are pins in the motherboard that
will connect the Power Button, Reset
Button,
➢ Power LED, Mini Speaker, USB ports and
other ports to the motherboard

PS2 port
➢ It is used to connect PS2 mouse and
keyboard

USB Port
➢ This part of the motherboard is used to
connected USB Devices and peripherals

HDMI Port
➢ It is used to connect HDMI cable from
the monitor to the motherboard

Active Display port

➢ It is used to connect Active Display
cable from the monitor to the
motherboard

VGA Port
➢ It is used to connect VGA cable from
the monitor to the motherboard

DVI Port
➢ It is used to connect DVI cable from the
monitor to the motherboard

IEEE 1394a Port

➢ It is an interface standard for a serial
bus for high-speed communications
and isochronous real-time data transfer.
➢ It was developed in the late 1980s and
early 1990s by Apple, which called it
FireWire, in cooperation with a number
of companies, primarily Sony and
Panasonic.

E-SATA Port
➢ It is a SATA connector accessible from
outside the computer, to provide a
signal (but not power) connection for
external storage devices.
LAN Port
➢ Also known as Network Port
➢ LAN port allows a computer to connect
to a network using a wired
➢ connection.

Audio Port
➢ An audio port is used for an audio
device such as speakers, headphones or
a microphone to be connected.
MODULE 4: Multimedia Storage Devices
MULTIMEDIA STORAGE DEVICES
- The storage devices are one of the most important components of the computer system.
- They are the data storage devices that are used to store the data.
- The computer has many types of data storage devices. Some of them can be classified as the
Internal Storage Devices and External Storage Devices.
INTERNAL STORAGE DEVICES
- Internal storage device/s are devices that are installed or prebuilt in a computer system. These
devices vary in types and storage capacities.
1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
- This is the computer's main storage device
used to store all data on the computer
permanently using a magnetic storage disk.
There are two types of HDD according to its
connector:
a. SATA (Serial ATA)
b. EIDE (Enhanced Integrated Drive
Electronics)
Advantages of Hard Disk Drives:
a. Capable of holding vast amounts of data
at affordable prices
b. Fast read and write speeds
c. Reliable technology
d. Relatively small in size
Disadvantages of Hard Disk Drives:
a. Due to the nature of its moving parts,
they will eventually wear and break
b. Although very fast, waiting for the moving
parts means it will never perform as fast
as solid state drives
c. More fragile and less robust than a solid
state drive
d. Higher power consumption than a SSD
e. Some noise is created by the moving
parts

2. Hybrid Hard Drive (HHD)

- HHD or Hybrid Hard Drive is a combination of
Hard Disk Drive and Solid State Drive
technology.
- They’re bigger than Solid State Drive (SSD)
and faster than a plain-old mechanical drive.

3. Solid State Drive (SSD)

- Non-volatile storage devices capable of
holding large amounts of data.
Perform faster than traditional hard disk drives,
however they are significantly more expensive.

Advantages of solid state drives:

a. Extremely fast read/write speeds
b. Small in physical size and very light, ideal
for portable devices
c. No moving parts to wear, fail or get
damaged – ideal for making portable
computers and devices more reliable and
durable
d. Uses less power than a HDD, increasing
battery life time
 e. Very quiet
f. Generates less heat

Disadvantages of Solid State Drive:

a. Expensive
b. Limited in capacity due to the expense

EXTERNAL STORAGE DEVICES

- External storage devices, also referred to as auxiliary storage and secondary storage, are devices
that contain all the addressable data storage that is not inside a computer's main storage or
memory.

1. External Hard Drive

- Also known as a portable hard drive, is a
device that is connected outside of a
computer system.
- Portable storage device that usually use
ATA, USB technology or E-SATA
technology.

2. USB Flash Drive

- Also known as data stick, pen drive,
keychain drive and thumb drive.
- It is a data storage device that includes
flas memory with an integrated USB
interface and typically removable,
rewritable and much smaller than an
optical disc.

Advantages of USB Flash Drive:

a. Portable - small and lightweight
b. Durability - flash has no moving parts to
damage
c. Range of capacities available
d. Fast speeds, with no moving parts of boot
up time

Disadvantages of USB Flash Drive:

a. Limited number of write cycles possible
b. Limited storage capacities
c. Expensive storage option compared to a
HDD

3. Compact Disk (CD)

- It is a flat, round storage device that can
be read by a laser in an Optical Disc Drive
and capable of storing data up to 700 MB.
- Applicable for Audio, Video and small
amounts of data

Types of Compact Disc:

a. CD-ROM (Read Only) - the data is
permanently written to the disc at the
point of manufacture.
b. CD-R (Recordable) - blank discs that can
be burnt (written to) once.
c. CD-RW (Re-writable)- - blank discs that
can be burnt (written to) over and over
again (can be erased and reused many
times).
4. Digital Versatile Disc
- A disc capable of storing large amounts of
data up to 4.7 GB compared to compact
disc.
- Data can be stored and retrieved using
Optical Disc Drive
- Applicable for standard definition movies
and data

Types of Digital Versatile Disc:

a. DVD-ROM (Read Only) - the data is
permanently written to the disc at the
point of manufacture.
b. DVD-R (Recordable)- blank discs that can
be burnt (written to) once.
c. DVD-RW (Re-writable)- blank discs that
can be burnt (written to)over and over
again (can be erased and reused many
times).

5. Blu Ray Disc

- An optical disc capable of storing data
from 25 GB up to 128 GB
- The name "Blu-ray" refers to the blue
laser (which is actually a violet laser) used
to write and read the disc
- Applicable for HD videos and large
amounts of data

Types of Blu Ray Disc:

a. Blu-Ray-ROM (Read Only) - the data is
permanently written to the disc at the
point of manufacture.
b. BD-R (Recordable)- blank discs that can
be burnt (written to) once.
c. BD-RE (Re-writable) - blank discs that can
be burnt (written to) over and over again
(can be erased and reused many times).
MODULE 5: Peripheral Devices Computer
COMPUTER PERIPHERAL DEVICES
- A peripheral device, also sometimes called an auxiliary device, is any connected device, internal
or external, that provides a computer with additional functionality.
Peripheral devices fall into three main categories:
● Input devices, which send data to the computer.
● Output devices, which receive data from the computer.
● Input/output devices, such as storage devices.

Functions of various peripheral computer devices that we often see and use on computer.

1. Mouse
- A mouse is an input device that uses
"point and click" technology to interact
with a computer.
- Can be connected to the computer
through wired (USB & PS2) or wireless
(Bluetooth) connection.

2. Keyboard
- Keyboard is one of the most common
input device that is used to enter letters,
numbers, and other symbols to give the
computer with information and
instruction.
- Can be connected to the computer
through wired (USB & PS2) or wireless
(Bluetooth) connection.

3. Webcam
- Webcam is an input device most often
used to enable people to see each other
when communicating over the internet,
or for recording video blogs, or other
videos.

4. Microphone
- Microphones are audio input devices. The
microphone feeds a sound signal to the
computer, where it can be recorded, or
streamed across the internet.
- Microphones are often built into laptops,
webcams and mobile phones nowadays.
5. Joystick
- Joystick is an input device that is often
used to control video games, and usually
has one or more push-buttons whose
state can also be read by the computer.

6. Scanner
- An input device that optically scans
images, printed text, handwriting or an
object and converts it to a digital image.

7. Monitor
- An output device that enables users to
interact with a computer more easily.
- The monitor essentially displays a signal
sent by the computer in a visual format.
- Monitors look similar to televisions in
outward appearance, but typically have a
higher display resolution than televisions,
enabling greater visual detail, plus they
lack a tuner to change channels.

8. Speaker
- A computer speaker is another common
type of output device used to play music
and movies.
- Speakers can be usually connected to the
system unit or laptop using 3.5 jack plug
but there are many wireless speakers
nowadays that use Bluetooth technology.

9. Projector
- Projector is an optical output device that
"projects" still or moving images onto a
screen, blank wall, or other surface.
- They are typically used for presentations,
watching movies, or as a teaching aid,
and connect to the computer via VGA or
HDMI port.

10. Printer
- Printer is another common form of
output device used to generate hard
copies of electronic data stored on a
computer, most often text or images onto
paper.
- Inkjet and laser printers are two of the
most common types of printer found
today, with modern printers connecting
to the computer via the USB port or
WI-FI.
MODULE 6: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and Tools
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
- It refers to protective clothing, goggles, or other gear designed to protect the wearer's body or
clothing from injury by electrical hazards, heat, chemicals, and infection, for job-related
occupational safety and health purposes.
- It is important that students and teachers during their laboratory period should be required to
use personal protective equipment. Some of these are:

1. Goggles
- Is used for protecting the eyes from dust,
excessive light and wind.

2. Gloves
- The covering material with a separate
sheath for each finger used for hand
protection.

3. Face Mask
- A covering for the face to prevent the
inhaling or absorbing dust and other
chemicals.

Types of tools use for assembly/disassembly of computer:

A. Electro-Static Discharge (ESD) Tools are used to control discharge of electrostatic electricity.
1. Anti-static
- Wrist strap is use to prevent ESD damage
to computer equipment.

2. Anti-static
- Mat is use to place hardware components
to prevent static electricity from
building-up.

B. Hand Tools are used for performing work on a material or a physical system using hands.
 1. Philips
- A screwdriver is used to loosen or tighten
crosshead screws.

2. Flat screwdriver
- Is use to loosen or tighten slotted screws.

C. Diagnostic Tools are used to find problems that may be disrupting your computer's normal
performance.
1. Multimeter
- Is use to test the integrity of circuits and
the quality of electricity in computer
components.

2. Loopback Adapter
- Is use to test the functionality of
computer ports.
MODULE 7: Occupational Health and Safety procedures
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH(OSH)
- Often generally referred to as health and safety, workplace health and safety (OHS), occupational
health, or occupational safety
- is a multidisciplinary field dealing with the protection, fitness and well-being of people at work
- These terms also refer to the aims of this field, so their use in the sense of this article was
originally an abbreviation of the program / department for occupational safety and health etc.
- The aim of an occupational health and safety system is to encourage a clean and stable work
climate. OSH may also protect workers, family members, bosses, customers, and many others
who may be impacted by the working environment.

Workplace hazards
- Although employment provides many economic and other benefits, a wide variety of
occupational dangers (also known as dangerous working conditions) often present threats to
people's health and safety at work.
- These include "chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions,
allergens, a complex safety risk network," and a wide range of psychosocial risk factors.

3 “Think Safe” measures to ensure protection and health in your workplace.

1. Hazard Indentification
- Hazard is all that could harm you and others.
- It may affect people's safety and wellbeing and can affect tools and equipment.
- Alertness is useful at all times, and is also effective in detecting dangers. During this
phase, you can recognize things that may cause injury and illness.

Different classifications or types when identifying hazard

● Physical - Is an individual, element or situation which can inflict contact harm. We may
be marked as an occupational threat or risk to the environment. Physical risks include
ergonomic dangers, pollution, discomfort from heat and cold, vibration threats, and
risks from noise.
● Mechanical - are hazards are created by the use of tools, equipment, or machinery
and plants either powered or manually (humanly).
● Chemical - Is the type of occupational hazard that is caused by chemical exposure at
work. Workplace exposure to chemicals can cause immediate or long-term adverse
effects on health. Examples include acids and toxins, chemicals, dusts, gases and tools
for bombs.
● Biological - Infectious micro-organisms include viruses, flies, vermin(pest) and
bacteria.
● Psychosocial - Any workplace hazard impacting the psychological and physical
well-being of employees, including their ability to engage in a work atmosphere and
others, is a job stressor. Psychosocial risks are linked to the manner in which work is
created, structured and handled, as well as the economic and social context of
research.

2. Risk Assessment
- Risk is the probability of something unpleasant occurring.
- Risk entails confusion about the consequences / implications of an action on
something that is of interest to people (such as health, well-being, income, properties
or the environment), often with negative, unintended results.
- Risk management considerations also include the environment in which risks have
been reported.
- All current monitoring procedures introduced in the workplace must be reviewed.

3. Risk Control
- known as hazard control, this is part of the risk management process in which
strategies are applied to neutralize or the defined threats.
- Managed uncertainties remain potential challenges but there has been a substantial
decrease in the possibility of a related accident or its effects.
- The most successful way to reduce a danger is to eradicate the threat, although this is
not always fairly possible.
 Recognized hierarchy of hazard controls that is described in an order of effectiveness and
choice usually descending:
● Elimination - complete removal or danger avoidance often eliminates the risk.
Substitution - there may be a less risky or less threatening material, device, or
procedure.
● Isolation - Where the danger can be isolated by partitions or marked areas from the
people or facilities at risk. The probability is lowered.
● Safeguards - suitable security, control systems, and related engineering solutions may
change tools or equipment.
● Procedural methods - safer ways to do something.
● Personal protective equipment and clothing (PPE)- is the last resort.

Common hazards encountered by Computer Technicians and users

- Computer technicians and users should follow the "Think Safe" measures as they can often be
vulnerable to numerous job risks such as physical, mechanical, chemical and electrical shock
risks.

Physical Hazards
- One of the most frequent physical hazards involving computer technicians is through-the-floor
cables.
- If somebody slips, falls and damages themselves because of a cable that you dragged around the
room, someone (you, your boss, or your customer) has a significant issue with legal negligence.

Mechanical Hazards
- Tell yourself while operating on computer devices, "Does this device harm me?" You could put
your hand in a printer and unexpectedly push the paper feed back, feeding not just paper
through the printer, but also a piece of your finger. You could push your hand around a casing of
your machine and lose a slice of flesh because it's sharp razor. Also be alert when operating on
electronic equipment to the possibility that moving parts, hot components or sharp edges can
harm.
Chemical Hazards
- For electronic devices, there is a wide variety of chemicals used.
- There are window cleaner additives, additives for keypad washing, compressed gas dirt and dust
removers, and other solvents for cleaner.
- Some of such substances can be dangerous if ingested by mistake, get on bare skin, or get in the
eyes.
- Read the notices and directions on the packaging before using any chemicals on the electronic
equipment. Also, must be very careful when treating cartridges for inkjet printers, or toner laser
printers. Ink and toner have the ability to stain clothes, fabrics and furniture.

Electrical Shock Hazards

- There is a variety of voltages from 3.3 volts to 25 volts within devices and electrical appliances,
the majority of which are harmless. Yet you can consider line strain at the power source, which is
a deadly 220 volts. Attentiveness and caution must therefore be exercised at all times, as this
threat can be fatal.

The workplace should follow safety regulations to:

● Secure from injuries
● Cover equipment from damage
● Safeguard the atmosphere from pollution
Safety Precautions at Work:
● Must not work alone, so that in case of an accident or emergency there is someone who can
take care of you.
● Beware of the devices that can cause short circuit. Please fill up the handle with the cable
connector and not keep it on the cable itself.
● Use only rubber shoes when standing on the ground or in a concrete floor.
● While attaching a cable connector, make sure that the pins are correctly spaced.
● Consider turning off and unplug the computer before working on it
● Take away any liquid such as mineral water or soft drinks near your working area or near
computers.
● Contingency plans are known during industrial incidents, explosion, and other emergencies.
● Personal protective equipment is used properly according to the standards and protocol of the
company.
● Workforce hazards / risks and their associated markers are identified to reduce or remove harm
to co-workers, the workforce, and the environment.
● Take required precautions to prevent damage caused by Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) to the
device component.
● Do not use excessive force if things do not quite slip into place.
MODULE 8: Computer disassembly procedures
Preparing for Disassembly
- Before going into the disassembly proper, you will have to prepare all the materials that you will
need.
- Make sure to…
● The system unit youwill disassemble in UNPLUGGED!
● Wear your antistatic wrist strap!
● Lay out the antistatic mat!
● The table is large and long enough!
●
Steps to disassemble a system unit:
1. Prepare the tools and materials.
2. Before opening the system unit, turn off the computer and unplug the AVR.
3. Remove all the cables or connectors from the system unit back panel.
4. Wear an anti-static wrist strap and other PPE.
5. Remove the screws of the side cover opposite where the ports are located, thenturn the system
unit side down where the opened side of the system unit facing upward.
6. Remove the components inside the system unit, according to the layout of the system case.

A. Data cables (PATA/SATA)

B. Power cables (24 pins, 4pins)
C. Power supply unit
D. Memory (RAM)
E. Optical disk drive
F. Floppy disk drive
G. Hard disk drive
H. Expansion cards
I. Front panel connectors
J. Heat sink
K. Processor (CPU)
L. Motherboard

7. Clean the system case and devices with brush and cloth.
MODULE 9: Computer assembly procedures
Preparing for Assembly
- Before going into the assembly proper, you will have to prepare all the materials that you will
need.
- Make sure to…
● Clean the equipment and parts!
● Dont let the CPU stay exposed for a long time!
● Prepare to re-apply thermal paste!
● Wear your anti-static wrist starp!
Steps to assemble a system unit:
1. Clean the components and parts of the system unit before assembly.
2. Create an inventory of the specifications of components inside the system unit.
3. Wear an anti-static wrist strap and other PPE.
4. Assemble the components inside the system unit, according to the layout of the system case.
A. Motherboard
B. Processor (CPU)
C. Heat sink
D. Front panel connectors
E. Expansion cards
F. Hard disk drive
G. Floppy disk drive
H. Optical disk drive
I. Memory (RAM)
J. Power supply unit
K. Power cables (24 pins, 4pins)
L. Data cables (PATA/SATA)

5. Attach the System cover properly.

6. For testing, turn on the computer to check for any errors.
MODULE 10: Basic-input-output-system (BIOS) configuration procedures
BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
- is a software usually built onto the motherboard that shows the major hardware components of
your computer with the operating system.
- The BIOS includes instructions on how to load basic computer hardware. It also includes a test
referred to as a POST (Power-On Self-Test) that helps verify the computer meets requirements to
boot up properly.

Steps of BIOS setup using flash drive:

1. Press the Power button of the computer.
2. During the initial startup screen, press Delete or F2 key. (Depending on the company that
created your version of BIOS, a menu may appear.)
3. When you choose to enter BIOS Set-up, the set-up utility page will appear.
4. Using the arrow keys on your keyboard, select the BOOT tab. All of the available system devices
will be displayed in order of their boot priority. You can reorder the devices here.
5. Move USB to be first in the boot sequence.
6. Save the change and then exit the BIOS Set-up.
7. The computer will restart using the new settings, booting from your USB drive.
Main menu
The main BIOS settings: time and date, drives’ parameters and system information.
Boot menu
Here can find parameters for appropriate procedure of devices and some other booting settings.
Exit menu
This section usually contains the following commands:
● Exit & Save Changes – exit with saving all changes
● Exit & Discard Changes – exit without saving any changes
● Discard Changes – cancel all changes
MODULE 12: Computer Operating System
Operating system
- is a widely generalized device program, or "OS." The most important software which runs on a
computer is an operating system. This manages the memory, operations, and all of the
computer's applications and hardware. It also allows you to communicate with the computer,
without knowing how to speak the "language" of the computer. A computer is useless without
an operating system.
- Operating system (OS) of your computer manages all of the computer's software and hardware.
Most of the time, there are several different computer programs running simultaneously and all
of them need to access the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and storage of your
computer. All of this is managed by the operating system to ensure each application gets what it
wants.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

- The three most common operating systems for personal computers are: Microsoft Windows,
Apple Mac OS X, and Linux.
1. Microsoft Windows
- Microsoft created mid-1980s Windows operating system. There have been many different
Windows versions over the years, but the latest are Windows 10 (released in 2015), Windows 8
(2012), Windows 7 (2009) and Windows Vista (2007). Windows comes preloaded to most new
PCs, helping to make it the world's most popular operating system.

History of Windows OS
Windows 1.0 - Microsoft Windows' first standalone version, version 1.0, released on 20 November 1985,
achieved little attention.

Windows 2.0 - On December 9, 1987, Microsoft Windows version 2 came out and became marginally
more successful than its predecessor.

Windows 3.0- Released in May 1990, improved native-applications capabilities. This also allowed users
to boost multitasking with older MS-DOS based applications relative to Windows/386, due to the virtual
memory implementation.

OS/2 - Microsoft and IBM had cooperatively developed OS/2 as a successor to DOS during the mid to
late 1980s. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, included support for switching and multitasking, and allowed DOS
executables to run.

Windows 3.1 - Microsoft developed Windows 3.1 (first launched in April 1992) in reaction to the
imminent arrival of OS/2 2.0, which included many enhancements to Windows 3.0, such as viewing
TrueType portable fonts (built together with Apple), enhancing disk output in 386 Enhanced Mode,
multimedia support, and bugfixes.

Windows NT - A family of Microsoft-produced operating systems, the first version of which came out in
July 1993. It is a multi-user, multiprocessing, processor- independent operating system. Windows NT's
first version was Windows NT 3.1, which was designed for workstations which server computers.

Windows 95 - Codenamed Chicago) is a consumer-oriented Microsoft Operating System. It was released

on August 24, 1995, and marked a major change over previous DOS-based Windows devices from the
company.

Windows NT 4.0 - The successor to Windows NT 4.0 was 3.51 (1995), and 3.5 (2009). In July 1996, one
year after the release of Windows 95, Microsoft released Windows NT 4.0 for development.

Windows 98 - Microsoft released Windows 98 (codenamed Memphis) on June 25, 1998. It included new
hardware drivers and the FAT32 file system that supports disk partitions greater than 2 GB (initially
included in Windows 95 OSR2)
Microsoft Windows 2000 - Microsoft released Windows 2000 in February 2000. It has the Windows NT
version number 5.0. Windows 2000 has had four official service packs.

Windows ME - Microsoft launched a sequel to Windows 98 called Windows ME in September 2000,

short for "Millennium Version" It was Microsoft's last operating system based on a DOS.

Windows XP - Microsoft unveiled Windows XP (codenamed "Whistler") on October 25, 2001. Finally, the
merging of the Windows NT/2000 and Windows 95/98 / Me lines was achieved with Windows XP.
Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1 kernel to replace the aging 16/32-bit branch, marking the entry of
the Windows NT core to the consumer market.

Windows Server 2003 - Microsoft released Windows Server 2003 on April 25, 2003, a notable upgrade
to Windows 2000 Server which includes several new security features, a new "Manage Your Server"
wizard which simplifies the configuration of a system for different roles and enhances performance.

Windows Server 2003 R2 - On December 6, 2005, Windows Server 2003 R2, an upgrade to Windows
Server 2003, was released to development. This is sold on two CDs, with one CD being the 2003
Windows Server SP1 DVD. The other DVD contains other potentially installable Windows Server 2003
features.

Windows Vista - Disseminated to industry consumers on 8 November 2006-Product models followed on

30 January 2007. Windows Vista intended to improve security by introducing a new restricted user mode
named User Account Control, replacing Windows XP's "administrator by default" philosophy.

Windows Server 2008 - Windows Server 2008 was initially known as Windows Server Codename
"Longhorn," launched on February 27, 2008. Windows Server 2008 builds on the advances in technology
and security first introduced with Windows Vista, and is considerably more modular than its predecessor,
Windows Server 2003.

Windows 7 - codenamed Vienna, originally Blackcomb is a personal computer operating system

produced by Microsoft. It is part of the Windows NT operating system series. Windows 7 was released
for manufacturing on 22 July 2009 and was commercially available on 22 October 2009, less than three
years after its predecessor, Windows Vista, was released.

Windows Server 2008 R2 - Windows Server 2008 R2 is Microsoft-manufactured server operating system.
It was released in development (RTM) on 22 July 2009 and launched on 22 October 2009.

Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 - Microsoft released Windows 8 to the public on 26th October
2012. One edition, Windows RT, runs with mobile, 32-bit ARM (ARMv7) processors on some
system-on-a-chip devices. Windows 8 features a redesigned user interface, designed to make using
Windows easier for users of the touchscreen. Both Windows 8 Release Preview and Windows Server
2012 Release Candidate came out on May 31, 2012. Product development on Windows 8 was completed
on August 1, 2012, and released on the same day for manufacture. On 4 September 2012, Windows
Server 2012 went on sale to the public. Windows 8 went on sale on 26th October 2012.

Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 - On 17 October 2013 Windows 8.1 and Windows Server
2012 R2 were released.

Windows 10 - Windows 10 is the Microsoft Windows operating system currently being released. It was
unveiled on 30th August 2014 and released on 29th July 2015. It was distributed free of charge to
owners of Windows 7 and 8.1 for a year after publication.

Windows Server 2016 - Windows Server 2016 is a cloud operating system developed by Microsoft as
part of the operating system family Windows NT, developed at the same time as Windows 10. Along with
the first technical demo of System Core, the first early release edition (Software Demo) became available
on 1 October 2014. Windows Server 2016 was released at Microsoft's Ignite conference on September 6,
2016, and generally became available on October 12, 2016. Windows Server 2019 - Windows Server
2019 was announced on March 20, 2018 and the first Preview version of Windows Insider was released
on the same day. It was released on 2 October 2018, for general availability.

2. Apple Mac OS X
- Mac OS is a line of Apple-made operating systems. This comes preloaded on all new Macintosh,
or Macs computers. Both the new releases are known as OS X (pronounced O-S Ten), and the
special models include El Capitan (released in 2015), Yosemite (2014), Mavericks (2013),
Mountain Lion (2012), Lion and (2011).
History version of Mac OS
Kodiak - Apple launched a $29.95 "preview" version of Mac OS X (internally codenamed Kodiak) on
September 13, 2000 to get consumers feedback.

Cheetah - Apple released Mac OS X 10.0 on March 24, 2001 (internally codenamed Cheetah).

Puma - Mac OS X 10.1 (internally codenamed Puma) was released later that year on September 25,
2001.

Jaguar - Apple followed up with Mac OS X on 23 August 2002 10.2 Jaguar, the first version to use the
code word in the branding.

Panther - Panther Mac OS X 10.3 was released on 24 October 2003.

Tiger - On 29 April 2005 Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger was released. Apple said Tiger featured over 200 new apps.

Leopard - On 26 October 2007 Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard was released. It was named "Mac OS X's biggest
redesign" by Apple.

Snow Leopard - Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard was released August 28, 2009, the latest version to be
released on disk.

Lion - On 20 July 2011 Mac OS X 10.7 Lion was released. It introduced Apple's iOS innovations, such as a
conveniently navigable view of available applications (Launchpad) and (more use of) multi-touch
gestures, to the Mac.

Mountain Lion - OS X 10.8 Released on July 25, 2012, Mountain Lion. This integrates some functionality
found in iOS 5, including Game Center, iMessage support in the latest Messages Messaging system and
Reminders as a dedicated to do list function from iCal (which is called Calendar, as the iOS app).

Mavericks - OS X 10.9 Mavericks was released on October 22, 2013, as a free update through the Mac
App Store worldwide.

Yosemite - On 16 October 2014, OS X Yosemite was released to the general public as a free update via
the worldwide Mac App Store. This featured a massive user interface redesign, replacing
skeuomorphism with flat graphic design, and distorted translucency effects, following the iOS 7
implemented aesthetic.

El Capitan - OS X El Capitan was announced during the keynote speech of the WWDC on 8 June 2015. It
was released as a closed beta in July, and made publicly accessible on September 30th, 2015. Apple
described this update as not new features but "Refinements to the Mac Experience" and
"Improvements to Machine Performance."
Sierra - On 13 June 2016, macOS Sierra was unveiled at the keynote address of the WWDC. This was
officially released on 20 September 2016.
High Sierra - On 25 September 2017 it was released to the public. Unlike OS X El Capitan and OS X
Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a streamlined upgrade with a few new additions that are apparent to a
user, including Safari, Photos and Mail upgrades, among other improvements.

Mojave - This was released on 24 September 2018. The upgrade added a system wide dark mode and
some additional features, such as the Apple News, were removed from iOS.

Catalina - It is the seventeenth major update of macOS, Apple's Macintosh application desktop
operating system. It is the heir to macOS Mojave which was announced on 3 June 2019 at WWDC.
Catalina is the first macOS update to support exclusively 64-bit applications.

Big Sur - In the WWDC keynote address, revealed on 22 June 2020. The main version number is
updated, making it macOS 11.0 for the first time in a macOS update. It introduces into the system ARM
support, brand new icons, and GUI.

3. Linux
- Linux (pronounced LINN-ux) is a family of open source operating systems, meaning that anyone
in the world can change and spread them. That is somewhat different from proprietary
applications such as Windows, which only the corporation that owns it (Microsoft) can change.
The benefits of Linux are that it's free, so you can pick from several different distributions (or
versions.
- Linux is an operating system much like Windows, iOS and Mac OS. In reality, the Linux operating
system is operated by one of the most popular systems on the world, Android.
- Linux takes its name from Linus Torvalds, who developed the 1991 Linux kernel. The kernel is the
programming of a machine and is the core component of an operating system.
In fact, Ubuntu is licensed under an open source license. Those primary tenantsfollow open
source:
● The right to administer the programme, for whatever reason.
● The ability to learn and change how the system works, to make it do what you want.
● The right to redistribute copies for the neighbor to support.
● The right to make copies of the updated versions accessible to anyone.
- Linux has different variants to fit each form of customer. Including novice users to hard-core
users, you'll find a Linux "flavor" that suits your needs. Both variants are called distributions (or
"distros" in the short form). Nearly any Linux distribution can be downloaded free of charge,
burned to disk (or USB thumb drive) and installed (on as many computers as you wish).
Linux distributions
LINUX MINT - Ubuntu-based distribution which aims to provide a classic desktop environment with
various handy, personalized tools and optional multimedia out-of the-box support.

MANJARO - Manjaro Linux is an operating system based on Arch Linux, which is fast, user-friendly and
desktop oriented. Main features include easy installation process, automated hardware discovery,
reliable roll-release style, multiple kernel installation support, special Bash scripts for graphics driver
management and robust screen configurability.

DEBIAN - Debian comes with over 50,000 packages (precompiled applications bundled in a pleasant
format to enable quick deployment on your machine)-all free. It's like a hill, a little. The kernel is at the
heart

UBUNTU - Ubuntu is a full Linux desktop operating system, available free of charge with community and
technical support. "Ubuntu "is an ancient African term, meaning" humanity to all. The Ubuntu
distribution is taking Ubuntu's spirit into the realm of tech.

ANTERGOS - Is a new, streamlined and powerful Arch Linux-based operating system. It started life under
the name Cinnarch, merging the Cinnamon desktop with the Arch Linux distribution, but the project
moved away from its original aims and now provides a variety of multiple desktops, including GNOME 3
(default), Cinnamon, Razor-qt and Xfce.
SOLUS - Is a scratch optimized Linux distribution. It uses a forked version of the PiSi package manager,
maintained within Solus as "eopkg," and an in-house built custom workspace environment, called
"Budgie."

FEDORA - The Linux kernel (formerly Fedora Core) is developed by the community supported Fedora
Project and operated by Red Hat. Fedora includes software that is licensed under a free, open-source
license and strives to be at the forefront of these technology. Fedora has a reputation for focusing on
creativity, early adoption of emerging technology and close cooperation with upstream Linux
communities.

ELEMENTARY OS - A Linux Server based on Ubuntu. Many of its most notable features include Pantheon
's unique desktop environment and other custom applications including images, songs, videos, calendar,
browser, data, and more.

OPENSUSE - The openSUSE initiative is a community-sponsored platform for SUSE Linux and other
organizations. The software encourages the use of Ubuntu everywhere and gives secure, fast access to
openSUSE, a complete Linux
MODULE 13: Partitioning
Disc partitioning or disk slicing
- is the creation of one or more secondary storage areas, so that each region can be handled
separately. It is usually the first step before any file system is developed to prepare a newly built
disk. The disk stores information on the locations and sizes of the partitions in an area known as
the partition table read before any other part of the disk by the operating system. Then each
partition appears as a distinct "logical" disk to the operating system that uses a part of the actual
disk. System administrators use a partition editor program to create, resize, delete, and
manipulate the partitions.
PC Partition Types
- This section explains the Master Boot Record (MBR) partitioning process, as traditionally seen on
PC-compatible operating systems in DOS, Microsoft Windows and Linux (among others). By the
mid-2010s, most new computers were using the partitioning scheme GUID Partition Table (GPT)
instead. See the general article on partition tables, for examples of other partitioning schemes.
- A PC HDD 's total data storage space on which MBR partitioning is applied can include at most
four primary partitions, or three primary partitions and an expanded partition, as an alternative.
Situated in the master boot log, the Partition Table comprises 16-byte entries, each of which
represents a partition.

Primary Partition - A main partition has one file structure in it. Microsoft also wanted what it called the
system partition to be the first partition of DOS and all early versions of Microsoft Windows systems.
Both Windows operating systems can be located on (almost) any partition from Windows 95 onwards,
but the boot files (io.sys, bootmgr, ntldr, etc.) must be located on a primary partition. Certain variables,
however, such as the BIOS of a PC (see Boot sequence on regular PC) can also enforce unique
specifications as to which partition the primary OS may contain.

The partition style code for a primary partition that either refer to a file system stored within it
(e.g. 0x07 means either an NTFS or an OS/2 HPFS file system) or imply a special usage of the partition
(e.g. code 0x82 usually indicates a Linux swap partition). Due to the limitations of different versions of
DOS and Windows OS, the FAT16 and FAT32 file systems made use of a number of partition type codes.
While a Linux operating system can identify a variety of different file systems (ext4, ext3, ext2, ReiserFS,
etc.), the same partition style code has been commonly used for all: 0x83 (Linux native file system).

• Extended Partition - or extended partition boot record (EPBR), is a logical partition descriptor under
the common partitioning system for DOS disk drives. In this method, if an expanded partition is
identified as one (and only one) partition record entry in the master boot record (MBR), then that
partition may be subdivided into a number of logical partitions. One or more EBRs define the internal
configuration of the extended partition, which are situated within the extended partition. The first (and
sometimes only) EBR will always be located on the very first extension partition sector.

Partitioning Schemes- defines a rule, or distribution scheme. Conceptually, a dimension defines a set of
logical partitions; afterwards each logical partition can be subdivided according to the rule of the next
dimension. From left to right, dimensions are evaluated.
• DOS, Windows, and OS/2 - A standard practice for DOS, Microsoft Windows, and OS/2 is to use one
main partition for the active file system that would include the operating system, the page / swap
package, all programs, software, and user info. In most desktop computers in Windows, this primary
partition is systematically given the drive letter C: There may be other partitions on the HDD that may
or may not be visible as drives, such as partitions for recovery, or partitions with diagnostic tools or
details. (Microsoft drive letters do not suit single-to-one partitions, and there may be more or less drive
letters than partitions.)
Microsoft Windows 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7 include a disk management program that allows the
FAT and NTFS partitions to be created, deleted, and resized. In Windows Vista and Windows 7 the
Windows Disk Manager uses a 1 MB partition configuration scheme which is inherently inconsistent
with Windows 2000, XP, OS/2, DOS and many other operating systems.
UNI-Like Systems - Multiple partitions on a storage unit can be found on Unix-based and Unix-like
operating systems such as Linux, macOS, BSD, and Solaris. You can format each partition for a file
system, or as a swap partition. Using three partitions is a standard minimum setup for Linux systems:
one holding machine files mounted on "/" (the root directory), one holding user configuration files and
data mounted on /home (the home directory), and a swap partition.
MacOS systems also use a single partition for the entire filesystem by default, and use a swap file inside
the file system (like Windows) instead of a swap partition.
In Solaris, partitions are sometimes referred to as slices. It is a hypothetical reference to
multiple bits of a cake being cut in.
In the FreeBSD operating system, the term "slice" is used to refer to Master Boot Record
partitions, to avoid confusion with the FreeBSD own disk label based partitioning scheme. GUID
Partition Table partitions, however, are widely referred to as the "partition."

Partition Recovery- When a partition is deleted its entry will be removed from a table and the data will
no longer be available. The data will remain on the disk until it is overwritten. Specialized recovery
utilities may be able to locate lost file systems and recreate a partition table that includes entries for
those file systems recovered. Some disk utilities can overwrite multiple starting sectors of a partition
that they uninstall. For example, if Windows Disk Manager (Windows 2000 / XP, etc.) is used to erase a
partition, the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition will be overwritten before deletion. If a
backup boot sector is usable it may still be possible to restore a FAT or NTFS partition.

Steps in Partitioning a Hard Disk Drive

To create a partition from unpartitioned space follow these steps:

1. Make a full image backup of the entire drive if you don’t already have one.
2. Make sure you have enough free space to install a new partition on the existing partition.
3. Open Disk Control feature, pick the disk that you want to create a partition from.
4. Shrink the existing Partition right-click the partition and select Shrink Volume.
5. Create your new partition. When the resizing is done, right-click the physical drive’s unallocated space
and select Simple New Volume.
MODULE 14: Installation Procedures of Windows 7
Windows 7
- is an operating system that was produced by Microsoft and released as part of the Windows NT
family of operating systems. It was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009, and became
generally available on October 22, 2009, and is the operating system for use on personal
computers, including home and business desktops, laptops and tablets. Windows 7 editions, a
major release of the Microsoft Windows operating system, was available in six different editions:
Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Enterprise and Ultimate.

Minimum hardware requirements for Windows 7:

Installation procedures of Windows 7:

1. Select a language and region. Then click the Next button.
2. Click Install now.
3. Accept the terms of use. Check the "I accept" box, then click Next.
4. Click Custom (advanced).
5. Select a partition, click the Disk options link, click Format, and click OK when prompted before
proceeding (this will erase the partition).
6. Click Next. Windows 7 will begin installing.
7. Allow Windows 7 to install, the computer will restart several times during this process.
8. Type the username and computer name then click Next.
9. Create a password, then click Next.
10. Enter your Windows 7 product key, then click Next.
11. Click Use recommended settings.
12. Select a time zone. then click Next to finish the setup.
13. Select a network. then wait for Windows 7 to finish setting-up.
 MODULE 15: Installation Procedures of Windows 8
Windows 8
- is an operating system that was produced by Microsoft, released as part of the Windows NT
family of operating systems. The product was released to manufacturing on August 1, 2012, and
generally to retail on October 26, 2012. Windows 8 introduced major changes to the operating
system's platform and user interface to improve its user experience, these changes included a
touch-optimized, the Start screen (which displays programs and dynamically updated content on
a grid of tiles), a new platform for developing "apps" with an emphasis on touchscreen input,
integration with online services.
Minimum hardware requirements for Windows 8:

Component Minimum

Processor 1 GHz clock rate 1 GHz clock rate

32 bit or 64 bit architecture

Memory (RAM) 32 bit: 1 GB

64 bit: 2 GB

Graphics Card DirectX 9 graphics device

WDDM 1.0 or higher driver

Hard disk space 32 bit: 16 GB

64 bit: 20 GB

Installation procedures of Windows 8:

1. Select the language then click next button, and click Install now.
2. Enter the product key. This is the 25-character key that came with the purchased Windows 8.
3. Accept the license agreement. Once you have read the agreement, check the box signifying to accept
the agreement and click Next.
4. Click Custom Install. Custom will allow to do a complete installation of Windows 8.
5. Delete the partition. A window will open asking where you would like to install Windows 8. In order to
perform a clean install, you need to delete the old partition and start with a clean slate. Click “Drive
options (advanced).” This will give you the ability to delete and create partitions.
● Select the partition of your existing operating system and click the Delete button.
● If you are installing an operating system for the first time on this hard drive, then there will be no
partitions to delete.
● Confirm the deletion process.
6. Select the Unallocated Space and click Next.
7. Wait for Windows install files. The percentage next to Expanding Windows files will steadily increase.
This part of the process can take up to 30 minutes.
● Windows will automatically restart your computer when finished.
8. Wait for Windows gathers information. After the computer reboots, you will see the Windows 8 logo.
Beneath it will be the text “Getting devices ready” followed by a percentage. Windows is collecting
information on the hardware installed in your computer.
● When this is done, the text will change to “Getting ready”.
● Your computer will restart one more time.
9. Personalize Windows 8. Once the computer finishes rebooting, you will be asked to pick the color
scheme for your installation of Windows 8.
● You can change the color at any time in the Windows 8 settings.
10. Enter the computer name. This is the name that the computer displays on
the network.
11. Choose the settings. The most common option is Express Settings.
12. Wait for Windows 8 to finish setting-up.
The Circulatory System
Functions of Circulatory System
➢ To provide oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to muscles, tissues and organs throught your body.
➢ To remove waste from cells and organs so your body can dispose of it.
➢ To move blood throughout the body
➢ The circulatory system also helps your body to get rid of waste products
Circulatory system circuits
1. Pulmonary circuit
➢ This circuit carries blood with oxygen from the heart to the lungs.
➢ Pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the heart
2. The systemic circuit
➢ In this circuit, blood with oxygen nutrients and hormones travels from heart to the rest of the
body.
3. The coronary circuit
➢ Coronary refers to your heart’s arteries.
➢ It provides the heart muscle with oxgenated blood

The circulatory system has 4 major components

1. Heart
➢ Your heart is the main organ of your cardiovascular system
➢ It is a network of blood vessel that pumps blood througout your body
Inside of the Heart

Outside of the Heart

 Four chamber of the heart

Heart Valves

How does your heart work with other organs?

Nervous system:
➢ helps control your heart rate. It sends signals that tell your heart to beat slower during rest and
faster during stress
Endocrine system
➢ sends out hormones. These hormones tell your blood vessels to constrict or relax, which affects
your blood pressure.

Blood Vessels of the Heart

1. Arteries
➢ carry oxygen-rich blood from your heart to
your body’s tissues.
➢ The exception is your pulmonary arteries,
which go to your lungs.
➢ Carry blood away from the heart.

3 Types of arteries:
1. Elastic arteries
- Take deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs.
- The aorta and pulmonary arteries are the
elastic arteries.
2. Muscular arteries
- Move blood from the elastic arteris through
the body
Example:
● Femoral arteries
 ● Coronary arteries
3. Arterioles
➢ Smallest arteries
➢ Move blood from the mascular arteries to
the capillaries

2. Veins
➢ carry oxygen-poor blood back to your heart.

3. Capillaries
➢ small blood vessels where your body
exchanges oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor
blood.
Composition of Blood
- Controls the rhythm and speed of your
heart rate
- Maintains your blood pressure

Plasma
➢ Moves blood cells through the body by way of the circulatory system.
➢ It also carries hormones, nutrients, antibodies, and waste products.
Red blood cellls
➢ Red blood cell is also calles Erythrocytes
➢ Make up about 40 - 45 percent of blood's volume.
➢ Red blood cells contain a protein called homoglobin.
➢ Carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and returns carbon dioxide to the lungs,
where it’s exhaled.
White blood cells
➢ White blood cells are also called leukocytes.
➢ Make up just 1 percent of the blood.
➢ They protect the body from infection.
Platelets
➢ Platelets are also called thrombocytes
➢ These are cell fragments
➢ Are essential for blood clotting
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
What is Respiration?
- the physical and chemical processes (such as breathing and diffusion) by which an organism
supplies its cells and tissues with the oxygen needed for metabolism and relieves them of the
carbon dioxide formed in energy-producing reactions
What is Respiratory System?
- The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes
your airways, lungs and blood vessels.

Parts and Functions of Respiratory System

What are functions of Respiratory system?
● Smell
● Breath
● Moisturizes the body(regulates the temperature of the body)
● Strains the particles while inhaling

Parts of RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1. Mouth and Nose
- Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory system.
2. Cilia
- Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other irritants out of your airways.
3. Sinuses
- Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the temperature and humidity
of the air you inhale.
4. Pharynx (throat)
- Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe).
5. Epiglottis
- Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow to keep food and liquids
out of your airway.
6. Larynx (voice box)
- Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds when air moves in and out.
7. Trachea
- Passage connecting your throat and lungs
8. Bronchial Tubes
- Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung.
9. Lungs
- Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.
10. Pleura
- Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from the chest wall.
11. Bronchioles
- Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
12. Alveoli
- Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
13. Capillaries
- Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
14. Diaphragm
- Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.
15. Rib cage
- Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.
 RESPIRATORY DISEASES RESULTING OF DIFFERENT LIFESTYLES

1. Pneumonia
- Is a swelling of tissue in one or both of the lungs
- Breathing may be labored
- A classic sign of bacterial pneumonia is a cough that produces thick, blood-tinged or
yellowish-greenish sputum with pus.

2. Tuberculosis
- Tuberculosis(TB) is a potentially serious infectious disease that mainly affects the
lungs.

Symptoms of TB
- A persistent cough that lasts more than 3 weeks and usually brings up phlegm, which
may be bloody
- Weight loss
- Night sweats
- High temperature
- Tiredness and fatigue
- Loss of appetite
- Swellings in the neck

3. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD

- COPD is an umbrella term for a range of progressive lung diseases. Chronic bronchitis
and emphysema can both result in COPD.
- Is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes bstructed airflow from the lungs
Causes of COPD
- Smoking is the main cause of COPD
- If a person has a rare condition in which they lack a protein called alpha-1 antitrypsin,
they can develop emphysema even without smoking.
- Exposure to certain gases or fumes in the workplace.
- Exposure to heavy amounts of secondhand smoke and pollution.
- Frequent use of a cooking fire without proper ventilation.

4. Lung cancer
- Is a type of cancer that begins in the lungs

Symptoms of Lung cancer

- Lung cancer typically doesn’t cause
- A cough that does not go away or gets worse
- Coughing up blood or rust-colored sputum (spit or phlegm)
- Chest pain that is often worse with deep breathing, coughing, or laughing
- Hoarseness
- Loss of appetite
- Unexplained weight loss
- Shortness of breath
- Feeling tired or weak
- Infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia that don’t go away or keep coming back
- New onset of wheezing

5. Asthma
- Is a condition in which your airways narrow and swell and may produce extra mucus.
This can make breathing difficult and trigger coughing, a whistling sound(wheezing)
when you breathe out and shortness of breath

Symptoms of Asthma
- Shortness of breath
- Chest tightness or pain
- Wheezing when exhaling, which is a common sign of asthma in children
- Trouble sleeping caused by shortness of breath, coughing or wheezing
- Coughing or wheezing attacks that are worsened by a respiratory virus, such as a cold
or the flu

6. Bronchitis
- Is an infection of the main airways of the lungs (bronchi), causing them to become
irritated and inflamed.
Symptoms of Bronchitis
 - Cough , which may bring up yellow-grey mucus(phlegm)
- Bronchitis may also cause a sore throat and wheezing.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM DISEASES

1. Atherosclerosis
- Is a hardening and narrowing of your arteries caused by cholesterol plaques lining the
artery over time. It can put blood flow at risk as your arteries become blocked.

Symptoms related to your Coronary Arteries include

- Arrhythmia, an unusual heartbeat
- Pain or pressure in your upper body, including your chest, arms, neck, or jaw. This is
known as angina.
- Shortness of breath

Symptoms related to the arteries that deliver blood to your brain include:

- Numbness or weakness in your arms or legs

- A hard time speaking or understanding someone who’s talking
- Drooping facial muscles
- Paralysis
- Severe headache
- Trouble seeing in one or both eyes

These risk factors are behind more than 90% of all heart attacks:
- Abdominal obesity ("spare tire")
- Diabetes
- High alcohol intake (more than one drink for women, one or two drinks for men, per
day)
- High blood pressure
- High cholesterol
- Not eating fruits and vegetables
- Not exercising regularly
- Smoking
- Stress

2. Stroke
- Stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted or reduced,
preventing brain tissue from getting oxygen and nutrients. Brain cells begin to die in
minutes.
Symptoms of stroke
- Trouble speaking and understanding what others are saying.
- Paralysis or numbness of the face, arm or leg.
- Problems seeing in one or both eyes
- Headache
- Trouble walking

3. Coronary artery disease (CAD)

- Develops when the coronary arteries become too narrow or narrow or cholesterol
blockages develop in the walls. The coronary arteries are the blood vessels that
supply oxygen and blood to the heart.
- CAD can lead to Angina. This is a type of chest painlinked to heart disease.

Angina may cause the following feeling across the chest:

- Squeezing
- Pressure
- Heaviness
- Tightening
- Burning
- Aching

4. Hypertensive heart disease

- Hypertensive heart disease refers to heart conditions caused by high blood pressure.
- Can cause serious health problems. It’s the leading cause of death from high blood
pressure.
Hypertensive heart disease
- Getting at least 150 minutes of physical activity each week (about 30 minutes a day, 5
days a week)
- Not smoking
- Eating a healthy diet, Including limiting sodium(salt) and alcohol
- Keeping a healthy weight
- Managing stress

5. Rheumatic heart disease

- Rheumatic heart disease is heart valve damage resulting frm rheumatic fever.
- Bacterial infections called group A streptococcal (GAS) infections can cause rheumatic
fever.
- An infection, such as strep throat or scarlet fever, triggers your body’s immune
response.
- It causes inflammation throughout the body, including in the heart. If untreated, the
inflammation can lead to permanent heart valve damage and serious health problems.

Who is at risk for rheumatic heart disease?

- People are at a higher risk for this disease if they;
- Don’t have easy access to healthcare or antibiotics
- Have repeated strep infections that go untreated
- Live in overcrowded or unhealthy conditions
- Symptoms and causes

What are the symptoms of Rheumatic Heart Disease?

- Chest pain
- Fatigue
- Heart murmur
- Shortness of breath
- Swelling in the stomach, hands or feet
BIODIVERSITY
- Is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area - the variety of animals, plants, fungi,
and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world.
- Each of their species and organisms work together in ecosystems, like an intricate web,
to maintain balance and support life.
Species
- A group of organisms that may interbreed and produce offspring that is also capable of
reproducing the same kind.
Extinction
- Is the termination of a kind of organism of a group of kinds, usually a species. The
moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the
species.
Cause of extinction
● Natural causes of extinction
● Anthropogenic cause of extinction
Natural cause of extinction
1. Climate Change
- Refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be
natural, but since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate
change, primarily due to burning of fossil fuels(like coal, oil, and gas), which produces
heat-trapping gases.
2. Geological transformation
Acid rain
- Acid rain describes any form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and
sulfuric acids.
- It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry material that settle to
Earth.
- Normal rain is slightly acidic, with a pH of 5.6, while acid rain generally has a pH
between 4.2 and 4.4.
Cause of Acid Rain
- Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals that can acid rain,
but most acid rain is a product of human activities. The biggest sources are coal-burning
power plants, factories, and automobiles
3. Epidemic and Parasitism
Epidemic
- A widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.
Paratism
- Is a symbiosis in which one organism, the parasite, causes harm to another, the host,
which the parasite utilizes as habitat and depends on for resources acquisition.
4. Invasive Species
- Are any species that are non-native and harm the local ecosystem. When these
non-native plants and animals establish themselves in our local ecosystems, they
outcompete and dislodge species that have evolved specifically to live there.
5. Asteroids, Meteorites, Comets and Cosmic Radiation

Anthropogenic cause of Extinction

1. Increase of human population
- The world’s population is expected to increase by 2 billion persons in the next 30 years
from 7.7 billion currently to 9.7 billion in 2050 and could peak at nearly 11 billion 2100.
2. Habitat Destruction
3. Overexploitation
- The unsustainable use of natural resources and overexploitation, which occurs when
harventing exceeds reproduction of wild plant and animal species, continues to be a
major threat to biodeversity
4. Pollution

Extinct Species Endangered species in the Philippines

1. Dodo bird 1. Monkey-eating eagle/ Philippine eagle
2. Dinosaurs 2. Philippine crocodile
3. Great auk 3. Irrawaddy dolphin
4. Golden toad 4. Visayan warty pig
5. Negos bleeding-heart
5. Wild african black rhinoceros
6. Hawksbill turtle
6. Tescopa fish 7. Philippine naked-backed fruit bat
7. Round island burrowing boa 8. Tamaraw
9. Philippine cockatoo
10. Rufous-headed hornbill
NON-MENDELIAN PATTERNS of INHERITANCE
Non-mendelian
● Incomplete dominance
● Codominance
● Multiple alleles
- Non-Mendelian genetics are basically any inheritance patterns that don’t follow one or
more laws of Mendelian genetics.

GREGOR MENDEL’S LAW

- Mendel’s First Law (Law of Segregation) – A parent who has two alleles for a gene can
only pass on one allele or the other to each offspring.
- Mendel’s Second Law (Law of Independent Assortment) – Two or more traits are
inherited separately from each other; they don’t always occur together.
- Mendel’s Third Law (Law of Dominance) – One dominant allele will take charge over a
recessive allele and “mask” it. The only way recessive alleles can be seen is if an
individual possesses two copies of the recessive allele.

NON-MENDELIAN

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- Is the inheritance pattern which neither gene is totally dominant over the other. This
results to an intermediate form of other two phenotypes.
CODOMINANCE
- Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the
heterozygote.

Multiple Alleles
- Multiple alleles exist in a population when there are many variations of a gene present.
- Multiple alleles combine in different ways in a population, and produce different
phenotypes.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

What is Photosynthesis?
- Plants use sunlight, water, and the gases in the air to make glucose, which is a form of
sugar that plants need to survive. This process is called photosynthesis and is performed
by all plants, algae, and even some microorganisms.
 - Chloroplasts migrate in response to different light intensities. Under weak light,
chloroplasts gather at an illuminated area to maximize light absorption and
photosynthesis rates (the accumulation response). In contrast, chloroplasts escape from
strong light to avoid photodamage (the avoidance response).

Process of Photosynthesis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION

2 STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
- the process by which organisms combine oxygen with foodstuff molecules, diverting the
chemical energy in these substances into life-sustaining activities and discarding, as
waste products, carbon dioxide and water. Organisms that do not depend on oxygen
degrade foodstuffs in a process called fermentation.
LESSON I: DEFINITION OF ECONOMICS
I. Definition
A. Etymology:
Greek: oikonomia
oikos [house] + nomos [management] = Household management
B. Conceptual
- Is a social science that studies proper allocation efficiency, use of scarcity of resources,
satisfaction unlimited, varied, increasing human needs and wants.

II. Comparison
A. Household (Microeconomics)
B. Nation (Macroeconomics)
Basic Economic Question
- What to produce
- How to produce
- How much to produce
- For whom to produce

Microeconomics
- The branch of economics that examines the functioning of individual industries and
behavior of individual decision-making units, that is, business firms and households.
Examples:
1. Danica’s Sari-Sari Store
2. Bob’s Monthly Income
3. Number of employees in La Nueva
4. CJ’s weekly allowance
5. Dominic’s Math Score

Macroeconomics
- Examines the economic behavior of aggregates-income , output and so on, on a national
scale.
Example:
1. Inflation
2. Gross National Product( GNP)
3. Gross Domestic Product ( GDP)
4. Unemployment
5. Price Stability

Difference of Microeconomics and Macroeconomics

III. Important Concepts

The Economic Perspective

- How people make choices ?
People are rational
● People know what they want
● People make consistent choices
● Guided by self-interest – looked for ways to maximize the utility

TINSTAFL
- Every choice involves costs
● Money
● Time
● or something you value
- Means that there’s a cost for everything , even if you can’t see it right away.

OPPORTUNITY COST
- That which we forgo , or give up, when we make a choice or a decision.

- Nearly all decisions involve trade-offs, cost and benefits .

Incentives
- Are methods used to encourage people to take certain actions.
Example:
1. The chance of winning a gold medal serves as an incentive for athletes to train and play
hard.

Marginalism and Sunk Cost

Marginal Cost
- Cost of producing one more unit of output
Marginal benefit
- Is the additional satisfaction from using one more unit a product.
Sunk cost
- Cost that cannot be avoided regardless of what is done in the future because they have
already been incurred.
- The Analysis of Marginal Costs and marginal benefits is central to the study of economics . It
helps to explain the decisions consumers, producers , and governments make as they try to
meet their unlimited wants with limited resources.
LESSON II: SCARCITY
Shortage Scarcity

- Occurs whenever quantity demanded - Exist when there are not enough
is greater than quantity supply at the resourcesto satisfy human wants.
market price.

Production Possibility Frontier(PPF)

- Shows the maximum possible output combinations of two goods or services an economy
can achieve when all resources are fully and efficiently employed.
- A diagram representing various combinations of goods and/or services an economy can
produce when all productive resources are fully employed
- Represents the point at which an economy is most efficiently producing its goods and
services and, therefore, allocating its resources in the best way possible.
- Shows there are limits to production, so an economy, to achieve efficiency, must decide
what combination of goods and services can be produced.

Assumptions:
1. The economy is working at maximum efficiency
2. There are only two goods being produced in the economy
3. The same resources are being used in the production of these two goods
4. Resources and technology are fixed

Specialization and Gains from Trade

Specialization
- A method of production where a business, area or economy focuses on the production
of a limited scope of products or services to gain greater degrees of productive efficiency
within an overall system
- Many countries, for example, specialize in producing the goods and services that are
native to their part of the world, and they trade for other goods and services.
- refers to the tendency of countries to specialize in certain products which they trade for
other goods, rather than producing all consumption goods on their own
- Countries produce a surplus of the product in which they specialize and trade it for a
different surplus good of another country.
- The traders decide on whether they should export or import goods depending on
comparative advantages.

Absolute Advantage
- An individual, firm, or country has an absolute advantage in producing a good or
services if it can produce it using less resources than its competition.

Comparative Advantage
- An individual, firm, or country a comparative advantage in producing a good or service if
it can produce it at a lower opportunity cost
BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS
- an enterprise that produces goods or provides services. ( goods and services that best
meet consumers’ wants and needs )

Sole Proprietorship
- most common type of business
- owned and managed by a single person
● raising funds
● preparing to open
● initial difficulties
● success

SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP

( ADVANTAGES ) (DISADVANTAGES)

- Easy to Open or Close - Limited Funds

- Few Regulations - Limited Life
- Freedom and Control - Unlimited Liability
- Owner Keeps Profit

GENERAL PARTNERSHIP & LIMITED PARTNERSHIP

GENERAL LIMITED LIMITED LIABILITY
PARTNERSHIP PARTNERSHIP PARTNERSHIP

- Common type of - A partnership in which at - All partners are limited

partnership least one partner is not
- Partners share involved in the day-to-day
responsibility for running of business and
managing the business is liable only for the funds
and each one is liable for he or she has invested.
all business debts and - Must have at least one
loss. GENERAL PARTNER
- Sharing the rewards as who runs the business
well and is liable for all debts,
- Share RESPONSIBILITY, but there can be any
LIABILITY, and number of LIMITED
- PROFITS EQUALLY PARTNERS.
- unless there is a - LIMITED PARTNERS act
partnership agreement as part owners
that specifies otherwise. - Raise funds through
limited partners
partners and not
responsible for the debts
and other liabilities of
other partners.
- If one partner makes a
mistake that ends up
costing the business a lot
of money, the other
partners cannot be held
liable.
- MEDICAL
PARTNERSHIPS, LAW
FIRMS, and
ACCOUNTING FIRMS
- Malpractice - improper,
negligent, or unprincipled
behavior can be an
issue.

PARTNERSHIP ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE

PARTNERSHIP PARTNERSHIP
( ADVANTAGES ) ( DISADVANTAGE )

- Easy to Open or Close - Unlimited Liability

- Few Regulations - Potential for Conflict
- Access to Resources - Limited Life
- Joint Decision Making
- Specialization
CORPORATION
- Business owned by individuals, called shareholders or stockholders.
- They own the rights to the company’s profits but they face limited liability for the debts
and losses.
- Acquire ownership rights through purchase of stock.
PUBLIC COMPANY – corporation that issues stock that can be freely bought and sold
PRIVATE COMPANY – one that retains controlover who can buy or sell the stock
CORPORATION CORPORATION
( ADVANTAGES ) ( DISADVANTAGE )

- More effective than (sole and - Start-up Cost and Effort

partnership) at raising large amounts - Heavy Regulation
of money. ( sale of stock and issuing - Double Taxation
of bonds) - Loss of Control
- Limited liability
- Unlimited life
- Access to resources
- Professional managers

COOPERATIVE
- Cooperative structures allow individuals to pool their resources and skills together to
work toward a common economic goal, such as crop production, with the ultimate aim of
increasing member incomes and ensuring greate food security.
- An autonomous and duly registered association of persons with a common bond of
interest, who have voluntarily joined together to achieve their social, economic and
cultural needs and aspirations.
- By making equitable contributions to the capital required, patronizing their products and
services and accepting fair share of risks and benefits.

EXAMPLE:

Credit cooperative
Consumer cooperative
Producers cooperative
Marketing cooperative
Service cooperative
Advocacy cooperative, etc.
ECONOMIC SYSTEM
1. TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM

Characteristics of Traditional Economy:

- Economic decisions based on customs and beliefs that have been handed down from
generation to generation.
- One goal is SURVIVAL
- Men are hunters and Women tend the crops and raise children
- There is no chance of deviating from this pattern.
- The good of the group always takes precedence over individual desires.

2. COMMAND ECONOMIC SYSTEM

Characteristics of Command Economy:

- The government decides what good
- The government decides what goods and services will be produced, how and how will be
distributed.
- Wants of individual consumers are rarely considered.
- Centrally planned economy.
3. MARKET ECONOMIC SYSTEM
Characteristics of Market Economic Economy:
- Based on individual choice not government directives.
- Consumers and producers drive the economy.
- Consumers are free to spend their money as they wish.
- Producers decide what goods or services they will offer.

4. MIXED ECONOMIC SYSTEM

Characteristics of Mixed Economy:

- The most flexible economic system.
- This has the elements of the three economic systems.
- It protects private property and it allows the free market and the laws of supply and
demand to determine prices.
Long-Run versus Short-Run
Short run: a period of time during which oneor more of a firm’s inputs cannot be changed.
Long run: a period of time during which all inputs can be changed

Example:
1. Bob’s uses two inputs to make loaves of bread: labor(bakers) and capital (ovens). Bakers
can be hired or fired on very short notice. But new ovens take 3 months to install.
Short run – is any period less than 3 months
Long run – is any period longer than 3 month

The concepts of long run and short run are closely related to the concepts of fixed inputs and
variable inputs.
Fixed input: an input whose quantity remains constant during the time period in question.
Variable input: an input whose quantity can be altered during the time period in question
Fixed input – ovens
Variable input – labor

In the short run, a firm will have both fixed inputs and variable inputs. These correspond to two
types of cost: fixed cost and variable cost.
Fixed cost (FC): the cost of all fixed inputs in a production process. Another way of saying this:
production costs that do not change with the quantity of output produced.

Variable cost (VC): the cost of all variable inputs in a production process. Another way of
saying this: production costs that change with the quantity of output produced.

Since fixed inputs cannot be changed in the short run, fixed cost cannot be changed either. That
means fixed cost is CONSTANT, no matter what quantity the firm chooses to produce in the
short run. Variable cost, on the other hand, does depend on the quantity the firm produces.
Variable cost rises when quantity rises, and it falls when quantity falls.

Total cost (TC): the total cost of producing a given amount of output.
Formula: TC = FC + VC

Average Cost or Average Total Cost

- Average cost (AC), also known as average total cost (ATC), is the average cost per unit of
output. To find it, divide the total cost (TC) by the quantity the firm is producing (Q).
- Average cost (AC) or average total cost (ATC): the per-unit cost of output.
Formula: ATC = TC/Q
FORMULAS:
ATC = AFC + AVC
AFC = FC/Q
AVC = VC/Q
ATC = TC/Q
TC = ATC × Q
Q = TC/ATC
Marginal Cost
- The additional cost that results from increasing output by one unit
MC = ∆TC/∆Q
Walong Karapatan ng Mamimili
Ang Kagawaran ng Kalakalan at Industriya (Department of Trade and Industry o DTI) ay
naglabas ng walong karapatan ng mga mamimili upang maging gabay sa kanilang transaksiyon
sa pamilihan.

1. Karapatan sa mga Pangunahing Pangangailangan

May karapatan sa sapat na pagkain, pananamit, masisilungan, pangangalagang
pangkalususugan, edukasyon at kalinisan upang mabuhay.
2. Karapatan sa Kaligtasan
May karapatang bigyan ng katiyakang ligtas at mapangangalagaan ka laban sa pangangalakal
ng mga panindang makasasama o mapanganib sa iyong kalusugan.
3. Karapatan sa Patalastasan
May karapatang mapangalagaan laban sa mapanlinlang, madaya at mapanligaw na patalastas,
mga etiketa at iba pang hindi wasto at hindi matapat na gawain. Ito ay kailangang malaman ng
mga mamimili upang maiwasan ang pagsasamantala ng iba.
4. Karapatang Pumili
May karapatang pumili ng iba’t ibang produkto at paglilingkod sa halagang kaya mo. Kung ito ay
monopolisado ng pribadong kompanya man, dapat na magkaroon ka ng katiyakan sa
kasiya-siyang uri at halaga ng produkto nila.
5. Karapatang Dinggin
May karapatang makatiyak na ang kapakanan na mamimili ay lubusang isinaalang-alang sa
paggawa at pagpapatupad ng anumang patakaran ng pamahalaan.
6. Karapatang Bayaran at Tumbasan sa Ano mang Kapinsalaan
May karapatang bayaran at tumbasan sa ano mang kapinsalaan na nagbuhat sa produkto na
binili mo. May karapatan kang mabayaran sa ano mang kasinungalingan o mababang uri ng
paninda o paglilingkod na ibibigay o ipinagbibili kahit na ito ay sa pagkakamali, kapabayaan o
masamang hangarin. Dapat na magkaroon ng walang bayad na tulong sa pagtatanggol sa
hukuman o nang pag- aayos sa paghahabol.
7. Karapatan sa Pagtuturo Tungkol sa Pagiging Matalinong Mamimili
May karapatan sa consumer education, nagtatanong at nagtatanggol sa iyong karapatan. Ito ay
nagtataglay ng karapatan sa katalinuhan at kaalaman na kinakailangan upang makagawa ng
hakbanging makatutulong sa mga desisyong pangmamimili.
8. Karapatan sa Isang Malinis na Kapaligiran
May karapatan sa kalayaan, pagkakapantay- pantay at sapat na mga kalagayan sa buhay na
nagbibigay pahintulot sa isang marangal at maayos na pagkatao at ikaw ay may malaking
pananagutan na pangalagaan at pagbutihin ang iyong kapaligiran para sa kalusugan at
kinabukasan ng ating saling lahi.

Limang Pananagutan ng mga Mamimili

Ang Kagawaran ng Kalakalan at Industriya ay nagpalaganap rin ng limang
pananagutan ng mga mamimili. Ang sumusunod ay ang mga pananagutang
binabanggit:
1. Mapanuring Kamalayan – ang tungkuling maging listo at mausisa tungkol sa kung ano ang
gamit, halaga, at kalidad ng mga paninda at paglilingkod na ating ginagamit.
2. Pagkilos- ang tungkuling maipahayag ang ating sarili at kumilos upang makatiyak sa
makatarungang pakikitungo. Kung tayo’y mananatili sa pagwawalang-bahala, patuloy tayong
pagsasamantalahan ng mga mandarayang mangangalakal.
3. Pagmamalasakit na Panlipunan- ang tungkulin na alamin kung ano ang ibubunga ng ating
pagkonsumo ng mga kalakal at serbisyo sa ibang mamamayan, lalo na ang pangkat ng maliliit o
walang kapangyarihan, maging ito ay sa lokal, pambansa, o pandaigdig na komunidad.
4. Kamalayan sa Kapaligiran- ang tungkulin na mabatid ang kahihinatnan ng ating kapaligiran
bunga ng hindi wastong pagkonsumo. Kailangang pangalagaan natin ang ating likas na
kayamanan para sa ating kinabukasan.
5. Pagkakaisa- ang tungkuling magtatag ng samahang mamimili upang magkaroon ng lakas at
kapangyarihang maitataguyod at mapangalagaan ang ating kapakanan.
Consumer Protection Agencies
Ang sumusunod ay mga ahensiya ng pamahalaan na tumutulong upang maisulong ang
kapakanan ng mga mamimili:
1. Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) - hinggil sa hinaluan/ pinagbabawal/ maling etiketa
ng gamot, pagkain, pabango, at make- up.
2. City/Provincial/Municipal Treasurer - hinggil sa timbang at sukat, madayang
(tampered) timbangan at mapanlinlang na pagsukat.
3. Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) - hinggil sa paglabag sa batas ng kalakalan at
industriya- maling etiketa ng mga produkto, madaya at mapanlinlang na gawain ng mga
mangangalakal.
4. Energy Regulatory Commission (ERC) - reklamo laban sa pagbebenta ng di- wastong
sukat o timbang ng mga gasolinahan at mga mangangalakal ng “Liquified Petroleum
Gas”.
5. Environmental Management Bureau (DENR- EMB)- namamahala sa pangangalaga
sa kapaligiran (polusyon- halimbawa ay pagsalaula sa hangin at tubig).
6. Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (FPA) - hinggil sa hinaluan/ pinagbabawal/ maling
etiketa ng pamatay-insekto at pamatay-salot.
7. Housing & Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB) - nangangalaga sa mga bumibili ng
bahay at lupa pati na rin ang mga subdivision. Insurance Commission- hinggil sa hindi
pagbabayad ng kabayaran ng seguro.
8. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) - reklamo laban sa illegal
recruitment activities.
9. Professional Regulatory Commission (PRC) - hinggil sa mga hindi matapat na
pagsasagawa ng propesyon kabilang na ang mga accountant, doctor, engineer, at iba
pa.
10. Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC) - hinggil sa paglabag sa binagong
Securities Act tulad ng pyramiding na gawain
Modyul 1: Panitikang Asyano – Maikling Kuwento ng Singapore
A. Panitikan
Maikling kuwento
- ay isang akdang pampanitikan na nag-iiwan ng isang kakintalan. Kadalasan nang
natatapos itong mabasa sa isang upuan lamang. Karaniwang nakabatay ang mga paksa
sa mga tunay-na-buhay na pangyayari anupa’t ang mga mambabasa ay madaling
makaugnay sa salaysay nito.
“Ang Ama”
- ay isang uri ng kuwentong makabanghay na nakatuon sa pagkakabuo ng mga
pangyayari. Mahalagang matukoy ang pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga pangyayari at ang
estilo na ginamit ng may-akda.

Mga uri ng maikling kwento

1. Kwento ng Tauhan - inilalarawan ang mga pangyayaring pagkaugalian ng mga taughang
nagsisipaganap upang mabignyan ng kabuan ang pag unawa sa kanila ng isang mambabasa
2. Kwentong Katutubong Kulay- binibigyang diin ang kapaligiran at mga pananamit ng mga
tauhan , ang uri ng pamumuhay at mga hanap buhay ng mga tao
3. Kwentong Sekolohiko - ipinadaram sa mga mambabasa ang damdamin ng isang tao sa
harap ng isang tao sa harap ng isang pangyayari at kalagayan
- ito ang uri ng mailking kwento na bihirang isulat sapagkat may kahirapan ang pag
lalarawan ng isipan.
4. Kwentong Katatakutan- ito ay ang mga pangyayaring kasindak sindak
5. Kwentong Bayan-inilalahad ang mga kwentong pinaguusapan sa kasulukuyan ng buong
bayan.
6. Kwentong Kababalaghan- pinaguusapan ang mga salay- saying hindi kapani - paniwala.
7. Madulang Pangyayari - binibigyang diin ang pagkapanabik at mahalagang pangyayari na sa
nakapag- paiba o nag pabago sa tauhan.
8. Kwnetong Pakikipagsapalaran-nasa balangkas ng pangyayari ang interes ng kwento.
9. Kwento ng Katatawanan - nag bibigay aliw at nagpapasaya naman sa mga mambabasa.
10. Kwento ng Pagibig - Tungkol sa pag-iibigan ng dalawang tao.

B. Gramatika
Pang-ugnay
- ginagamit sa pag-uugnay ng mga pangungusap, parirala at sugnay. Sa pamamagitan
nito, napagsusunod-sunod natin nang tama ang mga pangyayari sa isang kuwento. Ilan
sa mga pangatnig ay ginagamit din bilang transitional devices.
Pangatnig
- ginagamit sa pag-uugnay ng mga pangungusap at sugnay upang mabuo ang diwa o
kaisipan ng isang pahayag.
Mga pangatnig at mga halimbawang pangungusap
1. Subalit - dinudugtong upang magkaroon ang isang pangungusap ng positibo resulta at
negatibong resulta. (datapwat,ngunit)
Halimbawang Pangungusap:
a. Si Nena ay ginugulo ng kaniyang kapatid habang nag aaral subalit hindi siya nagpatinag at
patuloy siyang nag aral.

2. Samantala, Saka - ginagamit na pantuwang

Halimbawang Pangungusap:
a. Si Mang Ben ay matalino saka mabait pa.
b. Abala ang lahat, samantalang ikaw ay hindi.

3. Kaya, dahil sa – ginagamit na pananhi

Halimbawang Pangungusap:
a. Kaya hindi natututo ang tao ay dahil sa kaniyang kapalaluan.
b. Siya’y nagtagumpay dahil sa kaniyang pagsisikap.

4. sa wakas, sa lahat ng ito – panapos

Halimbawang Pangungusap:
a. Sa wakas, nanalo din ang aming pangkat.
b. Sa lahat ng ito, nalaman nila na mahal sila ng kanilang mga magulang.

Mga uri ng pangatnig:

1. Pamukod – ginagamit sa pagbukod o pagtatangi, gaya ng: o, ni, maging, at man.
Halimbawa:
a. Ikaw man o ako ay hindi maghahangad na siya ay mabigo.
b. Batid ko ang pagkapanalo ng ating grupo kung si Roger man ang piliing lider natin.
c. Walang diprensiya sa akin maging si Jose ang magwagi sa paligsahan.

2. Panubali – nagsasabi ito ng pag-aalinlangan, gaya ng: kung, kapag, pag, sakali, disinsana.
Halimbawa:
a. Kung uulan, hindi matutuloy ang ating palatuntunan.
b. Hindi tayo matutuloy sa sine kapag hindi umuwi nang maaga ang tatay.
c. Pag umulan, hindi makakapunta rito si Boyet.
d. Hindi tayo makakahuli ng maraming isda sakaling lumitaw ang buwan.

3. Paninsay – kapag sinasalungat ng unang bahagi ng pangungusap ang ikalawang bahagi

nito. Gaya ng: ngunit, datapwat, subalit, bagaman, samantala, kahiman, kahit.
Halimbawa:
a. Nakatakda siyang umani ng tagumpay kahit (kahit na) maraming naninira sa kanya.
b. Nakatapos si Ramon ng medisina bagaman tindera lang sa palengke ang kanyang ina.
c. Nanalo pa ring musa si Rosa datapwat may mga kaibigang bomoto sa kalaban niya.
d. Maganda nga ang kaibigan mo ngunit suplada naman.

4. Pananhi – nagbibigay ito ng dahilan o katuwiran para sa pagkaganap ng kilos. Ang mga ito
ay: dahil sa, sanhi sa, sapagkat, mangyari.
Halimbawa:
a. Namaos siya dahil sa matagal na pagtatalumpati.
b. Sanhi sa init ng panahon kaya siya nilagnat.
c. Umapaw ang ilog sapagkat walang tigil ang ulan.

5. Panapos – nagsasabi ito ng nalalapit na katapusan ng pagsasalita, gaya ng: upang, sa

lahat ng ito, sa di-kawasa, sa wakas, at sa bagay na ito.
Halimbawa:
a. Sa di-kawasa, ang pulong ay tinapos na.
b. Makukuha ko na rin sa wakas ang inaasam kong promosyon sa trabaho.

6. Panlinaw – ginagamit ito upang ipaliwanag ang bahagi o kabuuan ng isang banggit.
Halimbawa:
a. Nagkasundo na ang mag-asawa, kung gayon magsasama na silang muli.

7. Panimbang – ginagamit sa paghahayag ng karagdagang impormasyon at kaisipan,

gayang: at – saka, pati, kaya, anupa’t.
Halimbawa:
a. Sina Jose at Pedro ay nagtungo sa bukid.
b. Pati ang gamit ng iba ay kanyang iniligtas.

8. Pamanggit – gumagaya o nagsasabi lamang ng iba, tulad ng: daw, raw, sa ganang akin/iyo,
di umano.
Halimabawa:
a. Sa ganang akin, ang iyong plano ay mahusay.
b. Siya raw ang hari ng sablay.
c. Di umano, mahusay umawit si Blanca.

9. Panulad – tumutulad ng mga pangyayari o gawa, tulad ng: kung sino…siyang, kung
ano…siya rin, kung gaano…siya rin.
Halimbawa:
a. Kung ano ang mga nangyayari noon, siya ring mangyayari ngayon
b. Kung sino ang unang tumakbo, siyang mananalo.
Markahan-Modyul 6: Sanaysay
Sanaysay
- ay isang genre ng panitikan na naglalahad ng isang paksa.
- Maaaring ang paraan ng paglalahad ay sa pamamagitan ng pormal o di-pormal na tono.
Dalawang uri ang sanaysay
● Pormal
● Di-pormal
Pormal
- Impersonal tawag sa ibang aklat sa sanaysay na pormal.
- Naghahatid ito ng mahahalagang kaalaman o impormasyon, kaisipang makaagham at
lohikal na pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga ideya.
- Maingat na pinipili ang mga salita at maanyo ang pagkakasulat. Maaari itong maging
makahulugan, matalinhaga at matayutay.
- Ang tono ng pormal na sanaysay ay seryoso at di-nagbibiro.
Di-pormal
- Nagbibigay ito ng kasiyahan sa pamamagitan ng pagtalakay sa mga karaniwan at
pang-araw-araw na paksa.
- Gumagamit ng mga salitang sinasambit sa araw-araw na pakikipag-usap lamang.
Palakaibigan ang tono sapagkat pumapanig sa damdamin at paniniwala ng may akda
ang pananaw nito.

Pang-ugnay
- ay mga salitang nagpapakita ng relasyon ng dalawang salita, parirala, o sugnay.
- Sa pamamagitan ng pantulong na mga salita, malaki ang naitutulong nang
pag-oorganisa ng ideya ang mga pang-ugnay upang mailahad nang maayos ang inyong
opinyon o ideya.
- nauuri sa bilang ng mga salitang pangkayarian.
Ang mga pang-ugnay ay ang sumusunod:
A. Pangatnig (conjuction) - mga salitang nag-uugnay ng dalawang salita, parirala, o sugnay.
Halimbawa: tulad ng, kahit na, dahil sa, kasi, palibhasa, bukod-tangi, at iba pa.
B. Pang-angkop (ligature)-mga katagang nag-uugnay sa panuring at salitang tinuturingan.
Halimbawa: na, ng, at iba pa.
C. Pang-ukol (preposition)-mga salitang nag-uugnay sa isang pangngalan sa iba pang salita.
Halimbawa: ang/si, ng/ni/kay, ayon sa /ayon kay, para sa/para kay, hinggil sa/hinggil kay, at iba
pa.
Dula
- Ito ay nahango sa salitang Griyego ng “drama” na nangangahulugang gawin o ikilos.
- Isang pampanitikang panggagaya sa buhay upang maipamalas sa tanghalan
- Ito ay isang imitasyon o panggagagad ng buhay.
Aristotle
- Ito ay isa sa mga maraming paraan ng pagkukwento
- Rubel

SANGKAP NG DULA
Tagpuan Panahon at pook kung saan naganap ang
mga pangyayaring isinaad sa dula

Tauhan Ang mga kumikilos at nagbibigay-buhay sa

dula; sa tauhan umiikot ang mga pangyayari;
ang mga tauhan ang bumibigkas ng
dayalogo at nagpapadama sa dula

Sulyap sa Suliranin Maaaring mabatid ito sa simula o kalagitnaan

ng dula na nagsasadya sa mga pangyayari;
maaaring magkaroon ng higit na isang
suliranin ang isang dula

Saglit na Kasiglahan Saglit na paglayo o pagtakas ng mga tauhan

sa suliraning nararanasan

Tunggalian Ang tunggalian ay maaaring sa pagitan ng

mga tauhan, tauhan laban sa kanyang
paligid, at tauhan laban sa kanyang sarili;
maaaring magkaroon ng higit sa isa o
patung-patong na tunggalian ang isang dula

Kasukdulan Climax sa Ingles; dito nasusubok ang

katatagan ng tauhan; sa sangkap na ito ng
dula tunay na pinakamatindi o
pinakamabugso ang damdamin o kaya’y sa
pinakakasukdulan ang tunggalian

Kakalasan Ang unti-unting pagtukoy sa kalutasan sa

mga suliranin at pag-ayos sa mga tunggalian

Kalutasan Sa sangkap na ito nalulutas, nawawaksi at

natatapos ang mga suliranin at tunggalian sa
dula

ELEMENTO NG DULA
Iskrip o nakasulat na dula/Banghay (Plot) Ito ang pinakakaluluwa ng isang dula; lahat
ng bagay na isinasaalang-alang sa dula ay
naaayon sa isang iskrip
 Gumaganap o aktor/ Karakter Ang mga aktor o gumaganap ang
nagsasabuhay sa mga tauhan sa iskrip; sila
ang nagbibigkas ng dayalogo

Dayalogo Ang mga bitaw na linya ng mga aktor na

siyang sandata upang maipakita at
maipadama ang mga emosyon

Tanghalan Anumang pook na pinagpasyahang

pagtanghalan ng isang dula ay tinatawag na
tanghalan

Tagadirehe o direktor Ang direktor ang nagpapakahulugan sa isang

iskrip; siya ang nag-i-interpret sa iskrip

Manonood Hindi maituturing na dula ang isang

binansagang pagtanghal kung hindi ito
napanood ng ibang tao.

TEMA Ang pinakapaksa ng isang dula.

Eksena at tagpo Ang eksena ay ang paglabas-masok sa

tanghalan ng mga tauhan

Ang tagpo nama’y ang pagpapalit o ang iba’t

ibang tagpuan na pinangyarihan ng mga
pangyayari sa dula.

PAGTATANGHAL NG DULA
AKROSTIK na pinakabatayan habang ika’y nasa tanghalan
.
S – seen before heard ( makita muna bago marinig)
T – talk in projection ( magsalita na may tamang tindig)
A – act realistically ( Umarte nang totoo)
G – give your all ( Ibigay ang lahat)
E – exaggerate (Eksaherado)

PAG-ARTE
Pagpasok Dito kailangang maipakita ng aktor na siya ay
mula sa tiyak na lugar na may tiyak na
layunin at nasa tiyak na pag-iisip dahil ang
unang impresyon na kanyang ibibigay sa
mga manonood ay ang kanyang susi sa
papel na kanyang gagampanan. Kailangang
maisaisip at maisapuso niya ang kanyang
katauhan bago pa man siya papasok.
Diin at Balanse sa Entablado Ang direktor ang magtuturo sa tamang
posisyon sa entablado ngunit ang actor ay
maaring tumulong sa pamamagitan ng
pagtatanda sa kanyang dapat na posisyon.
Kapag natatakpan ang ibang tauhan, ang
taong nasa likod ang kikilos upang isaayos
ang posisyon.

Posisyon at Paggalaw Walang kilos o galaw ang dapat na gawin na

walang dahilan. Ang bawat kilos o galaw ay
may kahulugan. Ang pag-upo o pagtayo ay
dapat naaayon pa rin sa papel na
ginagampanan. Ang dalawang mag-uusap ay
kailangang magtinginan paminsan-minsan.
Tingnan nang diretso ang bagay na pupulutin,
ang lugar na pupuntahan o ang taong
kakausapin. Huwag na huwag tumalikod sa
mga manonood.

Linya at Palatandaan Dapat kabisado o saulado ang linyang

bibigkasin. Kailangan ding malinaw, buo at
malakas ang boses ng mga actor sa
pag-uusap. Ang “pag-aadlib” ay para lamang
sa kagipitan upang maiwasan ang
katahimikan.

Mga Kawani ng Produksyon

Katulong ng Direktor Siya ay papalit sa direktor kung ito ay wala at

magsisilbing tagapag – ugnay sa iba pang
kawani ng produksyon.

Tagapagdikta Siya ay hahawak ng isang “prompt book” at

mamarkahan niya ang mga bagay na
kailangang tandaan ng mga actor tulad ng
kumpas, mga tunog, pagbukas o pagpatay ng
ilaw at iba pa.

Tagadisenyo ng Tanghalan magdidisenyo ng lugar na gaganapan ng

dula, ng mga kasuotan at mga mga ilaw sa
tanghalan.

Direktor Teknikal siya ang magmanipula sa lahat ng mga ilaw,

musika, mga espesyal na tunog at iba pang
may kaugnayan sa kuryente. Siya ay
makikipagtulungan din sa mga
paghahandang ginagawa ng tagadisenyo ng
Tagpuan.na maayos ang buong entablado na
 pagtatanghalan. Siya rin ang mamamahala
sa likod ng entablado sa posibleng kagipitang
mangyayari.

Ang mag-aayos ng mga upuan ng mga

Tagapamahala ng Tanghalan manonood.

MGA URI NG DULA

KOMEDYA
- magaan sa loob, walang iyakan at ang bida ay laging nagtatagumpay.
TRAHEDYA
- Kapag malungkot at kung minsan pa ay nauuwi sa isang matinding pagkabigo at
pagkamatay ng bida.
PARSA
- Kapag puro tawanan at walang saysay ang kwento at ang mga aksyon ay puro
“slapstick” na walang ibang ginaa kundi magpaluan at maghampasan at magbitiw ng
mga kababalbalan.
PARODYA
- Mapanudyo, ginagaya ang kakatwang ayos, kilosm pagsasalita at pag-uugali ng tao
bilang isang anyo ng pamumuna.
KOMEDYA o Moro-moro
- ang banghay nito ay natutungkol sa paglalabanan ng mga Kristiyano at mga Moro o
Muslim.
SARSWELA
- dulang may kantahan at sayawan, na mayroong isa hanggang limang kabanata, at
nagpapakita ng mga sitwasyon ng Pilipino na may kinalaman sa mga kwento ng pag-ibig
at kontemporaryong isyu.

MGA DULA SA PANAHON NG KASTILA

PANUNULUYAN
- itinatanghal sa lansangan at nagpapamalas ng paghahanap ng pansamantalang tirahan
nina Maria at Jose doon sa Bethlehem.
SENAKULO
- hinggil sa mga dinanas ni Hesukristo bago at pagkaraang ipako siya sa krus.
SALUBONG
- prusisyon na ginaganap sa madaling-araw ng Linggo ng Pagkabuhay.
TIBAG
- tungkol sa paghahanap ni Sta. Elena sa mahal na Sta. Cruz na kinamatayan ni Kristo.
SANAYSAY URI, SANGKAP at BAHAGI
- "nakasulat na karanasan ng isang sanay sa pagsasalaysay. ang sanaysay ay nagmula
sa 2 salita, ang sanay atpagsasalaysay. –Alejandro G. Abadilla
- panitikang tuluyan na nagalalahad ng kuru-kuro, damdamin, kaisipan, saloobin,
reaksyon at iba pa ng manunulat hinggil sa isang makabuluhan, mahalaga at
napapanahong paksa o isyu.
- isang piraso ng sulatin na kadalasang naglalaman ng punto de vista (pananaw) ng may
katha
- Maaaring magkaroon ng mga elemento ng pagpuna, opinyon, impormasyon,
obserbasyon, kuru-kuro,pang-araw-araw na pangyayari, ala-ala ng nakaraan at
pagmumuni-muning isang tao.
- Ay isang komposisyon na prosa na may iisang diwa at pananaw
- Isang sistematikong paraan upang maipaliwanag angisang bagay o pangyayari.

URI NG SANAYSAY
Pormal
- Impersonal tawag sa ibang aklat sa sanaysay na pormal.
- Naghahatid ito ng mahahalagang kaalaman o impormasyon, kaisipang makaagham at
lohikal na pagkakasunod-sunod ng mga ideya.
- Maingat na pinipili ang mga salita at maanyo ang pagkakasulat. Maaari itong maging
makahulugan, matalinhaga at matayutay.
- Ang tono ng pormal na sanaysay ay seryoso at di-nagbibiro.
Di-pormal
- Nagbibigay ito ng kasiyahan sa pamamagitan ng pagtalakay sa mga karaniwan at
pang-araw-araw na paksa.
- Gumagamit ng mga salitang sinasambit sa araw-araw na pakikipag-usap lamang.
Palakaibigan ang tono sapagkat pumapanig sa damdamin at paniniwala ng may akda
ang pananaw nito.

SANGKAP NG SANAYSAY
Tema at Nilalaman anuman ang nilalaman ng isang sanaysay
ay itinuturing na paksa dahil sa layunin
sapagkakasulat nitoat kaisipang ibinahagi.

Anyo at Istruktura ang anyo at istruktura ng sanaysay ay isang

mahalagang sangkap sapagkat nakaaapekto
ito sa pagkaunawa ng mga mambabasa, ang
maayos na pagkakasunud-sunod ng ideya o
pangyayari ay makatutulong sa mambabasa
sa pagkaunawa sa
sanaysay.

Wika at Istilo ang uri at antas ng wika at istilo ng

pagkakagamit
nito ay nakaapekto rin sa pagkaunawa ng
mambabasa, higt na mabuting gumamit ng
 simple, natural at matapat na mga pahayag.

BAHAGI NG SANAYSAY

Panimula Ang pinakamahalagang bahagi ng isang

sanaysay sapagkat ito ang unag titingnan ng
mga mambabasa, dapat nakapupukaw ng
atansyon ang panimula upangipagpatuloy ng
mamababasa ang pagbasa sa akda.

Katawan Sa bahaging ito ang sanaysaya makikita ang

pagtalakay sa mahahalagang puntos ukol sa
tema at nilalaman ng sanaysay, dapat
ipaliwanag nang mabuti ang bawat puntos
upang maunawaan ito ng maigi ng
mambabasa.

Wakas nagsasara a talakayang naganap sa

katawan ng sanaysay. Sa bahaging ito
nahahamon ang pag-iisip ng mambabasa
na maisakatuparan ang mga tinalakay ng
sanaysay.

Tuwiran na pahayag
- Kilala bilang “direct speech” sa wikang Ingles
- Ito ang tawag sa pahayag na mismong ang nagsasalita ang nagsambit ng nasabing
pahayag
- Ginagamitan ng mga bantas na panipi (“ “)

Di-Tuwiran na pahayag
- Kilala bilang “inderict speech” sa wikang Ingles
- Ito ang tawag sa pahayag na may ibang taong nagsabi ng sinabi ng nagsasalita.
Halimbawa:
1. “Ang mga nananalo ay isang nagmimithi na hindi nawawalan ng pag-asa.”
- Nelson Mandela
Hindi Tuwirang Pahayag:
Sinabi ni Nelson Mandela na ang mga nananalo ay isang nagmithi na hindi nawalan ng
pag-asa.

2. “Kapag ang mga tao ay determinado, sila’y may kakayahan na malampasan ang lahat.”
- Nelson Mandela
Hindi Tuwirang Pahayag:
Sinambit ni Nelson Mandela na kapag ang mga tao ay determinado, sila’y may kakayahan na
malampasan ang lahat.

Kaisipan Mga ideyang nabanggit na kaugnay o panlinaw

sa tema.

Larawan ng Buhay Nilalarawan ang buhay sa isang

makatotohanang salaysay, masining na
paglalahad na gumagamit ng sariling himig ang
may akda.

Damdamin Naipapahayag ang isang magaling na

may-akda ang kaniyang damdamin nang may
kaangkupan at kawastuhan sa paraang may
kalawakan at kaganapan.

Himig Naipapahiwatig ng kulay o kalikasan ng

damdamin. Maaaring masaya, malungkot,
mapanudyo at iba pa.
Arts 9 - Quarter 1: Western Classical Art Traditions on Sculpture
PREHISTORIC SCULPTURES
- Materials used in sculptures vary according to region and locality. Archeologists believed
that their sculpture is a result of natural erosion and not of human artistry. Frequently
carving may have mythological or religious significance.
Venus of Willendorf 28,000 B.C.E. – 25,000 B.C.E Image from Treasures of the World, 1961
CCP Library
- It is carved from limestone with excessively heavy breast and abdomen used as charm
to ensure fertility
Venus of Brassempouy Museed’ArchéologieNationale at Saint-Germain- enlaye 25,000 years
old Image from Treasures of the World, 1961 CCP Library
- A sculpture of a lady with the hood. It is a fragmentary ivory figurine from the Upper
Paleolithic era that realistically represents the human face and hairstyle

SCULPTURES FROM THE EGYPTIAN ERA

- Symbolic elements were widely used such as forms, hieroglyphics, relative size,
location, materials, color, actions, and gestures. Their tombs required the most extensive
use of sculpture.
Queen Nefertiti, painted limestone 18th Dynasty, 1375-1357 BC Image from Treasures of the
World
- Realistic, with heavy lidded eyes, slender neck, determined chin and pure profile
under her heavy crown. Queen refers to the Great Royal wife of the Egyptian pharaoh.
The Pharoah Menkaure and his Queen, stone 4th Dynasty, 2548 - 2530 B.C.E. Image from
Treasures of the World,
- An example of portraits presented in rigid postures and were simple and powerful with
very little show of private emotion.

Sculptures from Classical Art: Greek and Roman

- Early Greek sculptures were tense and stiff, their bodies were hidden within enfolding
robes. After three centuries of experiments, Greek sculptures had finally evolved and
showed all the points of human anatomy and proportion. One of the most popular styles
of the Greek sculptures was the Hellenistic style.
Hellenistic
- denotes a preference in sculpture for more elaborated patterns, mannered arrangement
of figures and groups, and an emphasis on the representation of movement for dramatic
effects.
Myron; The Discobulus, 450 BC Image from Treasures of the World, 1961 CCP Library.
- Shows an attitude of maximum tension, full of compressed energy, and about to explode
an action.

ROMAN SCULPTURES
- Most Roman sculptures are made of monumental terra-cotta. They did not attempt to
compete with the free-standing Greek works of history or mythology but rather they
produced reliefs in the Great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs
around
The Portonacio Sarcophagus between 180-190 BCE Museu Nationale Romano
- Used for the burial of Roman General involved in the campaign of Marcus Aurellius.
- The best known and most elaborate of all “sarcophagus” (It is a box liked funeral
receptacle for a dead body. Comes from a Greek word “sarx” meaning flesh and
“phagein” meaning “to eat”)
- It depicts battle scenes between Romans and Germans
- Carved in marble
Sarcopagus, from cervetiri, c. 520 BCE, Museo Nazionale de Villa Giulia, Rome Image
from Treasures of the World,
- Made of Terra Cot
- length 6’7” (2.06 m)
- a husband and wife are shown reclining comfortably, as if they were on a couch.
Sculptures from Medieval Art: Byzantine, Romanesque, and Gothic
BYZANTINE SCULPTURE
- The dominant themes in Byzantine sculptures are religious, everyday life scenes,
and motifs from nature.
- Animals were used as symbols (dove, deer, peafowl) while some had acrostic signs
(form of writing in which taking the first letter; syllable or word of different lines and
putting them together it can be read a message) that contained a great theological
significance
The Barberini Diptych
- an early example of Byzantine Ivory work.
What political and religious messages are communicated by the Barberini Ivory?
- It shows the Emperor Justinian riding a horse having the right to rule causing his
enemies to hide in fear with Christ blessing him. . Below Justinian are people that
represent Prosperity. Also, it represent both state and religion rule.

ROMANESQUE SCULPTURE
- Some of the famous sculptural pieces are reliquaries, altar frontals, crucifixes, and
devotional images. Small individual works of art were generally made of costly materials
for royal and aristocratic patrons. These lightweight devotional images were usually
carried in the processions both inside and outside the churches
Last Judgement
- Tympanum (an architectural element within the arch or pediment) of the west portal,
Cathedral of Saint Lazare, Autun Burgundy France, c. 1120-35 by Gislebertus

GOTHIC SCULPTURES
- Gothic sculptures have a greater freedom of style. They no longer lay closely against the
wall but begun to project outward. Figures were given their own particular attitudes
instead of being set into patterns and are much livelier and realistic.
Resurrection of the Virgin
- end of the 12th century Cathedral Amiens

- Prehistoric to medieval arts have very rich characteristics, also have specific functions in
their lives and beliefs, very modern and accurate in their designs, and the key in
understanding how the people at the early age live their lives.
Music of the Medieval Period (700 – 1400)
- The Medieval period is also known as the Middle Ages or ―Dark Ages that started with
the fall of the Roman Empire. During this time, the Christian Church influenced Europe’s
culture and political affairs.
- Monophonic plainchant was named after Pope Gregory I, who made this the approved
music of the Catholic Church. Pope Gregory’s action made monophonic plainchants
popular. Although it was originally transmitted orally, scholars agreed to put it in notation
to assist dissemination of chants across Europe.
Characteristics of the Gregorian Chants:
● Monophonic
● Free meter
● Modal
● Usually based on Latin liturgy
● Use of Neume notation
- During the latter part of the Medieval Period, secular music which was not bound by
Catholic traditions emerged. Most of these songs were performed across Europe by
groups of musicians called Troubadours.
Troubadour Music:
● Usually, monophonic
● Sometimes with improvised accompaniment
● Tells of chivalry and courtly love
● Originated in France
● Written in the French language

Famous composer of the Medieval Period

Adam de la Halle France, 1237 - 1288
- Adam de la Halle was also known as Adam le Bossu (Adam the Hunchback). He was
the son of a well – known citizen of Arras, Henri de la Halle. He received his education at
the Cistercian Abbey of Vaucelles, near Cambral. Adam was destined for the church, but
he eventually married. His patrons were Robert II, Count of Artois, and Charles of Anjou,
brother of Louis IX
- Adam was one of the oldest secular composers whose literary and musical works
include chansons and poetic debates. He was a trouvére, poet and musician, whose
literary and musical works include chansons and jeuxpartis (poetic debates) in the style
of the trouveres, polyphonic rondel and motets in the style of early liturgical polyphony.
His musical play, ―Jeu de Robin et Marion‖ was considered the earliest surviving
secular French play with music.
His works include:
1. Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion
2. La Chanson du roi de Sicile

Music of the Renaissance Period (1400 – 1600)

- The term ―Renaissance comes from the word ―”renaitre” which means “rebirth,
―revival, and ―rediscovery. The Renaissance Period is a period of ―looking back‖ to
the Golden Age of Greece and Rome. The invention of printing in the 1400’s paved the
way for a wide distribution of renaissance compositions. With the emergence of the
bourgeois class, renaissance music became popular as entertainment and activity for
amateurs and the educated. Lute was the prominent instrument of the renaissance era.
The influence of the Roman Catholic Church started to decline as the new music genre
arose. Though sacred music was still of great importance, secular music became more
prominent in the renaissance period. This era was also known as the ―golden age‖ of a
capella choral music.
- Other historical facts during this era is the discovery of the actual position of earth in the
solar system by Copernicus, the invention of compass creating a wider navigation not
only of the lands but also of the oceans, and Martin Luther’s Protestant reformation.
Characteristics of Renaissance Music:
● Mostly polyphonic
● Imitation among the voices is common
● Use of word painting in texts and music
● Melodic lines move in a flowing manner
● Melodies are easier to perform

Vocal Music of the Renaissance Period

1. Mass – is a form of sacred musical composition that sets texts of the Eucharistic liturgy into
music.
Characteristics of the Mass:
1. Polyphonic
2. May be sung a cappella or with orchestral accompaniment
3. Text may be syllabic (one note set to each syllable), neumatic (a few notes set to one
syllable), or melismatic (many notes to one syllable)

Vocal Music of the Renaissance Period

Five Main Sections of Mass:
1. Kyrie (Lord Have Mercy)
2. Gloria (Glory to God in the Highest)
3. Credo (I Believe in One God)
4. Sanctus and Benedictus (Holy, holy and Blessed Is He)
5. Agnus Dei (Lamb of God)

2. Madrigal - A secular vocal polyphonic music composition which originated from Italy. It is
written and expressed in a poetic text and sung during courtly social gatherings. It is the most
important secular form during the Renaissance period.
Characteristics of the Madrigal:
1. Polyphonic
2. Sung a cappella
3. Through–composed
4. Frequently in 3 to 6 voices

Famous composers of the Renaissance Period

1. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Rome, 1525 - February 2, 1594
- Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina is said to be the greatest master of Roman
Catholic Church music during the Renaissance period. Majority of his
compositions are sacred music. He was committed to sacred music and has a
keen interest in satisfying the desires of church leaders in the sixteenth century.
Palestrina’s Pope Marcellus Mass is held up as the perfect example of counter -
reformation style. Kyrie is part of the first two sections of the Pope Marcellus
Mass.
- His career reflects his commitment to the music of the church. He received his
early training and spent the majority of his career in various churches in Rome,
including the pope’s chapel. He was as an organist and choir master at both the
Sistine Chapel and at St. Peter's which may have influenced his distinctively pure
and restrained style in musical compositions. Palestrina also served as an
organist in St. Agapito. His first book Masses became popular and was greatly
appreciated by Pope Julius III
- Palestrina has two sons but lost them both during the plague epidemic that struck
Rome in 1570’s. He had planned to become a priest but eventually changed his
mind and married a wealthy widow. This improved his wealth and enabled him to
pursue a musical career for the rest of his life.

2. Thomas Morley, 1557 - 1602

- Morley was born in Norwich, East England, the son of a brewer. He was a singer
in the local cathedral from his boyhood, and he became master of choristers
there in 1583.Thomas Morley was the most famous composer of secular music in
his time. He was a singer in the local cathedral during his childhood and was
believed to have studied music with William Byrd, an Elizabethan composer of
sacred music. He received his Bachelor’s degree in Oxford and became an
organist at St. Paul’s in London.
 - He tried imitating Byrd in his early works but veered towards composing
madrigals that show a variety of color, form and technique. Most of his madrigals
are light and easy to sing with some aspects of Italian style. His Musica
Transalpina, a collection of Italian madrigals fitted with English text, was
published in 1588 by Nicholas Yonge. Shortly after, he began publishing his own
collections of madrigals and made significant contribution to the history of music.
His works include:
Sing and Chant It
● Fantasie
● April Is In My Mistress‟ Face
● It Was A Lover and His Lass
● Fire, Fire, My Heart

Music of the Baroque Period (1685 – 1750)

- The word Baroque is derived from the Portuguese word ―barroco” which means ―pearl
of irregular shape. Some of the great composers of this time were George Friedrich
Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach, Claudio Monteverdi, and Antonio Vivaldi.
- During this time, the arts highlighted grandiose and elaborate ornamentation. These
were clearly seen in the musical compositions created by Baroque composers.
- New instrumental techniques and changes in musical notation were developed. Major
and minor tonality was also created in this period. A lot of the musical terms and
concepts that evolved in this era are still used today.
Characteristics of Baroque Music:
● Melodies sound elaborate and ornamental
● Melodies are not easy to sing or remember
● Primarily contrapuntal textures with some homophony Dynamic contrast – alternation
between loud and soft
● Music genres—operas, oratorios, suites, tocatas, concertó grosso, fugue
● Orchestra consists of strings and continuo
● Harpsichord and organ are the keyboard instruments that are commonly used

Music Genres of Baroque Music

1. Concerto – A form of orchestral music that employs a solo instrument accompanied by an
orchestra.
2. Concerto Grosso - A form of orchestral music during the Baroque Period wherein the
music is between a small group of solo instruments called concertino and the whole orchestra
called tutti.
3. Fugue
• A contrapuntal piece, developed mainly by imitative counterpoint.
• It is usually written in 3 or 4 parts, with a main theme called ―subject
• The entire piece grows mainly from a single brief tune of strong musical character.
4. Oratorio – a large scale musical composition for orchestra and voices that incorporates
narratives on religious themes. Unlike usual theatrical works, this is usually performed without
the use of costumes, scenery, or action. It is usually written in the native language for the
intended audience.
Examples:
A. Handel's ―”Messiah”, “Samson”, “Israel”, and “Egypt”
B. Bach’s “Christmas Oratorio”
C. Haydn’s “The Creation
5. Chorale – musical compositions that resemble a harmonized version of hymnal tunes of the
Protestant Church during the Baroque era.

Famous composers of the Baroque Period

1. Johann Sebastian Bach
Born: Germany March 21, 1685, Died: July 28, 1750
- J.S. Bach came from a family of musicians. He was taught to play violin by his father
who was then the town musician in Eisanach. He entered school at age 7 where he was
taught religion and other subjects. He became orphaned at age ten. His brother, a
 church organist provided for him. Bach’s beautiful soprano singing voice helped him to
be accepted at a school in Luӥeberg. A few years later, his voice changed, and Bach
focused his attention to playing the violin and harpsichord.
- Bach was a religious man. His personal and deep faith is shown in his sacred music. He
was known for his compositions for organ, orchestra, and oratorio. His most important
and long – term position was as ―cantor” at St. Thomas Church.
His works include:
● Concerto Grosso
● Masses
● Cantatas
● Fugues and Toccata and Fugue in D minor
● Works for clavichord and harpsichord e.g. Well-Tempered Clavier (one of his more well
known ketboard improvisations)
2. Antonio Vivaldi, Venice, March 4, 1678 to Vienna, July 28, 1741
- Antonio Lucio Vivaldi , nicknamed il Prete Rosso ("The Red Priest") because of his red
hair, was an Italian Baroque composer, Catholic priest and a virtuoso violinist.
Recognized as one of the greatest Baroque composers, his influence during his lifetime
was widespread over Europe. Vivaldi is known mainly for composing instrumental
concertos, especially for the violin, as well as sacred choral works and over forty operas.
He entered the priesthood and was ordained in 1703. Vivaldi is well known for giving the
strings a major role in his compositions.
- His most famous piece is The Four Seasons. This composition is a series of four violin
concerti depicting each of the seasons, “Spring”, “Summer”, “Autumn”, and “Winter”
3. George Friedrich Händel Germany, February 23, 1685, London, April 14, 1759
- George Händel was the second son from the second marriage of a pastor. Despite his
father’s opposition, George secretly taught himself to play the harpsichord. At age 7, he
gained access to a church organ and started to play. A Duke heard him play and insisted
on giving him a formal music education. Under Zachau, organist of Halle cathedral, he
studied counterpoint, canon and fugue.
- Händel is remembered for his operas and oratorios. Handel became England’s favorite
composer. He had given English audiences music that in variety and interest rivalled
anything they could remember. Handel lost both of his eyesight in 1753. When he
conducted his oratorio, ―Samson,” a few in the audience were unaware that he had lost
his eyesight. The Messiah is Hӓndel’s most famous creation and the very well known
―Hallelujah‖ chorus is part of Hӓndel’s Messiah.
- The Messiah was written in the space of twenty – four days in London but it was in
Dublin when The Messiah was first performed and became an instant success.
What are modal verbs?
Modal verbs are used to express certain hypothetical conditions, such as advice, capability, or
requests (there’s a full list in the next section). They’re used alongside a main verb to change its
meaning slightly. Because they’re auxiliary verbs, they can’t necessarily be used on their own.
(A modal verb should only appear alone if it’s clear from context what the main verb is.)

Modal verbs are quite common in English, and you’ve probably seen them hundreds of
times without actually knowing their name. The most frequently used ones are:
● can ● should
● may ● would
● might ● will
● could ● must
What is Conditional sentence?
- Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical
situations and their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a conditional
clause (often referred to as the if-clause) and the consequence.
- A conditional statement has two parts: hypothesis (if) and conclusion (then).
Two types of conditional sentence
1. Realistic Conditional sentence
- Real Conditional is used to talk about what you normally do in real-life situations.

2. Unrealistic Conditional sentence

- unreal conditional sentences represent events that haven't happened and are unlikely or
impossible.
What is Cohesive devices?
- Cohesive devices, sometimes called linking words, linkers, connectors, discourse
markers or transitional words, are one of the most misunderstood and misused parts of
IELTS Writing.
- Cohesive devices are words or phrases used to connect ideas between different parts of
text.
- Cohesive devices are words and expressions that show relationships between parts of
text and ideas, such as cause and effect, time, addition, or comparison and contrast.
The Three Appeals of Argument
1. Logical Appeal (logos)
- Logical appeal is the strategic use of logic, claims, and evidence to convince an
audience of a certain point.
When used correctly, logical appeal contains the following elements…
● Strong, clear claims
● Reasonable qualifiers for claims
● Warrants that are valid
● Clear reasons for claims
● Strong evidence (facts, statistics, personal experience, expert authority, interviews,
observations, anecdotes)
● Acknowledgement of the opposition

2. Ethical Appeal (ethos)

- Ethical appeal is used to establish the writer as fair, open-minded, honest, and
knowledgeable about the subject matter. The writer creates a sense of him or herself as
trustworthy and credible.
When used correctly, the writer is seen as...
● Well-informed about the topic
● Confident in his or her position
● Sincere and honest
● Understanding of the reader's concerns and possible objections
● Humane and considerate

3. Emotional Appeal (pathos)

- Not surprisingly, emotional appeals target the emotions of the reader to create some kind
of connection with the writer. Since humans are in many ways emotional creatures,
pathos can be a very powerful strategy in argument. For this same reason, however,
emotional appeal is often misused...sometimes to intentionally mislead readers or to hide
an argument that is weak in logical appeal. A lot of visual appeal is emotional in nature
(think of advertisements, with their powerful imagery, colors, fonts, and symbols).
When done well, emotional appeals...
● Reinforce logical arguments
● Use diction and imagery to create a bond with the reader in a human way
● Appeal to idealism, beauty, humor, nostalgia, or pity (or other emotions) in a balanced
way
● Are presented in a fair manner
What is communication?
- Communication is the sending and receiving of information and can be one-on-one or
between groups of people, and can be face-to-face or through communication devices.
- Communication requires a sender, the person who initiates communication, to transfer
their thoughts or encode a message. This message is sent to the receiver, a person who
receives the message, and finally, the receiver must decode, or interpret the message.
3 elements of Communictaion
● Speaker
● Listener
● Language
5 types of communicative style
Types of Description Application Example
Speech Styles

Frozen/Fixed -Formal rigid and static -Formal settings and -Presidential speech
Style language, reliant on important -Anthem
expertise ceremonies. -School creed
-The Lord’s prayer.
-Particular vocabulary, -Speaker to an
previously agreed upon, audience without
that rejects slang. response.

Formal Style -Formal language -Speaking and writing -Formal meetings

in formal and -Corporate meetings
-Particular, previously professional settings, -Court
agreed upon vocabulary to medium to large
-Speeches and
yet more allowing of groups of people
slang, contractions, presentations
ellipses and qualifying -Speaking and writing -Interviews
modal adverbials to strangers, figures -Classes.
of authority,
-Writing and speaking. professionals and
elders.

Consultative Style -Semi-formal vocabulary -Two-way -Group discussions

-Unplanned and reliant communication and -Teacher-student
on the listener’s dialogue, between communication
responses two or more people,
-Expert-apprentice
-May include slang, without intimacy or
contractions, ellipses and acquaintanceship. communication
qualifying modal -Work colleagues
adverbials. communication
-Employer-employee
communication
-Talking to a stranger.

Casual Style -Casual, flexible and -Relaxed and casual -Chats with friends
informal vocabulary environments and family
 -Casual phone calls
-Unplanned and without -Two or more people or text messages.
a particular order with familiarity and a
relatively close
-May include slang, relationship.
contractions, ellipses and
qualifying modal
adverbials.

Intimate Style -Casual and relaxed -Intimate settings, -Chats between best
vocabulary. relaxed and casual friends, boyfriend and
-Incorporates nonverbal environments girlfriend, siblings and
and personal language other family
-Two or more people
codes (terms of members, whether in
endearment, new with an intimate messages, phone
expressions with shared bond. calls, or personally.
meaning).

-May include slang,

contractions, ellipses and
qualifying modal
adverbials.

What is composition?
- A composition takes several ideas and puts them in an order so readers can understand
an idea or argument.
- In most English classes, compositions can be called an essay, report, presentation or a
term paper. Compositions are composed of different elements, such as. Questions to be
asked and answered.

What are the parts of composition?

● Introduction
● Body
● Conclusion

What is literature?
- Written material such as poetry, novels, essays, etc, esp works of imagination
characterized by excellence of style and expression and by themes of general or
enduring interest

What is the purpose of writing?

● to inform
● to entertain
● to explain
● to persuade.
What is an argumentative essay?
- An argumentative essay uses evidence and facts to support the claim it's making apart
from the writer's thoughts and opinions to make strong reasoning.

Claim
- Claims are statements about what is true or good or about what should be done or
believed.
- Claims of fact attempt to establish that something is or is not the case. Claims of value
attempt to establish the overall worth, merit, or importance of something.
Three types of claims:
● Fact
● Value
● Policy

Evidence
- Evidence refers to facts, documentation or testimony used to strengthen a claim, support
an argument or reach a conclusion.

Burden of proof
- The burden of proof refers to which side in a debate must prove the established view is
wrong.
- In critical thinking, the burden of proof that we require in an argument is based on the
Law of Parsimony or Occam's Razor that states that the simplest explanation that best
explains the facts tends to be the right one.
What are the burden of proof?
● "beyond a reasonable doubt"
● "preponderance of the evidence"
● "clear and convincing"
Conditional sentences
- In all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed.
- In zero conditional sentences, you can replace "if" with "when", because both express general
truths. The meaning will be unchanged.
1. Zero Conditional
FORM
- In zero conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present.
If clause (condition) Main clause (result)

If + simple present simple present

If this thing happens that thing happens.

Examples
● If you heat ice, it melts.
● Ice melts if you heat it.
● When you heat ice, it melts.
● Ice melts when you heat it.
● If it rains, the grass gets wet.
● The grass gets wet if it rains.
● When it rains, the grass gets wet.
● The grass gets wet when it rains.
FUNCTION
- zero conditional is used to make statements about the real world, and often refers to general
truths, such as scientific facts.
- In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible.
Examples
● If you freeze water, it becomes a solid.
● Plants die if they don't get enough water.
● If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.
● If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars.
● If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
- The zero conditional is also often used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main
clause.
Examples
● If Bill phones, tell him to meet me at the cinema.
● Ask Pete if you're not sure what to do.
● If you want to come, call me before 5:00.
● Meet me here if we get separated.

2. Type 1 conditional
FORM
- In a type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the "if" clause is the simple present, and the tense
in the main clause is the simple future.
If clause (condition) Main clause (result)

If + simple present simple future

If this thing happens that thing will happen.

Examples
● If it rains, you will get wet.
● You will get wet if it rains.
● If Sally is late again I will be mad.
● I will be mad if Sally is late again.
● If you don't hurry, you will miss the bus.
● You will miss the bus if you don't hurry.
FUNCTION
- In type 1 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of the future
tense to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
Examples
● If you drop that glass, it might break.
● I may finish that letter if I have time.
● If he calls you, you should go.
● If you buy my school supplies for me, I will be able to go to the park.

3. Type 2 conditional
FORM
- In a type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the "if" clause is the simple past, and the tense in
the main clause is the present conditional or the present continuous conditional.
-
If clause (condition) Main clause (result)

If + simple past present conditional or present continuous

conditional

If this thing happened that thing would happen.

Examples
● If it rained, you would get wet.
● You would get wet if it rained.
● If you went to bed earlier you wouldn't be so tired.
● You wouldn't be so tired if you went to bed earlier.
● If she fell, she would hurt herself.
● She would hurt herself if she fell.
FUNCTION
- The type 2 conditional refers to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result.
- These sentences are not based on the actual situation.
- In type 2 conditional sentences, the time is now or any time and the situation is hypothetical.
Examples
● If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park. (But the weather is bad so we can't
go.)
● If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone a chicken. (But I am not the Queen.)
● If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring.
● If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.
- It is correct, and very common, to say "if I were" instead of "if I was" (subjunctive mood).
Examples
● If I were taller, I would buy this dress.
● If I were 20, I would travel the world.
● If I were you, I would give up smoking.
● If I were a plant, I would love the rain.
- In type 2 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would"
to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
Examples
● We might buy a larger house if we had more money
● He could go to the concert if you gave him your ticket.
● If he called me, I couldn't hear.
The present conditional tense
- The present conditional of any verb is composed of two elements: would + the infinitive of the
main verb, without "to"

To Go: present conditional

4. Type 3 conditional
FORM
- In a type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the "if" clause is the past perfect, and the tense in
the main clause is the perfect conditional or the perfect continuous conditional.

If clause (condition) Main clause (result)

If + past perfect perfect conditional or perfect continuous

conditional

If this thing had happened that thing would have happened.

Examples
● If it had rained, you would have gotten wet.
● You would have gotten wet if it had rained.
● You would have passed your exam if you had worked harder.
● If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.
● I would have believed you if you hadn't lied to me before.
● If you hadn't lied to me before, I would have believed you.
FUNCTIONS
- The type 3 conditional refers to an impossible condition in the past and its probable result in the
past.
- These sentences are truly hypothetical and unreal, because it is now too late for the condition or
its result to exist.
- There is always some implication of regret with type 3 conditional sentences. The reality is the
opposite of, or contrary to, what the sentence expresses.
- In type 3 conditional sentences, the time is the past and the situation is hypothetical.
Examples
● If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam. (But I didn't work hard, and I didn't
pass the exam.)
 ● If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake. (But I didn't know and I didn't
bake a cake.)
● I would have been happy if you had called me on my birthday. (But you didn't call me and I
am not happy.)
- In type 3 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would"
to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
Examples
● If I had worked harder I might have passed the exam.
● You could have been on time if you had caught the bus.
● If he called you, you could go.
● If you bought my school supplies for me, I might be able to go to the park.
Contractions
- Both would and had can be contracted to 'd, which can be confusing if you are not confident
with type 3 conditional sentences. Remember 2 rules:
1. would never appear in the if-clause so if 'd appears in the if clause, it must be abbreviated had.
2. had never appeared before have so if 'd appears on a pronoun just before have, it must be
abbreviated would.
Examples
● If I'd known you were in hospital, I'd have visited you.
● If I had known you were in hospital, I would have visited you.
● I'd have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday.
● I would have bought you a present if I had known it was your birthday.
● If you'd given me your e-mail, I'd have written to you.
● If you had given me your e-mail, I would have written to you.
The perfect conditional tense
- The perfect conditional of any verb is composed of three elements:would + have + past
participle
- Have followed by the past participle is used in other constructions as well. it is called the
"perfect infinitive".

To Go: perfect conditional

5. Mixed conditional
- It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the
resulting sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional
sentence.
Present result of a past condition
FORM
- In this type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the
tense in the main clause is the present conditional.
-

If clause (condition) Main clause (result)

If + past perfect present conditional

If this thing had happened that thing would happen.

Examples
● If I had worked harder at school, I would have a better job now.
● I would have a better job now if I had worked harder at school.
● If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.
● We wouldn't be lost if we had looked at the map.
● If you had caught that plane you would be dead now.
● You would be dead now if you had caught that plane.
FUNCTIONS
- This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the
present.
- These sentences express a situation which is contrary to reality both in the past and in the
present.
- In these mixed conditional sentences, the time is the past in the "if" clause and in the present in
the main clause.
Examples
● If I had studied I would have my driving license. (but I didn't study and now I don't have my
license)
● I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job. (but I didn't take the job and I'm not a
millionaire)
 ● If you had spent all your money, you wouldn't buy this jacket. (but you didn't spend all
your money and now you can buy this jacket)
- In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of
would to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome
Examples
● If you had crashed the car, you might be in trouble.
● I could be a millionaire now if I had invested in ABC Plumbing.
● If I had learned to ski, I might be on the slopes right now.
Past result of present or continuing condition
FORM
- In this second type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past,
and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional.
-

If clause (condition) Main clause (result)

If + simple past perfect conditional

If this thing happened that thing would have happened.

Examples
● If I wasn't afraid of spiders, I would have picked it up.
● I would have picked it up if I wasn't afraid of spiders.
● If we didn't trust him we would have sacked him months ago.
● We would have sacked him months ago if we didn't trust him.
● If I wasn't in the middle of another meeting, I would have been happy to help you.
● I would have been happy to help you if I wasn't in the middle of another meeting.
FUNCTION
- These mixed conditional sentences refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but
unreal) past result.
- In these mixed conditional sentences, the time in the if clause is now or always and the time in
the main clause is before now.
- For example, "If I wasn't afraid of spiders" is contrary to present reality. I am afraid of spiders. "I
would have picked it up" is contrary to past reality. I didn't pick it up.
Examples
● If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat.
● I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better.
● If I was a good cook, I'd have invited them to lunch.
● If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now.
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
What makes up Organic Compounds?
- The main chemical components of living organisms are known as organic compounds.

- Organic compounds are molecules built around the element carbon (C).
- Living things are made up of very large molecules called the MACROMOLECULES

4 TYPES OF MACROMOLECULES
1. PROTEINS
2. CARBOHYDRATES
3. LIPIDS
4. NUCLEIC ACID

What makes up Inorganic Compounds?

- Inorganic molecules are characterized by the absence of the hydrogen-carbon bond
(C-H) in their structure. They can be found in the ocean and the earth's crust as
minerals.
- Inorganic compounds are compounds that lack C-H bonds. They are generally divided
into four main categories:
1. Water
2. Acids, mainly mineral acids like hydrochloric acid and nitric acid
3. Bases, like sodium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide
4. Salts, like sodium chloride and copper sulfate

Differences Between Organic and Inorganic Compounds

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
VERSUS
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Organic compounds are compounds Inorganic compounds are compounds that do

essentially having carbon atoms in the not essentially have carbon atoms in their
structure along with other atoms. structure

Mainly show covalent beeding Show ionic bonding along with covalent
bonding

Essentially have C and H hydrogen atoms Can have any atom except C and H directly
 bonded together

Most compounds are colorless Most compounds are colorful.

Most do not dissolve in water due to their Most can dissolve in water so the presence of
hydrophobicity ionic bonds.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
- Is the study of carbon compounds, excluding CO, CO2, CS2, and various bicarbonates,
carbonates , and cyanides.
Why do we need to study organic chemistry?
Why it is important to study about organic chemistry?
- Organic chemistry is important because it is the study of life and all of the chemical
reactions related to life.
- Deals with study of carbon containing compounds and their properties.
- The word “organic” was originally used by 18th century chemist to describe obtained
from living animals
- Study of molecules containing carbon-hydrogen bond and their structures , properties
and reactions
- Has great contributions in the different areas of human needs

Importance of organic chemistry is seen in the following:

UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
- Is a hydrocarbon in which one or more carbon-carbon multiple bonds are present.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
- Is the part of an organic molecule where most of its chemical reactions occur
3 DIVISIONS OF UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS
● ALKENES
● ALKYNES
● AROMATIC

ALKENES
- Is an acyclic unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains one or more carbon-carbon double
bonds.
- C=C
- Ends with –ene
- CnH2n

IUPAC RULES FOR ALKENES AND CYCLOALKENES

1. Replace the alkane suffix –ane with the suffix –ene, which is used to indicate the
presence of a carbon-carbon bond.
2. Select as the parent carbon chain the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms that
contains both carbon atoms of the double bond.
3. Number the parent chain beginning at the end nearest the double bond. And If the
double is equidistant from both ends of the parent chain, begin numbering from end
closer to a substituent.
4. If the double is equidistant from both ends of the parent chain, begin numbering from
end closer to a substituent.
5. Give the number of the double bond in the chain as a single number, which is the
lower-numbered carbon atoms participating in the double bond
6. Use the suffixed –diene,triene,-tetrene, and so on when more than one double bond is
present in the molecule
7. Do not use a number to locate the double bond in unsubstituted Cycloalkenes with only
one double bond because that bond is assumed to be between carbon 1 and 2
8. In substituted cycloalkenes with only one double bond, the double-bonded carbon atoms
are numbered 1 and 2 in the direction clockwise or counter clockwise that gives the
first-encountered substituent the lower number
9. In cycloalkenes with more than one double bond within the ring, assign one double bond
numbers 1 and 2 and the other double bonds the lowest number possible.

CYCLOALKANES
- Cycloalkanes are cyclic hydrocarbons, meaning that the carbons of the molecule are
arranged in the form of a ring.
- Cycloalkanes are also saturated, meaning that all of the carbons atoms that make up the
ring are single bonded to other atoms (no double or triple bonds).

● Parent Chain
A. Use the cycloalkane as the parent chain if it has a greater number of carbons than any
alkyl substituent.
 B. If an alkyl chain off the cycloalkane has a greater number of carbons, then use the alkyl
chain as the parent and the cycloalkane as a cycloalkyl- substituent.
● Numbering the Cycloalkane
A. When numbering the carbons of a cycloalkane, start with a substituted carbon so that
the substituted carbons have the lowest numbers (sum).
B. When two or more different substituents are present, number according to alphabetical
order.

Halogen Substituents
- Halogen substituents are treated exactly like alkyl groups:
● -F fluoro-
● -Cl chloro-
● -Br bromo-
● -I iodo
SCHOOL SUPPLIES STATIONARY VOCABULARY
FRENCH ENGLISH

Les fournitures scolaires School stationary

Le bureau / le pupitre desk

Le tableau blackboard

La craie chalk

La brosse Chalk eraser

Le cartable school bag

Le sac a dos backpack

Le livre book

Le cahier Exercise book

Le feuille (de papier) Sheet of paper

Le classeur Ring binder

Le bloc-note notepad

La chemise/ la pochette folder

Le stylo pen

l’encre ink

Le crayon pencil

Le taille-crayon sharpener

La gomme erase/rubber

Les crayons de couleur Colored pencils

Le marqueur marker

Le surligneur highlighter

Le pinceau paintbrush

Le peinture paint

La regle ruler

l’equerre square

Le rapporteur protractor

Le compas Pair of compasses

La colle Glue

Le ciseaux scissor

La calculatrice calculator

La trousse Pencil case

Le globe terrestre globe

Le casiers lockers

l’ecole school
La salle de classe classromom

l’enseignant(e)/ le professeur teacher

L’eleve /l’etudiant(e) student/pupil

Les cours classes

La lecon lesson

Le devoirs homework

Le diplome diploma/degree
EDUKASYON SA PAGPAPAKATAO
Unang Markahan - Modyule 1.1

Lipunan
- Ay nagmula sa salitang ugat na “lipon” na nangangahulugang pangkat
- Ang mga tao ay may kinabibilangang pangkat na iisa ang tunguhin o layunin.
- Binubuo ang tao ng lipunan at binubuo ng lipunan ang tao.
- Nagkakaroon ang tao ng pagkakataong maipakita ang pagmamalasakit, ang tumulong at
magtulungan sa panahon ng pangangailangan.
- Naipapakita ang pagmamalasakit na ito sa pagdamay at bukas-palad na pagtulong sa kapwang
walang hinihintay na kapalit.
- Dahil dito umuusbong ang pagtitiwala sa kapuwa na siyang dahilan ng sama-samang pagkilos
tungo sa isang mithiin
- Nangingibabaw sa pagkakataong ganito na hindi lamnag personal na kabutihan ng indibidwal
ang nilalayon ng lipunan kundi ang kabutihang panlahat.
Komunidad
- Ginagamit ito upang tukuyin ang lipunan.
- Ito ay galing sa Latin na communis na nangangahulugang “common o magkapareho”
- Ang isang komunidad ay binubuo ng mga indibidwal na nagkakapareho ng interes, ugali, o
pagpapahalagang bahagi ng isang particular na lugar.

Mga Elemento ng Kabutihang Panlahat

1. Ang paggalang sa indibidwal na tao
- Dahil ang kabutihang panlahat ay nagpapahalaga sa kalikasan ng tao, hindi ito lubos na iiral kung
hindi kikilanin at pahahalagahan ang kaniyang dignidad.
Dignidad - nakakabit ang iba’t ibang karapatang kailangang igalang at hayaang gamitin ng tao sa
lipunan.
- Upang maging makatarungan ang isang lipunan, kailangang nasisiguro ng namumuno dito na ang
karapatan ng bawat indibidwal ay kinikilala, iginagalang, pinoprotektahan at pinahahalagahan.
HAlIMBAWA:
● Ang paggamit ng tao ng kaniyang bokasyon tungo sa paglinang ng kaniyang sarili. Gayundin ang
protektahan ang kaniyang karapatang kumilos ayon sa dikta ng konsensiya.

2. Ang tawag ng katarungan o kapakanang panlipunan ng pangkat

- Ang pag-unlad ang kabuuang pokus ng panlipunang tungkuling kailangang maibigay sa mga tao.

- Karaniwang sinusukat ito halimbawa:

● Sa mga pampublikong sistema ng pangangalaga sa kalusugan
● Epektibon pampublikong pangkaligtasan at seguridad
● Kapayapaang namamagitan sa bawat bansa sa mundo
● Makatarungang sistemang legal at pampolitika
● Malinis na kapaligiran at umuunlad na sistemang pang-ekonomiya.
- ng mga nabanggit ay mayroong malakas na epekto sa kapakanan ng mga kasapi ng pangkat.
- Mahalagang may mamagitan upang masigurong nakakayanan at nararating ang mga ito ng bawat
isa sa lipunan. Kapag nangyayari ito, natutugunan ang tawag ng katarungan o kapakanang
panlipunan ng pangkat.

3. Ang kapayapaan (peace)

- kapayapaan ay resulta ng pagkakaroon ng katahimikan, kapanatagan at kawalang ng kaguluhan.
- Mayroong kapayapaan kapag iginagalang ang bawat indibidwal at umiiral ang katarungan.
- Ang kapayapaan ay indikasyon ng pagkakaroon ng kabutihang panlahat, ang katatagan at
seguridad ng makatarungang kaayusan.
- Kailangang nabibigyan ng seguridad ang lipunan at ang mga kasapi nito sa mabuti at maayos na
pamamaraan.
- Gayunpaman, may pagkakataong hindi natutugunan ang kabutihan ng lahat kaya’t may mga
pagkilos sa lipunan na isinasaalang-alang ang kapakanan ng mas nakararami. Kaya sa abot ng
makakaya ay sa lahat, ngunit kailangang maunawaan ding may pagkakataong tamang ganapin
ang para sa nakararami. Hindi kailangang magresulta ito sa away o gulo at maaari itong daanin sa
diyalogo
EDUKASYON SA PAGPAPAKATAO
Unang Markahan - Modyule 1.2

Mga Institusyon ng Lipunan

1. Pamilya
- Ang pamilya ang pinaka-ugat ng lipunan na siyang pinagmulan ng lahat.
- Ito ang bumubuo ng populasyon sa bawat pamayanan.
- Mula dito ay hinuhubog ng mga magulang ang mga anak.
- Malaki ang epekto nito sa pagpapalaki ng isang indibidwal dahil dito siya nahuhubog partikular
na ang kaniyang:
● Personalidad
● Pagkakakilanlan
● Pangangailangang emosyonal o pisikal.
- Mahalaga ang pananatili ng pamilya dahil ito ang tumutugon sa maraming pangangailangan
tulad ng pangangalaga sa mga anak na kasapi nito.
- Sila ang nagsisibing gabay, tumatama sa pagkakamali, nagbibigay ng suporta at humuhubog sa
mga anak upang maging katangi-tanging indibidwal sa pamayanan.
2. Simbahan
- Ang institusyong ito ay pumapatnubay sa bawat pamilya at indibidwal upang kilalanin ang
espiritwal na pangangailangan ng bawat isa.
- Layunin nitong:
● Masapatan ang pangangailangang espiritwal ng bawat tao
● Mapanatili ang mataas na pamantayang moral
● Gabayan ang mga mamamayan na kumilos ng naaayon sa mabuti at katotohanan
● Gabayan ang tao sa tamang pamumuhay ayon sa bilin ng kinikilalang Diyos.
3. Paaralan
- Ang nagsisilbing pundasyon ng kaalaman.
- Ito ang nagsisilbing tagahubog ng kaisipan ng bawat mamamayan.
- Naglalayon ang institusyong ito na:
● Linangin
● Palawakin
● Imulat ang mga mag-aaral sa katotohanan upang magamit ito sa lipunan.
- Nagiging matatag ang isang pamahalaan kapag edukado ang bawat mamamayan.
4. Pamahalaan
- Ito ay isang institusyon ng lipunan na naglalaan ng seguridad, organisasyon para sa mamamayan.
- Ito ay may kapangyarihan na gumawa at magpatupad ng batas sa isang nasasakupang teritoryo.
- Ang mga batas na ito ang nagsisilbing batayan ng mga mamamayan kung paano makibagay sa
lipunan.
5. Negosyo
- Ang mga Negosyo ay nagsisilbing makina ng ekonomiya.
- Layunin nito na mapalago ang kita na siyang nagbibigay ng positibong epekto sa lipunan- ang
kaunlaran ng lipunan.
- Gaya na lamang ng:
● Pagbibigay ng trabaho sa mga mamamayan
● Pagtaas ng kalidad ng produkto at iba pa.
- Ito rin ay nakakatulong sa mga taong nangangailangan ng pera para sa araw-araw na gastusin.
- Ang pagnenegosyo ay isang paraan upang makalikom ng pera ang isang pamilya.

Mga Hadlang sa Pagkamit ng Kabutihang Panlahat

Narito ang ilang nakahahadlang sa pagkamit ng kabutihang panlahat.
1. Nakikinabang lamang sa benepisyong hatid ng kabutihang panlahat, subalit tinatanggihan ang
bahaging dapat gampanan upang mag-ambag sa pagkamit nito
- Ang mahalaga sa kaniya ay ang pakinabang na kaniyang makukuha sa kabutihang panlahat na
nagmumula sa malasakit at pagsasakripisyo ng iba.
- Nakikinabang lamang siya subalit walang ambag o pakinabang na nanggagaling sa kaniya.
HAlIMBAWA:
 ● Ang sapat na suplay ng tubig ay pinakikinabangan ng lahat ng tao. Subalit upang mapanatili ang
sapat na suplay ng tubig sa panahon ng tagtuyo, ang mga tao ay kailangang magtipid sa paggamit
nito.
- Hindi lahat ng tao ay nagnanais gawin ito sapagkat ayon sa kanila, habang may taong nagtitipid
makikinabang pa rin siya nang hindi nagbabawas ng kaniyang konsumo.
- Ang nakababahala dito ay kapag dumami ang taong may ganitong pangangatwiran, masisira ang
kabutihang panlahat na nakasalalay sa suportang manggagaling sa kanila

2. Ang indibidwalismo, ibig sabihin ang paggawa ng tao ng kaniyang personal na naisin.
- Ito ay ang pagnanais ng taong maging malaya sa pagkamit ng pansariling tunguhin nang walang
ibang nanghihimasok o nakikialam sa kaniya
- Ayaw ng taong ganito na magambala ang kaniyang personal na buhay – nagnanais na
“mapag-isa”.
- Hindi niya pinapakay ang pakinabang mula sa kabutihang hatid ng sakripisyo ng iba subalit ayaw
rin niyang magambala para sa kabutihan ng iba.
- Sa kulturang ito, mahirap makumbinse ang taong isakripisyo ang kaniyang kaunting kalayaan,
personal na hangarin at pansariling interes para sa kapakanan ng “kabutihang panlahat” dahil
para sa kaniya, hindi niya kailangang mag-ambag sa kabutihang panlahat kundi ang manatiling
malaya sa pagkamit ng kaniyang personal na kabutihan.
HAlIMBAWA:
● May mga taong ayaw nang manood ng balita at makialam sa mga nangyayari sa paligid dahil
mas marami siyang suliranin sa kaniyang personal na buhay na kailangang isaayos. Maaaring
ikatuwirang hindi siya makikialam sa mga bagay na hindi naman tuwirang nakaaapekto sa kaniya.

3. Ang pakiramdam na siya ay nalalamangan o mas malaki ang naiaambag niya kaysa sa nagagawa ng
iba
- Upang mapanatili ang kabutihang panlahat, hinihingi sa ilan ang mas malaki at mabigat na
pananagutan kaysa sa iba.
HAlIMBAWA:
● Upang kayanin ng mga mahihirap ang pagbili ng produkto, kailangang tanggapin ng negosyante
ang mababang tubo o kita mula sa mga produkto
● Ang pangkalusugang seguridad ay maging abot kaya ng lahat, ang health insurance ay may
mababang premiums o ang doktor ay tumanggap ng mababang sahod.
- Ang tingin ng ilan sa ganitong sitwasyon ay hindi makatarungan.
EDUKASYON SA PAGPAPAKATAO
Unang Markahan - Modyule 1.3