Module 3: Types of Singularities

Dr. T. Phaneendra

January 17, 2018

1 Types of Isolated Singularities

Recall that a singularity z0 is said to be an isolated one, if f is analytic at all points

of some deleted neighborhood N (z0 ) − {z0 } of z0 . Let f (z) be analytic in the
annulus 0 < r < |z − z0 | < R, where z0 is an isolated singularity of f . Then the
Laurent series of f about z0 is given by
∞ ∞ ∞
an (z − z0 )n = a−n (z − z0 )−n + an (z − z0 )n
P P P
f (z) = (1.1)
n=−∞ n=1 n=0
| {z } | {z }
Principal Part Analytic Part

where a0n s are called the coefficients of the series. The coefficient a−1 of the first
1
negative power z−z0
in the expansion (1.1) about is known as the residue of f at
z = z0 , and is denoted by Res (f ; z0 ).
Depending on the number of terms in the principal part of the Laurent’s series
(1.1) of f (z) about z0 , three types of singularities can be defined:

(a) Removable singularity: The principal part is absent

(b) Essential singularity: Infinitely many terms in the principal part

(c) Poles: Finite number of terms in the principal part

1
CVPDE (MAT3003) Module 3

Removable singularity
∞
an (z − z0 )n for
P
Suppose that z0 is a removable singularity of f . Then f (z) =
n=0
all 0 < |z − z0 | < δ, and f can be made analytic at z0 by properly defining as
f (z0 ) = limz→z0 f (z).
sin z
Example 1.1. The function f (z) = z
is not defined at z = 0, and is analytic
z3 z5 7
at all z 6= 0. Note that sin z = z − 3!
+ 5! − z7! + · · · so that for z 6= 0,
 
sin z 1 z3 z5 z7 z2 z4 z6
f (z) = z
= z
z− 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ··· =1− 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ····

Thus the Laurent’s expansion about z = 0 does not contain the principal part.
sin z
Therefore f has a removable singularity at z = 0. Since limz→0 z
= 1, f can
be made analytic at z = 0 by redefining as

 sin z , z =
6 0
z
f (z) =
1 z = 0.

1−cos z
Example 1.2. The function f (z) = z
is not defined at z = 0, and is analytic
z2 z4 z6
at all z 6= 0. Now cos z = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
− 6! + · · · so that
h  i
1−cos z 1 z2 z4 z6 z z3 z5
f (z) = z
= z
1− 1− 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
+ ··· = 2!
− 4!
+ 6!
+ ····

1−cos z
Thus f has a removable singularity at z = 0. Since, limz→0 z
= 0, it follows
that 
 1−cos z , z =
6 0
z
f (z) =
0 z=0

will become analytic at z = 0.

h  i
z−sin z 1 z3 z5 z2 z4
Example 1.3. Now, f (z) = z
= z
z− z− 3!
+ 5!
− ··· = 3!
− 5!
+
· · · . Thus f has a removable singularity at z = 0.

Dr. T. Phaneendra 2 511, A10, SJT

CVPDE (MAT3003) Module 3

z−sin z
Since limz→0 z
= limz→0 (1 − cos z) = 0, we see that

 z−sin z , z =
6 0
z
f (z) =
0 z=0

will become analytic at z = 0.

Essential Singularities
2 3
Example 1.4. Let f (z) = e1/z = 1 + 1/z
1!
+ 1/z
2!
+ 1/z
3!
+ · · · , which has infinitely
many negative powers of z. Thus z = 0 is an essential singularity of f , and the
residue of f at z = 0 is the coefficient of 1/z in the Laurent’s expansion. That is,
Res (f ; 0) = 1.
Example 1.5. Consider
 
1/z 2 1/z 4 1/z 6 3 5
1
= z− 1/z + 1/z − 1/z


f (z) = z cos z
=z 1− 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
+ ··· 2! 4! 6!
+· · · .

Since there are infinitely many negative powers of z, z = 0 is an essential sin-

gularity of f , and and the residue of f at z = 0 is the coefficient of 1/z in the
Laurent’s expansion. That is, Res (f ; 0) = − 21 .
Example 1.6. Consider
 
1/z 1/z 3 1/z 5 1/z 7 2 4 6
1
= 1− 1/z + 1/z − 1/z


f (z) = z sin z
=z 1!
− 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ··· 3! 5! 7!
+· · · .

Clearly, z = 0 is an essential singularity of f , and Res (f ; 0) = 0.

Pole

If all the negative powers of z − z0 are missing after 1/(z − z0 )m are missing in
the Laurent’s Expansion (1.1), then we say that z0 is a pole of order m. Thus, (1.1)

Dr. T. Phaneendra 3 511, A10, SJT

CVPDE (MAT3003) Module 3

is written as

a−1 a−2 a−n

f (z) = Analytic part + z−z0
+ (z−z0 )2
+ ··· + (z−z0 )n
(1.2)

A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole. If m = 2, z0 is a double pole, and m = 3

gives a triple pole z0 of f .
Example 1.7. Consider
h  i
1−cosh z 1 (z)2 (z)4 (z)6 3
f (z) = z3
= z3
1− 1+ 2!
+ 4!
+ 6!
+ ··· = − 2!1 · z1 − 4!z z− z6! −· · · .

Therefore, z = 0 is a simple pole of f , and Res (f ; 0) = − 12 .

sin2 z
Example 1.8. Let f (z) = z3
· Then
h  i
(2z)2 (2z)4 (2z)6
f (z) = 1
2z 3
1− 1− 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
+ ··· = 4
2.2!
· 1
z
− 16
2.4!
·z+ 64
2.6!
· z3 − · · ·

Note that 0 is a simple pole of f and Res (f ; 0) = the coefficient of 1/z = 1

Example 1.9. We have
h n oi
1−e2z 1 (2z) (2z)2 (2z)3 (2z)4 (2z)5
f (z) = z4
= z4
1− 1+ 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ 5!
+ ···
22 23 24 25
= − 1!2 · 1
z3
− 2!
· 1
z2
− 3!
· 1
z
− 4!
− 5!
· z − ···

The principal part of the Laurent’s series contains negative powers of z, and 0 is
3
a triple pole of f . But Res (f ; 0) = the coefficient of 1/z = − 23! = − 34
Example 1.10. Finally
h i
sinh z 1 z z3 z5 1 1 1 1 1
f (z) = z4
= z4 1!
+ 3!
+ 5!
+ ··· = 1!
· z3
+ 3!
· z
+ 5!
· z + ···

Note that 0 is a triple pole of f and

1 1
Res (f ; 0) = the coefficient of z
= 6

Dr. T. Phaneendra 4 511, A10, SJT

CVPDE (MAT3003) Module 3

2 Residues at the Poles without Laurent Series

An isolated singularity z0 of a complex function f (z) is a pole of order m ≥ 1, if

and only if ϕ(z) = (z − z0 )m f (z) is analytic at z0 .

(a) For m = 1: z0 is a simple pole of f , and Res (f ; z0 ) = limz→z0 (z − z0 )f (z)

(b) At a pole z0 of order m > 1, the residue of f is given by

 
1  dm−1 m
Res (f ; z0 ) = [(z − z ) f (z)] for m = 1, 2, 3, ... (2.1)

(m−1)!  dzm−1 0 
z=z0

1
Example 2.1. Let f (z) = (z−1)(z 2 +1)
· Then z = 1,±i are zeros of the denomina-
tor of order 1, and hence are simple poles of f . Therefore,

1 1

(a) Res (f ; 1) = lim (z − 1)f (z) = lim z 2 +1
= 2
z→1 z→1
n o
1 1 1+i
(b) Res (f ; i) = lim(z − i)f (z) = lim (z−1)(z+i)
= (i−1)(2i)
= 4i
z→i z→i
n o
1 1 i−1
(c) Res (f ; −i) = lim (z + i)f (z) = lim (z−1)(z−i)
= (−i−1)(−2i)
= 4i
z→−i z→−i

1 1
Example 2.2. For f (z) = z+z 2
= z(1+z)
, z = 0 and −1 are simple poles, and

1


(a) Res (f ; 0) = lim (z − 0)f (z) = lim z+1
= 1,
z→0 z→0

1


(b) Res (f ; −1) = lim (z + 1)f (z) = lim z
= −1
z→−1 z→−1

z 2 +2
Example 2.3. Suppose that f (z) = z−1
· Then z = 1 is a simple zero of the
denominator of f , where the numerator of f is nonzero. Thus f has simple pole
at z = 1. Therefore, Res (f ; 0) = lim (z − 1)f (z) = lim z 2 + 2 = 3
z→1 z→1
ez
Example 2.4. Let f (z) = Then z = ±πi are simple poles of f , and
z 2 +π2
·
 πi 
e
(a) Res (f ; πi) = lim (z − πi)f (z) = lim z+πi = 2πi
z→πi z→πi
 
e−πi
(b) Res (f ; −πi) = lim (z + πi)f (z) = lim z−πi
= − 2πi
z→−πi z→−πi

Dr. T. Phaneendra 5 511, A10, SJT

CVPDE (MAT3003) Module 3

1
Example 2.5. Let f (z) = z 2 +16
· Then z = ±4i are simple poles of f , and

1 1
= − 8i


(a) Res (f ; 4i) = lim (z − 4i)f (z) = lim z+4i
= 8i
z→4i z→4i

1
= − 8i1 = i


(b) Res (f ; −4i) = lim (z + 4i)f (z) = lim z−4i 8
z→−4i z→−4i

z
Example 2.6. Let f (z) = cos z
· Then cos z = 0 only if z = (2n + 1)π/2 = α,
where n is any integer. Also, the numerator is analytic and z 6= 0 at each α.
Therefore, α is a simple pole of f , and

(z−α)z 2z−α
Res (f ; α) = lim (z − α)f (z) = lim cos z
= − lim = − sinα α ·
z→α z→α z→α sin z

(2n+1)π
Exercise 2.1. Given that βn = 2
, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ... are simple poles of
tan z
f (z) = z
, show that the residue of f at βn is 1/βn .
tan z
Note that f (z) = z
is analytic in a small deleted neighborhood of 0. So, 0 is a
removable singularity of f . Thus f becomes analytic at z = 0 by redefining as

 tan z , z =
6 0
z
f (z) =
1 z = 1.

e2z
Example 2.7. Let f (z) = (z−1)2
· Then z = 1 is a double pole of f . Write φ(z) =
2 2z
(z − 1) f (z) = e . Then Res (f ; 1) = 1
(2−1)!
· φ0 (1) = |2e2z |z=1 = 2e2
1
Example 2.8. For f (z) = z(z−1)2
, z = 0 is a simple pole and z = 1 is a double
1
pole. Therefore, Res (f ; 0) = lim (z − 0)f (z) = lim (z−1) 2 = 1.
z→0 z→0
To find the residue of f at the double pole z = 1, we let φ(z) = (z − 2)2 f (z) = z1 .
Then φ0 (z) = − z12 . Hence Res (f ; 1) = (2−1)!
1
· φ0 (1) = −1.
z+1 3


Example 2.9. Consider f (z) = z−1 · Note that z = 1 is a triple pole for f . To
find the residue of f at z = 1, write φ(z) = (z − 1)3 f (z) = (z + 1)3 .Then

Res (f ; 1) = 1
(3−1)!
· φ00 (1).

Dr. T. Phaneendra 6 511, A10, SJT

CVPDE (MAT3003) Module 3

But φ00 (z) = 3.2(z + 1) = 3.2.2 = 12 at z = 1. Thus Res (f ; 1) = 1

2!
· 12 = 6.
Exercise 2.2. Given that an = nπ, n = ±1, ±2, ... are simple poles, while 0 is
cot z
pole of order 5 for f (z) = z4
, find the residue of f at each pole.
Exercise 2.3. Classify all the singularities of the following functions and find
the residues at appropriate singularities:

cos z sin z
(a) z 2 (z−π)3
(b) z 2 −4
(c) tan z
z 3z+2 sin2 z
(d) z 2 −6z+10
(e) z 4 +1
(f ) z3
1 1 log(z+1)


(g) (1−ez )
(h) z cos z
(i) z2
2z+3 z2 1+ez
(j) z(z 2 −1)
(k) z 2 +a2
(l) z cos z+sin z
1
(m) z 4 +2z 2 +1

Dr. T. Phaneendra 7 511, A10, SJT