'1".'.

..
r

I~IJ
C f+A1TElZ iO_
-

Zeros and Singularities of an Analytic!

Function: Residue Theorem
I
1o·~ &I ZERO OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION!

Definition
Letf(z) be analytic in an open region D, then a point Zo ED is. called a zero off(z) iff(zo) = O.
If f(zo) = 0 butf(zo) =O, then Zo is called Cl simple zero or zero of order one off(z),
If f(zo) =f I (zo) = ... =f /11- 1 (zo) = 0 butf r
ff1(zo) 0, then Zo is called a zero of orde~.
III off(z). ' .
Example: (i) The functionf(z) = (z - zO)3 has a zero of third order at z = zo0
(ii) The functionf(z) =z sin z has a zero of second order at z = ° and simple zeros at z = ±n, ±2~,.
±3n, .., .
(iii) The functionf(z) = 1+cos z has second order. zeros at z = ±n, ±3n, ±5n, ....
Notes: (i) lff(z) be analytic at the point z = zO' then it can be expanded in Taylor 's series about zo given by
cc .

fez) = L all (z - zot

11=0

J" (Zo) ...

where ao = f(zo) and a = --,11 = 1,2,'), ....
11 11 !

If Zo is a zero of order m off(z), thenf(zo) = f' (zo) = ... = fm - 1 (zo) = 0 andj?" (zo) ::f. o.
So, in this case
=
fez) = L all (z - zo)" .
11=111

(ii) It can be proved that the zeros of an analytic functionf(z) are isolated. This means that if Zo is a zer~
of an analytic Functionf(z) then there exists a neighbourhood of Zo in which Zo is the only zero off(z). :
 ,
.
,

ROSIAND SINGULARITIES OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION: RESIDUE THEOREM

ft' j..O.<2- " , ' .
!"SIN,GULJARITIES (OR'SINGULAR POINTS) OF AN ANALYTl '
.FU NeTI 0 N
•"',, , j
,' '. " .', •
j
.I
.,
Definition
tfa functionf(z) is not analytic at a pointz = zo' then Zo is called a singular point or singularity off(z)

'. ' . Z
. ' Example: The function fez) = is analytic everywhere except at z = 1, 2. So,
>,' " ' (z -1)(z - 2)
r= 1,2 are the only singularities off(z).

'Isolated Singularity (or Isolated Singular Point)

:Definition
jsingular point Zo is called an isolated singularity (or isolated singular point) of the functionf(z) if
. re exists a neighbourhood of Zo in whichf(z) has no other singularity (except zo)'

Example: The functionf(z) = Z , has two isolated singularities, z = 1 and z = 2.

(z -1)(z - 2)

Non-isolated Singularity
(.4.' ..
(or Non-isolated Singular Point)

'Definition
~
'fa 'singular point Zo of a functionf(z) is not isolated, then it is called a non-isolated singularity off(z).

. Example: The functionf(z) = l/sin ( ~ ) is not analytic at z = 0 and at the points where sin ( ~ )
. n 1 r'

. - - mt, n - _+1 , _+ 2 ,_+ 3 , ..., I.e.,

-, O !.e, . z - - , n - _+ 1, _+ 2 ,_+ 3 ,.... S 0, t h e smgu
. I'annes
. 0 ff( z ) are
; Z n

(),±1,±.!., ±.!., .... Here z= 0 is a non-isolated singularity o[f(z) as in every neighbourhood ofz= 0,
" 2 3 '
'0 matter however small, there is an infinite number of singularities o[f(z).
O~3
ESSENTIAL SINGULARITIES, POLES AND REMOVABLE i.
'SINGULARITIES
I:etz = Zo be an isolated singularity of a functionf(z). Since Zo is an isolated singularity, there exists
deletedneighbourhood (of zo): .
0< I z-zo 1< r
: ',whichf(z) is analytic. So,f(z) can be expanded in Laurent's series about Zo in this region:
~
00 00

f(z)= L an(z-zo)" + L b,,(z-zo)-1I

11=0 11=1

00

The part L bl/(z - ZO)-II is called the principal part off(z) at z = zOo
11=1

Definition 1: If the principal part off(z) at z = Zo contains an infinite number of terms, then Zo is
calledan isolated essential singularity (or essential singularity or essential singular point) off(z).
 2

Example: Let us consider the functionf(z) = e"=.

f(z)=e"z= l+!+_l_+_l_+ ...
z 2!Z2 3!Z3.

= 1+ i~
11=1 n!
(z - 0)-11 .

Therefore, z = 0 is an essential singularity off(z) = ellz.

Definition 2: If the principal part off(z) at z = Zo consists of a finite number of terms, say m,
t'ien Zo is called a pole of order m off(z). A pole of order one is called a simple pole. PI
Example: Since,
sin(z-zo)
=
1 5
{Z - Zo - -1 (z - zo) 31+ - (z - Zo) 51- - (z - zo)
7}+ ...
(z - zoi (z-zo) 3! 5! 7!
-4 1 -2 1 1 2
= (z - z) - - (z - z) + - - - (z - z) + ...
o 31 0 51 71 0 ,
. .. ~
. . . I
/
sin (z - 20) . He
has only two terms with negative powers of (z - zo)' so z = Zo IS a pole of order off(z) = 5 •
(z - zo)
I
Definition 3: If the principal part off(z) at z = Zo has no terms, then Zo is called a removable Sir
singularity off(z).
In such a case, the singularity can be removed by re-defining the functionf(z) at z = Zo in such
a way that it becomes analytic at zo0

sin (z - n)
Example: The functionf(z) = has removable singularity at Z = n, since
z-n

sin(z-n) = _l_{(z-n)- (z-nt+ (z-n)5 _ ... }

z-n z-n 3! 5!
= 1- (z - n)2 + (z - n)4 _
3! 5!
has no negative powers of (z - n). lfwe setf(z) = 1 at z = rt, thenf(z) becomes analytic at z = n.
Theorem 1: Let f (z) be a function such that for some positive integer m,
q>(z) = (z - Ze)1I1f (z)
is analytic at Zo and q>(ze) i-: 0, then f (z) has a pole of order m at Zo-
Proof: Since q> (z) is analytic at zO' it can be expanded in Taylor's series about Zo in the form:
Sil
, 1
q> (z) = (z - zo)lI1f(z) = q> (zo) + q> (zo) (z - zo) + ...+ - q>1II (zo) (z - zo)'" +...
m! .

f(z)= q>(zo) + q>'(zo) + ... +q>(IIl-I)(Zo)._l_

(Z-ZO)," (z-ZO)",-I (m-I)! z-zo

+ f· q>"(zo) (z - zor -//I (1)

•••

11=/11 n!
Since q> (zo) i-: 0, it follows from (1) thatf(z) has a pole of order m at zOo
 OSAND SINGULARITIES OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION: RESIDUE THEOREM
~~ ~l I
Note: If a functionf(z)
can be put in the formf(z) = ( q>(Z))III ' where q>(z) is analytic at Zo with q>(zo)::I= 0, '
. Z-~
~f(z) has a pole of order m at zOo
Theorem 2: Let afunctionf(z) be analytic in an open region D and let cp(z) be defined by rp (z)
1
- where f (z) :t O. Then f (z) has a zero of order m at a point Zo in D if and only if <p (z) has a pole
f(zJ
a/order m at zo0

Proof: If part. Given, cp(z) = _1_ has a pole of order m at zo0 To prove thatf(z) has a zero of
fez)
der matzo'
Since cp(z) has a pole of order m at Zo ' we may write
\/f( Z)
cp(z) = ( )111 '
Z - Zo

, ",(z) is analytic at
here Zo and \/f(zo) :t ° (See Theorem 1).

.Hence, fez) = __1_ = (z - zor' ... (1)

. (p( z) "'( z)
1
Since \/fez) is analytic at zo and \/f(zo) :t 0, it follows that -- is also analytic at zOoTherefore,
\/fez)
from (1) we conclude thatf(z) has a zero of order m at zOo

Only if part: Given,f(z) has a zero of order m at zOoTo prove that cp(z) = _1_ has a pole of
. f(z)
:orderm at zOo
Sincef(z) has a zero of order m at zO' we may write
fez) = (z - zoY' 8(z), ... (2)
here 8(z) is analytic at zo and 8 (zo) :t 0.

1 (z - ZO)III
Therefore, --
. . 8(z)
= fez)
is analytic at zO' so it has a Taylor's series expansion about Zo of the I

= n.

1
-- = Ao + Ai (z -zo) + A2 (z -zo)2 + ... + A (z _ZO)1I1+... ...(3)
8(z) III

1
Since cp(z) = --, it follows from (2) and (3) that
+... fez)

1 Aa Al A2
cp(z) = ( )1II8()=( )11I+( )11I-1+( )11I-2+'"
z+ z, z z-zo z-zo z-Zo
00

+ All + L A"+1l (z - zo)"

11 =1
 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VOL.

1
This identity shows that <p(z)= -- has a pole of order m at zOo
. f(z).

This completes the proof.

Limit Point of Zeros

Let us state a theorem without proof.
Theorem 3: Let E be the set ofzerosoff(z) having a limit point a./ff(z) is not analytic alz"'!',
then z = a is an isolated essential singularity off (z).

Example: Letf(z) = sin (_1_).

1-z
. .
Now zeros off(z)are given by

sin (_1_) = 0 or, _1_ = nti or z = 1__ 1_, n = ± 1,.±2, ...

1- z ' 1- z' nst
. Evidently the limit point of these zeros is z =1 and at z = 1,J (z) is not analytic. So, Z = 1 is
isolated essential singularity off(z). ..

Limit Point of Poles

Theorem 4: The limit point of the set of all poles of afunction f (z) is a non-isolated essential singulari
Proof: Let E = {zI' z2' ..., Zll'... } be the set of all poles off (z) having a limit point zOoThen'
every neighbourhood of zO' there are an infinite number of points at which f (z) is unbounded
consequently fez) cannot be analytic at ZOoTherefore Zomust be a non-isolated singularity off(z).
call such a singularity a non-isolated essential singularity off(z).
Example: Find the singularities of the function
1
f(z) = sec-
2
in the finite z plane and give the nature of singularities.

1
Solution: Poles of the given function are given by cos ~ = 0 (by Theorem 2),
z

i.e.,
1
~ = 2n1t ±
1t
"2' or z= (
2n
1

±-
1)' 1t
n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
2
It is evident that the limit point of these poles is at z = O. Hence z = 0 is a non-isolated essenti
1
singularity off(z) = sec - (by Theorem 4).
z

Example 1: Locate and name the singularities in the finite z-plane for the function

z
f(z) = (Z2 +4l '
OS'AND SINGULARITIES OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION: RESIDUE THEOREM

z z
Solution: Here,f(z) = 2 Z 2
(z + 4)
•Therefore, z = 2i and z = -2i are poles of order 2 off (z), since z is analytic everywhere (See
eorem 1). These are the only singularities of the given function.
Example 2: Find the nature and location of sing ulari ties of the following functions:

(i) ~(Z - sin z) .(ii) (z + 1) sin _1_

z z-1

e2Z (iv) __ I__

(Ui) 3
(z -1) cos z - sin z
1 (vi) cot 1tz
(v) cosec -
z (z - a)2
Solution:

, (i) Here z = 0 is a singularity off(z) = ~ (z ., sin z).

z

~ (z-sinz)= J._ {Z_(Z_{+Z5 -~+"'J}=~-{+~-""

Z Z2, 3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!
I Since there are no negative powers of z in this expansion, z = 0 is a removable singularity. Ifwe

1
ef(z) = 3! at z = 0, then this singularity will be removed andf(z) will be analytic at z = O.

(ii) Lett = z - 1.

(z + 1) sin -- 1 . 1 {Ill}
= (t + 2) sin - = (t + 2) - - - 3 + - 5 - ...
z- 1 t t 3!t 5!t

_- {I __3!1_ + _1__
5!
t2
...} + {2t - 1 +
t4 3t3
1
60t5 - ...
}

2 1 1 1
= 1+ -----+--+ ...
t 6t2 3t3 120t4
2 1 1 1
=1+--- - + + ...
z -1 6(z _1)2 3(z _1)3 120(z -1/
Since there are infinite number of terms in the negative powers of (z - 1), z = 1 is an essential

2Z
(Ui) Now, ___e 1 2(r+l)
= _e (where t=z-l)
(Z-I)3 t3

= {e21
(3
=:~
(3
{I + 2t + C2t)2 + (2tl + (2t)4 + C2t)5 +...}
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 2 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS [VO

_
-e'l {I 2 2 4 2
-+--,-+-+-+-t+-[ 4 2 + ...}
[3 [2 [ 3 3" 15 If

Since there are finite (3) number of terms containing negative powers of (z - 1), so z = 1 is a

e2Z
pole of yd order of 3.
(z -1)

1
(iv) Let f(z)=---
cosz - sin z

The poles off(z) are given by cos z - sin z =:: 0 (by Theorem 2),

n=0,±I,±2, ...
Clearly these poles are simple poles (i.e., poles of order one) off(z).
1 1
(v) Let fez) = cosec - = -.-- .
z sin l/ z
Evidently, z = 0 is a singularity off(z). Poles off(z) are given by sin lIz = 0 (by Theorem 2),
1 .
.!.. = mt, i.e., z =- , n = ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, .... These poles are simple poles. Obviously, z = 0 is a limit po·
z nn
of these poles, so z = 0 is a non-isolated essential singularity off(z) = cosec lIz (by Theorem 4).
cot rtz cos nz
(vi) Let fez) = = ----
(z - a)2 (z - a)2 sin nz
Poles off(z) are obtained by (z - a)2 sin rtz = 0 (by Theorem 2), i.e., (z - a)2 = 0 or sin nz =0.
Now, (z - = 0 gives z = a, so z = a is a pole of second order off(z).
a)2

Also, sin nz = 0 gives rtz = mi, i.e., z = n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, .... These poles are simple poles off(z

1
Example 3: Determine the poles ofthefunctionf(z) = -4--.
Z +1

Solution: The poles off(z) are given by + 1 = 0 (by Theorem 2), n + i sin (2n + l)n
z4

i.e., z = {cos (2n + l)n + i sin (2n + l)n} 1/4

_
- cos
(2n + l)n + l.'SIn (2n + l)n. , n -_ 0, 1, 2 , 3
4 4