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SINGULARITIES AND
CALCULUS OF RESIDUES
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Consider the functions
1 1 1
; ,x sin ; ,exp (- k2), ---- etc. x E R
x(x - l)(x - 2)'
We see that each of these fmctions is not defrned at 0. In such a case, the point x = 0 is
a singular point for each of these functions in the sense that the function is defined in a
deleted neighbourhood of 0. The problem of classifying singularities are not easy to
solve satisfactorily for functions on R. On the other hand, the situation in C is different.
Iff is analylrc at a point s = a, then there is a neighbourhood N of a inside which f is
analytic. Let r be a positively oriented smooth closed curve contained in N. Then,f is
analybc Inside and on r and, as seen in Unit 5, celebrated Cauchy Integral Theorem
tells us that
If, however,ffails to be analytic at finitely many points interior to r,then the above
argument fails; which means that there is, as we shall see in this unit, a specified
number (zero or non-zero) which each of these points contribute to the value of the
integral. This motivates to generalize the idea of Cauchy Integral Theorem to functions
which have isolated singularities. This is reflected in the Residue Theorem.
In this unit, we start with the zeros of an analyhc function. We then classify the
singularities of complex-valued functions - in particular, we define isolated and
non-isolated singuldies, removable singularities, poles and their order, singulsrrities at
infinity and illustrate these singularities.
Cm~plbxVariables The notion of residue at an isolated singularity is introduced and this notion is used to
prove the Residue Theorem. Using theresidue theorem, we develop and illustrate
1
some of the basic methods employed in Complex Integration.
Objectives b 1
After studying this unit, you should be able to I
I
tell zeros of an analytic function and find their order,
define sinnularities of an analytic function and make distinction between
(i) isolated and non- isolated singularities (ii) removable and irremovable
singularities, -1
If f(zo) = 0 but f '(z,) # 0, then z, is called a simple zero or a zero of the first order.
If f(zo) = 0,f '(z0) = 0 ,..., f (n- ') (ZO)= 0, but f ("' (z,) + 0, then z, is called a zero of
order n.
For ixample, the function z2 sin z has a zero of order three at z = 0 and simple zeros at
The function 1 - cos z has second order zeros at z = 0, + 2n, +- 4n, ...
'
If an analytic function f(z) has a zero of order n at z = z,, then its Taylor series is of the
form
2
= ( ~ - ~ O ) ~ [ b , + h , -( lz - ~ ~ ) + b , + ~ ( z - z+...I
~)
If the singular point z, is such. that there is no other singular point in its neighbourhood,
i.e., iff (z) is analytic in some deleted neighbourhood of zo,then the point z, is called
an Isolated Singular Point or Isslated Singularity off (2).
z2 + 1
T!le function has three isolated singular points, namely
(z- 1) (z + 4 )
The function &has a singularity at z = 0, which is not isolated. The other si~lgularities
near the origin arise due to the discontinuity suffered by a single-valued branch of &
on crossing the cut in the z-plane. Singularities of this nature always arise at 'branch
points', where two branches of a multivalued function have the same value.
Solution
It is easy to see thatf (z) is analybc everywhere except at z = 0. Therefore the
singularity of g is at z = 0 and at the points where f (z) = 0, i.e., when u (x,y) = 0
and v(x,y) = 0.
In the case when sin(x/( z 12) = 0,we have cos( ?flzl2 ) f 0. Thus v(x,y) = 0 implies
that
sinh (v/lz12)= 0
Thus (6.1) gives
Further,y=Ogivesx=.-forn=O,
1
(n X )
+
1,-+2,........ Thusu(x,y)=Oand
v(x, y)=Oholdsifandonly if x = l / ( n n ) , n = O , + 1 , + 2 ,... .Thusthe
+
singularities ofg(z) are at points x = l/(nn) , n = 0, 1 ,f 2 ,... and at their limit
point z = 0. This shows that g (z)has isolated singularities at
z = l/nn, n = 0,f 1, f 2, .... and has non-isolated singularity at the limit point z
= 0.
Exercise 1
.I;(z ) = sin z, 2 # 1
Exercise 2
" Discuss the removable singu1,uities sf the functions
sin z
L
2 (1 -cos z)
and g, (zj = -- z f 0
z2
and give the values of the functions ~v11ichcan remove the singularities ".
We obscrvc that if J{L)is analyl~con ol)cn scl S and z,, E S . thcn titc fi~nctionI;
defined by
Thus F(z) has a removable singularities at 2, , which can be removed by letting
F(z0) = f '(20) .
The following example illustrates this.
Example 6.2
z2 + aZ
"Discuss the singularity ofAz) = - 7 , z # - ia.
z + ra
Solution
g(z) = "I z + ia
- 2ai
=z-ia for z i t - i a
for z = - ia
Remark :More generally, i f f has a removable singularity at z,, then there is a function
f analytic at 2, such thatflz) = g(z)for all z in deleted neighbourhood N \ {z,}.
b) Lt Az) exists
2 + Zo
It may be observed that Lt Az) exists may give rise to the following situations:-
Z + Z,
In the last case (iii), f(z) is not singular at z0 . This shows that if f(z) has a removable
singularity at z, ,then either (i) or (ii) holds.
Result I1 : "Iff(z) and g(z) are analytic and if both have a zero of order n at z, ,we
may write
Classification of Singularities and
f(z) = (z - zo)"fo (z) , R(Z)= (Z- zo)" go (z) , Calculus of Residues
ez- 1 z - sin z
h(z) = y and h(z) =
Definition: "If (z - z,)"flz) is bounded near z, ,then the point z, is called apole ofAz)
and the number n which is the smallest positive integer such that (z - z,)"f(z) is
bounded near z, is called the order of the pole at z, . A pole of order one is called a
simple pole."
z cos (m/2a)
fiz) =
(Z- a) (z2+ b2 )' sin5z
where a and b are distinct non-zero real numbers, has poles of order 7 at ib, 4 at+
+ +
z = 0: 5 at k ~r:, k = 1, 2 ,.... and a removable singularity at z = a.
The function
The function
1
fiz) = . , a f ( k + 1 / 2 ) n , ( k = 0 , + 1 , + 2 ,...)
sin z - sin a
Remark : If f(z) is analytic in a deleted neighbourhood of z,, then f has a pole of order
n if and only if
Throughout thc abovc discussion: we have supposed that,f(z) is defined for all z near z,],
but 1101 ~iccessarrlyat z, ~tself.Thus the classific;ition of the isolated singularity of
f(%) depends only an the local hchaviour of f(z) in a neighhourhood of r,,
in ( 6 5 ) . the senes with the negative powers of (E - z,)1s called Principal part nhereas
the serles with non-negatlx e powers oE(z - z,) is called the Analytic part.
j ( z j =: 2 (Z --Z")
k
. 0 < 1 z - Z" 1 < r
t z 11
(6 5 ) o f - f i ~ ~
In other words:'-Jz) has a pole of ordcr n if and only if nn the cspa~~sion
a-,+O.buta-k=O for k > n + 1."
In this case, LL./(zj fails to exist (including the possibility of the limit bei~iguginity).
z -3 Z"
'A
For example, if&) = e ,then.f is analytic on c \ (0). Further, for this function, with
.r > 0 and n > 0, fixed, we have
Con~plexVariables
Therefore, it follows that f is neither bounded near z = 0 nor can f have a pole of order
n at z= 0. Here e' has an essential singularity at z = 0.
~ z l z=e
1/12
or e-I/' or sin (:)or cos ](:
has an essential singularity at z = 0
Exercise 3
<z) = (z - a ) sin --
(z: b],
"Show that e'4 assunies every value infinitely many times with exception of zero,
(Picard exceptional value)."
Solution
Consider
Ine
=e , e;tO
where e may be taken as a complex number. If e is real and non-negative, then (6.6) CIossification of Singularities and
implies Calculus of Residues
Clearly, (6.7) and (6.8) are solvable -(6.7) is solvable since in the range 0 I8 I2n,
- 1
tan 8 takes on all values in ( - m, ) and (6.8) is solvable for 0 < - < E,for each E > 0,
P
since arg e may be chosen as large as we please.
Exercise 4
Sllow that sin (%) assumes every 1 alue infinntely many dn~zst$ifh cxdcg.rron o f
zcro.
So far, we have discussed the singularities of a function which are isolated and lie in
the complex - plane C. We shall now be concerned with the singularity of a function at
the point at ini3nity.
I
1 .
Letfbc the analytic in 1 z > R , 0 _<R< w . By putting z = - inf, we obtain
W
Tllcn F is anal?tic in dcleted neighbourhood iw : 0 < 1 w I < /'R! of zero. The nature of
singularity o f f at z = m (point at infinity ) is detined to be the same as that of F at
\v = 0.
1
z ) + z'" has a pole of order two at z = 0 and a pole of order m at infinity.
~ u n c t i o n ~=~ 7
z
Function tan z has essential singularity at z = w which is the limit point of poles of tan z
and assumes every complex value with Picard's exceptional value f i.
Suppose that f (z) has an isolated singularity at z = .o and R is ihe distance from origin
to farthest singular point off(If the point at infinity in the only singularity-,,thenR may
be chosen as an arbitrary positive number).
Case 1: You may recall that the function F(cv) has a pole of order k at w = 0 if and only
if (6.9) takes the fonn.
CI:~ssiticatiunof Singularities and
and part a- k w- % ... + a_, w - I is the principal part of F at w = 0. Calculus of Resid~res
Hencef ( z ) has a pole of order k at z = m if and only if its Laurent's expansion has the
fonn
Thus if we define F(0) = a,: then F will be analytic at w = 0. Hence F has a removable
singularity at w = 0 if and only if in (6.9) a _ ,= 0 for d l k 2 1 , that is, if we set
is analytic at z = m .
Case 3 : The functionf (z) has an essential singularity at z = m, if its Laurent expansion
has the form
We observe that "An entire function f(z) is transcedental if and only iffph) has an
essential singularity at 0."
Let us consider the following example.
Example 6.5
cc
Forf(z) = - 1 z # h , k = 0 , + 1 , * 2 ,...,
sinz '
This shows that f(z) is not analytic in { z : i z I > R} for any R > 0 and w is a
non-isolated singularity for f6).
You may now try the following exercises.
Exercise 5
Show that functioll g(z) = z4 sin ( Q z + 1)) has a polc of' order five at the point at
infinity.
Exercise 7
Discuss the singularity of the function
a sin
fi)= 7 . (x)at inEinity.
T
C
One of the most important and often used tool that applied scientists and engineers
need from the theory of complex functions is the Calculus of Residues and we shall
focus our attention on it in our next section.
with
where C is any circle centred at zo and lying inside S and integral along C is taken in
the positive direction.
Here circle C may be so small that it does not go beyond the domain of analyticity of
fTz) and has no other singularity inside it. Also by Cauchy's Deformation Theorem, the
integral in (6.11) will have the same value on any positively oriented curve which
encloses zo but no other singularity offb).
The coefficient a_, of the term (z - %)-' in the Laurent expansionflz) is of great
importance and is of special significance, (because of its connection with the integral of
function through the formula (6.12)) and is called the residue of&) at isolated
singularity to.
00
'
The terms (z- z;lk+ vanish when z + 2, ; therefore
This gives a simple method of calculating the residue off (2) at its simple pole 2,.
If tois a pole of order m, then Laurent's expansion (6.10) off (2) becomes
fz)
Differentiating (6.14) ( m - B ) times and t'aking the limit as z - z, , we get
We note fio~n(6.14)that Lt (z - z,)"f(z)) is finite and non-zero. This fact can bbc used
L '7"
-We observe that the most convenient way to find the residue is directly from Laurent
sxpansion, af it was already available.
Faemark I : Iffit) is analytic at z, , then b~ Tav1or.s Theorem, these are 110 negative
process of :j - 6,)
it1 thc expa~slono f f 0 and has a residue offit) at zOis zero.
Further, if
Remark I11 : If fb) has an isolated singularity at z, and iff is even in (z - z,), i.e.,
1
Az - 4,) =f [- (z - z,)] ,then residue of,f() at z, is zcro. For example, residue of even
function [ cos z - 1
at removable singularity 0 is zero.
2
Z
Similarly residue of even function -at removable singularity 0 is zero.
sinZz
Further, for the function el"l ,the point z = 0 is an essential singularity. Also elh2 is
2
an even function in z. Hence residue of el/\t z = 0 is zero.
2 2
Since sin (z - kn) = sin z ,thereforeAz) = -is an even function in (z - kn) and
(sin z)
residue off (2) at A
z is 0 for k = 0, f 1, 2,.... +
Similarly has residue at 0 as zero.
sin (z2)
I i,:t us tske up sollie examples
Lxumljle 6.6
iI ' Dctemiine tlie poles of the l'unction
,,
I lius z = 2 is a silnple pole and z = - I is a pole of' order 2 for,f O )
..
t l poles
"l)cter~n~~lc ~ of the t ' u n ~ ~ r t--'-
ll~ v ~ LdI ~ s resrdrrc; ,rl <;ICJ~ !IUIG '
CllS z
JZ -7K - q/2
---.--
-- I,1 b) I-" t iaspilsl'h t-nlc
,,
-
- 5111 ;
I'l~us/@):--I--
-
h,is simplc pales at t = rm t %l , /i =: cr .f I f 2.
<US I
Exercise 8
1 /zn
For the functionflz) = e ,show that z = 0 is xi essential singular point and
rcsidueoff(2) at z = O i s Orfn* 1 and 1 I f n = 1.
Exercise 9
Detennine the singularities for the function
1(z) = ,I
z (a - a )
,(a b e ~ non-zero
g real ), and the residue at saeh pal$
Exercise I0
Fkd the residue of cosh z cot z at its singularities.
Tbis shows that as z describes the circle. I z I = M in z-plane in clackwise direction, then
w describes the circle I w I = YM in w-plane in anti-clockwise direction.
-1 i6
kthepointro=pe-'e, p~.M,outsideIzI=Moomepondstoapo~two=p
e
inaide ( w 1 = (see Figure 6.4).
Letf (2) be analytic in a deleted neighbourhood of the point at infinity. Thenf (2) Classif~cationof Sigularities and
admits Laurent series expansion of the form Calculus of Residues
We define
~ = { zIzI=M>R,
: M issufficiently large),
where C is traversed in clockwise direction (so that the point at infinity is to the left of
* C as in the case of finite point zo ).
4 Let z =Me- Ie. Then, we have
That is ,
= - Residue of f*,
W
Important Observation
It can be easily seen that the residue at a finite point is zero if the functiol~is
analytic at that point hut mag not be so at infinity. e
For example; consider the function for residue at infinity. The only singularity-of ,
z-n
the function is a simple pole at z = a. The fui~ctionis analytic at infiniq*.However, by
definition,
the residue of --
I at infinity
z-a
2n
=--
2ni
1
2- n
&=---I I
2 ~
C
-
Y I ~ "
i re"
d0 ,by putting z -. a = I. el"
Firrther, if/@) is aldytic at z = m ,lt still llus a aon-zzro r~siducat infinity esccpt when
1.
(4 t f - ln t11e Latrront's o?.pu=~s~on
,.coefliercnlm of/'(;) ol tlkc ncighbourhood ofWz-- 1.3.
2
IS r$ro
.
singularity at 2 -
Ftr!alrer, due to r'" in Ble tlhirncrdor c?f'!{/)
(1
thc;scf'ore /(2) has mr::t's4~lrtial
2
8
Collecting the terms involving '/, ,we have
x %,+
CO
k- 1
,
a- =
(n k)!
which is residue ofAz) at z = 0. Ans I1
1
Again collecting the terms of - ,we find ' I
It
(-l)n+(- l)"-l
residue of F(w) at (w = 0) = -
0! l!
+ ... +-=x
(- 11°
n!
(- 1)" -
k!
residue of*
W
at w = b
I
You may now try an exercise.
#
Exercise 12
"Find the residue of*
Log (1 + 2)
Az) =
(1 + z Y
at each of the poles.
The notion of residue of a complex valued function at the vaiious singularities will be
used to prove the residue theorem, which we take up next. However, caution must be
?
,
C c ~ l ~ p l cVariables
x exercised to avoid reaching hasty conclusions based on appearances. We must identify
the type of singularities and then choose a proper curve.
or,omitting the integral over the cuts since it is zero (once positive and other time
negative), we get
1
t dz is 2n i times the residue ofj(z) at zk.
~ u j(z)
.
Hence j(z> dz = 2ni x (sum of residuesof f(z) at z, z, , ..., z.).
Remark :In residue theorem, f(z) can have only a finite number of singularities,
becausc otl~eenvisesingularities of f(z) would have a limit point 5 (possibly at the point
at infinity ), and so 5 would not be an isolated singularity to f(z) , contrary to our
assumption.
Combining the residue at the point at infinity and Cauchy's residue theorem, we have
"Residue Formula for the extended complex plane" as follows:
"If f(z) is analytic with the exception of finitely many isolated singularities at a, in
the extended complex plane9then '
the sum of all residues (including the residue a t
infinity) of f(z) equals zero."
Equivalently (using residue theorem and relation (6.14)), we write Classilication of Sinylarities and
Calculus of Residues
(Residue of A
7
'4 at 0 ) = (suin of residues off@) on all singularities
Z
a, in complex-plane).
We can use Residue Formula for the extended plane, as stated above, to give another
simple proof of Liouville's Theorem.
.AlternateProof of Liouville's Theorem
Let f (z) be entire and bounded on the complex plane; then we must show thatf (z) is
constant.
We pick up two distinct arbitrary points a, b in complex plane C and consider the
function
The function F(z) has singularities at z = a, b and possibility at the point at infinity.
Then by Residue Formula for the extended complex plane, we have
residue of F(z) at m = 0 ,
f(a) + f o = O
Residue of F(z) at a + Residue of F(z) at b = 0; i.e., -
a-b b-a
zZ1
Consider~z)= . Here all the singularities off@) lie inside the circle
(7' - 114(z4- 2$
lzl= 3. Also f (z) has a simple pole at infinity with residue at z = m equal to
Lt zAz) = - 4. Consequently,
z/+m
Exercise 13
Co~i~plex
Variables
Exercise 14
Evaluate
Example 6.9
Solution
The integrand is analytic on I z I = 3 and at all points inside it except the poles
z = - 1 (of order 2) and z = 2 (a simple pole).
z+2
& = 2n.i x (sum of residues at z = - 1 and z = 2)
J ( z + 1f
C
(z-2)
Example 6.10
"Fipd'the value of
a) For the circle, I z 1 = 2, both the singularity z = 1 & z = - V2 are inside the circle.
Now ~ e s i d u eofflz) at
I
Hence &) dz = 2ni x (Residue ofAz) at z = 1)
(1:
%vhreC is tile circle ( z 1 = 4 described m the pcsitne
p
Flzld \ d u e of
S A * Z'~
C
Evaluate I- (;-
( z - 1)
tj2$-2)
clx, die integral being taken arnufid t t o circle
l z - ~ ~ = 2 .
Proof :Heref (z) has first-dm poles at z = z , , z,, .... . with corresponding respective
residues b,, b,, ..... ; suppose that z = t is not one of these points. Then the function
flz)/[(z- t) has first order poles of z = z,, z,, ...... and at z = t ,
= Lt ( z - z,)
2 + 21;
m=bk
z - t z,-t
Lt ( z - t ) & = f l t ) .
z+t z-t
The theorem will be proved if we can show that the limit of the last integral as N + w
is zero.
Now for values of z on CN, we have
(z-f(21z)-(t(=RN-(t(
-
"Apply Mittag Leffler expansion theorem to the function
1 ' and verify that the result is equivalent to the ordinary partial - fraction expansion."
I
I
Solution
2z+ 1 - 2z+ 1
Heref(z) =
z'+6z2+ l l z + 6 - ( z + l ) ( z + 2 ) ( ~ + 3 ) '
2z+ 1 - -3
residue off(z) at (z = - 2) = Lt =3
z+-2(z+l)(z+3)-(- l)(-l)
2z+ 1 - - A + B+
For ordinary partial fractions, let
2+6z2+11z+6 z + 1 z + 2
-z +C 3
Before we consider some useful consequences of Residue Formula for the extended
complex plane, we consider some results relating the residue of a function to the *
number of zeros and poles of the function.
t
Result I : "IfAz) has a zero of order m at z = a, then
residue of a
f(z)
at (z = a) = m
."
Hence at each pole z = b of f(z) ,f '(z)/'z) has a simple pole at z = b with residue
equal to - n.
Combining resdts I & 11, given above, we obtain a principle knqwn as Argument
Principle, which states that
"Letfbe meromorphic in a domain D and have only finitely many zeros and poles. If
C is any simple closed curve in D such that no zeros or poles off (z) lie on C, then
where Nand P denote, respectively, the number of zeros and poles off (z), inside C,
each counted according to their order."
We now define, A. argf (z), that is, the change in argf (z) as z goes around C.
Letfbe analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C except possibly for poles inside
C andf(z) ;t: 0 on C. As z describes C once in the positive direction in the z-plane, the
image point w =f(z) describes a closed curve I'=f(c) in the w-plane in a particular
direction which determines the orientation of the image curve r. Sincef(z) ;t: 0 on C, r
never passes through the origin in the w-plane. Let w, be an arbitrary fixed point on r -
,
and let $ be a value of the argument of w,. Let arg w run continuously from i $ , ,as the
poitit begins at w, and traverses r once in the direction of orientation assigned to it by
w =f(z). If w returns to the starting point w, ,then arg w assumes a particular value of
arg w, ,which we denote by 9 . ,
We defme
, ,
We note that the difference $ - $ is independent of the choice of starting point w, .
, ,
We also note that the difference $ - $ is an integral multiple of 27c and integer
,
($ - $ ,)An is the winding numbet of r around the origin in w-plane as z describes C ltion of Singulal
Calculus of
once in the positive direction.
1
Corollary I :Under the hypothesis of Argument Principle, - A c argAz) = N - P
21c
We now take up some examples to illustrate the use of Argument Principle and its
corollaries.
Example 6.12
Evaluate I=-
1 f'o
&, C = { z : Iz- 1 -.il=2}
21ci Az)
C
2-2 2-2
for ' a) Az) = - b) Az) =
z(z- 1) z(z - 1f
Solution
Now, we have I = N - P,
where Nand P are respectively the zeros and poles ofAz) inside C.
Thusfor ( a ) I = l - 2 = - 1
(b)I=l-3=-2
(c)I=O- 1 = - 1
Example 6.13
Evaluate
Solution
LetAz) = cos z
sin z
~ h e n Jtanza!z=+j -&=-If*&.
a sz
C C C
Az)
the only zero of f(z) inside C about Y2 is z = Y2. There is no pole of f(z).
The Argument Principle allows a comparison, under certain conditions, of the number
of zeros of two analytic functions. This is given by Rouche's Theorem, which we take
up next.
Ig(4 I<IAz) I o n c .
Then,
i.e., differei~cebetween the number of zeros and number of poles is the same forf and
f + g, namely7
Nf- Pf= N f + g - Pf+&."
* Is(z)I<IA~)IonC,
J(z) and g(z) have no zeros on C and, therefore, we can write
{ (
Then A , arg (f(z)+ g(z)) = A, arg f(z) 1 +
%I} Classification of Singularities and
Calculus of Residues
Figure 6.6
This implies I arg w I < Yz. This means that arg w has to return to its original value and
thus
Thus the result follows as a direct consequence of the above, relation (6.22) and the
1
result that -A, argflz) = N - P .
27t
2
Example 6.14
"Show that z4 + iz3 + 1 = 0 has all the four roots in I z I < 3/2.77
4
Solution
4 3
Takeflz)=l+z andg(z)=iz . T h e n o n / z I = R ,
4 3
IAz) 12R - 1 and (g(z) ( = R
Therefore on 1 z I = R, the inequality Iflz) I > 1 g(z) ( holds if
3
R ~ - ~ >. R
Con~plexVariables By Rouche's theorem, f and f + g have same number of zeros in I z I < R, for any
R, such that R: - 1 > R: .
Exercise 21
Show that the equation 2 + z - elZ= 0 has only one root in the entire upper half
plane.
6.4 SUMMARY
We now summarize the results of this unit.
k
z ) a - z ) , ZE ~~:~c~z-z,~cr]with
k=-c.,
where C is any circle with centre z, insides, is called the residue off(z) at ,
isolated singularity z, .
Residue of simple pole zo offiz)
Residue of A%)
--T- at zero = Sum of residues off@) on all singularitiesin the
Z
complex plane.
Mittag - Leffler Expansion Theorem : "Iff(z) is a function which is
analytic at z = 0 and%hose only singularities are first order poles at
1
z,, z,, z,,....., where residues are respectively b,, b,, b,, .... N if ( C : 1 z I = R,
is a set of circles none of which passes through any singularity off@) and
where radii { R, } becomes infinite as N -+ = ;and if on each of these circles
I fTz) I is bounded by a constant M ywhich is independent of N, then
residue of f-'(2) at (z = a) = m
Az)
Iff(z) has a pole of order n at z = b, then near z = b,
zeros and poles off(z) inside C, each counted according to their order."
Change in argument off@ as z goes around C is given by
i.e., difference between the number of zeros and numbers of poles is the
same forAz) and Az) + g(z)."
L
For the points z = , n = O , f l , f 2,......,
(2n+l)n
there are neighbourhoods (say circles of sufficiently small radius 6 ) which contain
no other singularity. This means that these singularities are isolated.
Exercise 2
These functions have removable singularities at 0,O and 0 respectively, which can
be removed by letting
Hereflz) = (z - a) sin -
b)
sin (I/,) = c
men g ($1 7
=
1
=I?[
sin
-+ 1
5. (5)
sin
I
which shows that w = 0 is a pole cbf order five.
Hence g(z) has a pole of order five at the point at infinity.
Exercise 7
Here&) = 4sin
Z
($1
Then/(;) = w2 sin w , which has a removable singularity at w = 0
0
- nk
z
= 7,Jzl> 0 (n E N), using series for exponential function.
Therefore, residue off (z) at (z = 0) = Coefficient of z- ' in the above expansion,, which
is Lament's expansion
Exercise 9
= i 0 ifn7t1
1 if n = l
=>z=O,O,+a,-a.
Hencef (z) has a double pole at z = 0 and single poles at z = a and z = -(7 .
Hence by the result "iff(z) has isolated singularity at z, and iff is even in' (z - z,),
then residue off@) at 2, is zero,"
1
=Lt -=-- I Ans. 111
+ - z z a 2a3
Exercise 10
cos 2
Let cosh z cot z = cosh z -
sin z
Exercise 12
(z + i)"
+
The denominator off(z) is zero at z,, z, = i 1(;; and z,, z,, 2, where z' + b = 0 .
Hencef (2)has a pole of order n at z,, z, each and pole of order m at z,, z,, z, each.
+ (Residue offiz) at ) = 0.
= - (Residue off(z) at rn )
f (%I
= (Residue of --r at z = 0)
Z
:. 1 z
&=2nix1=2ni.Ans.
c (2+ a)" (z3 + blm
Exercise 14
Therefore, we have
zz + 1
I=IRer&=-[/lz)
z-a
1
2
d z , whereJ7z) =
z (z- a)
C t ! ~ ' = l j~!=l
Hcre,f(f) has si~tlplepoles at-z = 9 and z = a and both these poles lie in I z = 1.
By residue theorem.
1
I = - x 2ni x (sum of residues of-f (z) at z .:0 and z = a )
2
1
Now residue off (z) at (z = 0) = Lt zflz) = - -
Z-+O a
a2+ 1
and residue off ( z ) at (z = a ) Lt ( z - a ) f i z ) = -
z-ta a
Exercise 15
1
The poles of - are at points where sinh z = 0
slnh z
1
Hence z .= 0 is the simple pole of -inside 1 z / = 4
sinh z
1
and residue of -
s1nl1 z
at (z= 0)
By residue thcorcm,
Exercise 16
z-1 1
Residue 0f.f (z) at ( z = 2 ) = Lt - 1- -
9
z --, 2(z + 1)
:. By residue theorem,
- 1) dz
I
!:-,;=2
(Z
( z + 112( z - 2 )
= 2ni x (residue of J [ z )at ( z = - 1))
2xi
-
- - - Ans.
9
Exercise 17 Classificationof Singulrrities and
Calrulus of Rcsidum
1 1
Now Residue off (2) at (z = - 1) = Lt 7 =-
zj-lz+l 2
1 -- 1 1
Residue off ( z ) at (z = - i) = Lt - -
+ (z+l)z-i) 1-i -21
-
--
1 - 1 1 1 - z
+-.- Ans.
2 z + l 2 z2+1
Exercise 18
Let I = j 1
mtzdz = - j .f'(4 (,z
X
C
A=)
(iJ=x
qinh z
~ e t ~ = [ t m l l z d z =-J d z = J
cosh z
f !@I u ,
z-1(=2 C C
f(z)
Thus (6.24) and (6.25) imply that f (z)has no real positive roots and no real
negative roots respectively.
X
R .
i.e., C is taken round the part of the first quadrant
Figure6.7: C = Z : l Z ! = R , O S a r g Z
bounded by I z I = R for sufficiently large R (Figure
6.7) then
On the axis of y,
Here y ranges from to O along the positive imaginary axis, the initial and final
values of argJ(z) are zero. Thus tlle total change when R is sufficiently large is
given by
For z = x,
1
JX) = 2 +x-' > e l x / = l = l g ( x ) l ,
. ( f ( ~ e ' ~=) (( 2 + R e
2 2i8
1 2 ~ ~ - 2
z
R -2>3-2=12e
- Rsin e for 0 l O l l r .
~ , = ( z : l z ls R and R ~ z ~ o ? ,
for any R > 6 is equal to the number of zeros of the equation
.,flz) = 2 + 22 = 0
In Q,. Thus, in the entire upper left-plane, the equation
2
2 + z -eIz=0
has only ont root.