Complex Variables

Classification of Singular Points

Types of Singularity

There are two types of singularities

Ι. Isolated singularity and
ΙΙ. Non – isolated singularity.

(Ι) Isolated Singularity:

If f (z) is analytic at each point in the deleted neighbourhood of a singularity
z = z0, which contains no other singularity then z = z0 is said to be an isolated
singularity of f (z).

1
Ex: (i) f(z) = is analytic everywhere except at z = 0.
z
Hence z = 0 is an isolated singularity.
3
(ii) f(z) = has an infinite number of isolated singularities at z = ± π, ± 2π, ....
sin z
etc.
z −1
(iii) f(z) =
3
(
z z +9 2
) has three isolated singularities at z = 0, z = ± 3i .

Isolated singularities are further classified into the three categories.

(1) Removable Singularity: If a single valued function f(z) is not defined at z = a,

but lim f (z) exists, then the singularity z =a is known as removable singularity.
z →a
sin z
For example: The function f (z) = which is not defined at z = 0.
z
For z ≠ 0, we have
1 z3 z5 
f(z) = z − + − ....
z  3! 5! 
 Complex Variables

z2 z4
=1– + − ...... which contains no negative powers of z.
3! 5!
If we set f (z) = 1 at z = 0, then f(z) becomes analytic at z = 0. Thus the function
f(z) has a removable singularity at z = 0.
(2) Poles: If z = a is an isolated singular point of an analytic function f(z), then f(z) can
be expanded in Lauren’t series about z = a.
∞ ∞ bn
i.e., f(z) = ∑ an (z − a )n + ∑ .
n =1 (z − a )
n
n=0
∞ bn
Here the negative powers of z – a, i.e., ∑ is known as the principal part of
n =1 (z − a )
n

the Laurent’s series of f (z).

If the principal part contains a finite number of terms say m, then z = a is called
the pole of order m.
Note: Pole of order ’one’ is called a simple pole.

Example:
z3
(i) f(z)= has a simple pole at z = 2 and a pole of order 4 at z = – 3.
(z − 2) (z + 3)4
1 − e 2z
(ii) f(z) = has a pole of order 3 at z = 0, since expanding,
4
z
 2 z (2z )2 
1 − 1 + + + .....
1 − e 2z  1! 2 
f(z)= =
4
z z4
2 2 4 1 2 4z 
=−  + + ⋅ + + + ....
 z 3 z 2 3 z 3 15 
The highest negative power of z is –3.
∴ f(z) has a pole of order 3 at z = 0.
 Complex Variables

(3) Essential Singularity: In the Laurent’s series expansion of f(z) at z = a, if the

∞ bn
principal part of f(z) contains an infinite number of terms, i.e., ∑ is
n =1 (z − a )
n

infinite, then the point z=a is called an essential singularity of f (z).

For example, sin 1/z has an essential singularity at the origin.
For, the Laurent’s series expansion of sin 1/z about the origin is
1 z −3 z −5
− + − .........∞ which contains infinite powers of 1/z.
z 3! 5!
Also f(z) = e1/z has essential singularity at z = 0, since the principal part of e1/z
contains infinite term having negative powers of (z – 0).

(ΙΙ) Non-isolated Singularity:

Def: If z = a is a singularity, such that every neighbourhood of ‘a’ contains another
singularity, then z = a is a non-isolated singularity. We understand the definition
of non-isolated singularity through an example.

Let f(z) = logz, which has z = 0 as a singularity. But logz is not analytic on the
negative real axis. Since every neighbourhood of z = 0 contains points on the
negative real axis, z = 0 is not an isolated singularity of f(z).
We say that for log z, z = 0 is a non-isolated singularity.

Note: We consider only isolated singularities in our problems.

Alternative Explanation: If z = a is an isolated singular point of an analytic

function f(z), then f(z) can be expanded in Laurent’s series about the point z = a.
∞
∑ an (z − a ) .
n
i.e., f (z) =
n=−∞

The series of negative powers of (z – a) is known as principal part of the

Laurent’s series.
 Complex Variables

(i) If the principal part contains a finite number of terms, say m, i.e., a–m ≠ 0 and
an = 0 for n ≤ –(m+1) then the singular point at z = a is called the pole of order
m.
(ii) If the principal part of f(z) contains infinite number of terms, i.e., an ≠ 0 for
infinitely many negative integers n, then the point z = a is called the essential
singularity of f(z).
(iii) If the principal part of f(z) contains no term i.e., an=0 for n ≤ – 1, then the
singularity at z = a is called the removable singularity of f(z).