Presentation on

“Singularity”

School of Studies in Mathematics

PRSU Raipur(C.G.)
Presented by:-
Annu Sonkar(04)
Ayushi Agrawal(05)
Chetan Patel(06)
 Contents
Introduction

Singular Point

Types of Singularity

CSIR NET Questions

Reference
Zeros of Function:-
Let f(z) be function defined on a domain D, if there
exist a point a ∈ D such that f(a) = 0, then a is said
to be a zero of the function.

Order of Zeros:-
Let z = a is a zero of f(z) such that f(a)=0, f(a) = 0 =
f’(a) =……..= f^(m)(a) = 0, but f^(m+1) ≠ 0 then z
= a is said to be zero of f(z) of order (m+1).

Example:-
f(z) = sin z
Then, z = nπ ; n = 1,2,….
f(nπ) = 0, but f’(nπ) = cos nπ ≠ 0
Hence, all are simple zero of f(z).
Regular Point:-
A point z = a is called a regular point for f(z) if f
is analytic at a.

Example:-
f(z) = eᶻ
Then every point a ∈ C is regular point of f(z).

Note:-
If f(z) is entire function then every complex
number is regular point for function.
Singular Point:-
A point z = a is called a singular point of f(z) if f(z)
is not analytic at a.
OR
A point at which the function ceases to be analytic
i.e. , at which f(z) fails to exist is called singular
point or singularity of the function.

Example:-
(a). f(z) = 1/z is not analytic at z = 0
⇒z = 0 is singular point.
(b). f(z) = tan z
z = (2n+1)π/2 are singular points of tan z.
Note:- if f has no regular point or no where
analytic then f has no singular points.
 Types of Singularity

Singularity

Isolated Non-isolated

Remova
Essential Pole ble
 Laurent’s Series Expansion
∞ ∞

f(z) = ∑ an(z−a)ⁿ + ∑bn(z−a)⁻ⁿ

n=0 n=1
(General Part) (Principal Part)
∞

= ∑ an(z−a)ⁿ + b + b +….+ b +…
n=0 (z-a) (z-a)² (z-a)ⁿ
1. Isolated Singularity:-
A singular point z = a is called an isolated
singularity of f if f(z) is analytic in some deleted
neighbourhood of a.
f(z) is analytic
. .
. . . .
f(z) is not analytic
o

.0
.1/2
Example:- (1) f(z) = 1/z
We know that z = 0 is a singular point of 1/z but
1/z is analytic in deleted nbd of z = 0. 1/z is
analytic at every point of nbd of 0 other than 0.
So, z = 0 is isolated singularity of 1/z.
(2) f(z) = 1/(z²-1)
Here, z = 1 and -1 are the singular points and also
isolated singularity.

(A)Pole:-
If there are finite number of terms in the principal
part of f(z). Then z = a is called the pole of f(z).
If bm ≠ 0 and bm+1 = bm+2 =…. = 0.
Then z = a is called the pole of order m.

If the principal part contains m term then m is the

order of the pole.
Note:-
Poles of order 1(i.e. m = 1) are called simple
poles and if m = 2 then the poles are called
double poles.

Also we have to check:-

lim f(z) exist and infinite.
za
Examples:-
(1) f(z) = (sin z)/z² ; z = 0
f(z) = (1/z²) [z - (zᶟ/3!) + (z⁵/5!) -…….]
= (1/z) – (z/3!) + (zᶟ/5!) -…….
Here, z = 0 is a pole of order 1.
z = 0 is a simple pole of f(z).
Also, lim f(z) = lim 1/z – 0 = ∞ (exist and infinite)
z0 z0

(2) f(z) = eᶻ/zᶟ

f(z) = (1/zᶟ) [1 + z + (z²/2!) + (zᶟ/3!) +…….]
= (1/zᶟ) + (1/z²) + (1/z.2!) + …..
Here clearly, z = 0 is a simple pole of order 3.

(3) f(z) = z² ,
(z² +1)(z+2)⁴
(z² +1)(z+2)⁴ = 0
⇒ z = i,-i(poles of order 1)
and z = -2(pole of order 4)
(4) f(z) = 1 ,
(z -1)²(z-3)⁵
(z -1)²(z-3)⁵ = 0
⇒ z = 1(pole of order 2)
and z = 3(pole of order 5)
(B)Essential singularity:-
If the principal part of f(z) at z = a contains an infinite
number of terms, then a is called an isolated essential
singularity.
Here, lim f(z) doesn’t exist.
za
Alternate Definition:-
Limit point of zeros is called isolated essential
singularity.
Example:-
(1) f(z) = e^(1/z)
f(z) = 1 + 1/z + (1/z)².(1/2!) + (1/z)ᶟ(1/3!) +…….
Here we see that, the negative powers of z never ends(infinite
number of terms of negative powers of z).
So, z = 0 is an essential singularity of f(z).

(2) f(z) = sin(1/z)

f(z) =1/z - (1/z)ᶟ.(1/3!) + (1/z)⁵(1/5!) -…….
clearly, z = 0 is an essential singularity of f(z).
OR Alternative Method:-
sin(1/z) = 0 =sin nπ
⇒z = 1/nπ
Limit point of zeros i.e,
lim 1/nπ = 0
n ∞
clearly, z = 0 is an essential singularity of f(z).
(3) f(z) = z.sin(1/(z-1))
Similarly for this limit point of the zeros of f(z) gives 1.
So, z = 1 is an essential singularity of f(z).

(C)Removable singularity:-
A point z = a is called removable singularity of f(z), if the
principal part of f(z) doesn’t exists.
i.e. b1= b2 =b3 =…….= bn =…..= 0

Alternate Definition:-
A point z = a is called removable singularity of f(z) if
lim f(z) exists finitely.
za
Example:-
(1) f(z) = (sin z)/z ; z ≠ 0
f(z) = (1/z) [z - (zᶟ/3!) + (z⁵/5!) -…….]
= 1 – (z²/3!) + (z⁴/5!) -…….
lim f(z) = 1(exists and finite)
z0
⇒z = 0 is removable singularity of f(z).

(2) f(z) = z²-1 ,

z-1
f(z) = z+1
⇒ lim z+1 = 2(exists and finite)
z1
So, z = 1 is removable singularity of f(z).
Note:-
In the expansion of f(z), all the powers of z
are non-negative.

(3) f(z) = (eᶻ-1)/z ; z ≠ 0

Laurent’s expansion of the given function f(z)
about z = 0,
f(z) = (1/z) [1 + z + z²/2! + zᶟ/3! + ……. - 1]
= 1 + z/2! + z²/3! + ……
Clearly here doesn’t exist the principal part of
f(z).
So, z = 0 is removable singularity of f(z)
2. Non-Isolated Singularity:-
A singular point z is called non-isolated singularity of
f(z) if every deleted nbd of z contain singular point.

.
.zₒ
Alternate Definition:-
Limit points of poles of f(z) is non-isolated singularity.
Example:-
f(z) = 1/(sin π/z)
Then poles are π/z = nπ or z = 1/n
Here limit point of pole is 0
⇒z = 0 is non-isolated singularity
Singularity at z = ∞:-
Example:-
The singularity of f(z) = tan z at z = ∞ is –
(a)Isolated essential (b)Pole
(c)Non-isolated (d)None of these
Solution:- f(z) = tan z, z = ∞
⇒ f(1/z) = tan(1/z), z = 0
⇒ f(1/z) = sin(1/z)
cos(1/z)
Poles of f(z), cos(1/z) = 0
⇒ 1/z = (2n+1)(π/2)
⇒ z = 2/(2n+1) π
⇒ z = 0, is the limit point of pole
⇒ at z = 0, f(1/z) is non-isolated.
⇒ at z = ∞, f(z) is also non-isolated.
 CSIR NET QUESTIONS
(1)Let f(z) = (z-1) then, [CSIR NET 2013]
exp(2πi/z)-1
(a)f has isolated singularity at z = 0
(b)f has removable singularity at z = 1
(c)f has finitely many pole
(d)Each pole of f is of order 1.
Solution:-
(b) at z = 1
f(z) = (1-1) [ (0/0) form ]
exp(2πi/1)-1
⇒ it has a removable singularity.
(c) f(z) has poles ,
exp(2πi/z)-1 = 0
⇒ exp(2πi/z) = 1
⇒ exp(2πi/z) = exp(2nπi)
⇒ 2πi/z = 2nπi
⇒ z = 1/n
⇒ f has infinitely many pole.

(d) z = 1/n
Each pole is of order 1, for all n.
(2)For z ∈ C define f(z) = eᶻ then, [CSIR NET 2014]
(eᶻ-1)
(a)f is entire
(b)The only singularity of f are poles
(c) f has finitely many poles on the imaginary axis
(d)Each pole of f is simple.
Solution:-
(b)Poles are,
eᶻ-1 = 0
⇒ eᶻ = 1
⇒ eᶻ = exp(2nπi)
⇒ z = 2nπi
⇒ only singularity are poles
(c) z = 2nπi
⇒ f has finitely many poles as n-varies on imaginary axis.
(d) Each pole is simple.
(3)Consider the f(z) = sin(π z/2) [CSIR NET 2017]

sin(πz)
Then f has poles at -
(a)All integers
(b)All even integers
(c) All odd integers
(d) All integers of the form 4k+1, k ∈ Z
Solution:-
f(z) = sin(π z/2)
sin(πz)
⇒ f(z) = sin(π z/2) = 1 .
2sin(πz/2)cos(π z/2) 2cos(π z/2)
For poles, cos(π z/2) = 0
⇒ cos(π z/2) = cos(2n+1)π/2
⇒(π z/2) = (2n+1)π/2
⇒ z = 2n+1

(c) All odd integers

(d) All integers of the form 4k+1, k ∈ Z
 Reference
Complex Analysis
By Dr. H.K. Pathak

Published By:-

Shree Shiksha Sahitya Prakashan

411,New Mohanpuri ,Meerut-250 002
THANKING
YOU