CHAPTER 3

BAKING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

THREE CATEGORIES OF BAKING EQUIPMENT

1. Preparation tools

2. Baking/Cooking tools

3. Finishing/decorating tools

Preparation tools
Preparation tools are used in the preparation of the ingredients before they are baked or cooked. These
items are used to measure and mix both dry and wet ingredients.

1. Bench Scraper - this is made of either metal or plastic.

It is a rectangular piece used to either divide dough into equal portions or to just
simply scrape off excess dough from the bench (kneading surface).

2. Electric Stand Mixer/Electric Hand Mixer this is the workhorse of the kitchen. It
comes with a mixing bowl and three attachments: paddle for creaming, whisk for
beating/ whipping, and dough hook for kneading. It has a wider range of speeds
compared to hand-held mixer

3. Hand Whisk/Wire Whisk- beats air into the ingredients and takes lumps out of
the batter. It consists of loops of stainless steel joined by handle.

4. Measuring Spoon consist of a set of measuring spoon

used to measure small quantities of ingredients

6. Pastry Blender - this is a hand-held tool with a set of steel cutters on the
bottom. It is used to cut fats into flour quickly and without the addition of heat,
so your dough remains tender and is not overworked. This replaces the use of
two knives when incorporating fat into flour in making pie dough.
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7. Measuring Cups the standard set of

measuring cups consists of two types namely:
a. Liquid Measuring Cup or Graduated Cup with fractions (1, ½, 1/4, 1/3, 1/4,
1/8) marked on each side. A measuring glass made of transparent glass or a
plastic is more accurate for measuring liquids and looks like a clear mini-
pitcher. It includes measurements made in cups, fluid, ounces, and millilitres.

b. Dry Measuring Cup or a series of flour individualized cups indicating

fractional parts. (1, ½, 1/3, 1/4, 1/8). These are used to measure dry
ingredients.

8. Pastry Brush - made with nylon or natural bristles. It can be flat or round. This
is used to grease pans of to brush the surface of pastries or bread.

9. Kitchen Scale a scale weighing device. It is preferred by chefs over cups and
tablespoons in measuring the ingredients because it is more. It gives accurate
weight measurements in grams/ kilograms or ounces/pounds. There are
three different kinds of scales: conventional scale, balance scale, digital scale.

10. Rolling Pin - This should be large enough to roll out a full sheet of pastry. It
can be made of wood, marble or ceramic. It comes in various shapes, sizes
and thickness.

11. Rubber Spatula/Scraper - usually use to scrape off remaining batter in a

mixing bowl or to fold in ingredients in an existing batter. It can also be made in
silicone which is melt-proof when used over heat.

13. Wooden Spoon- made from wood and comes in

different sizes suitable for different types of mixing.
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14. Mixing Bowls- made of pottery, glass, metal, or plastic. Available in different
sizes.

15. Sifter is a tool use to breaks up any lumps in the flour and aerates it at the
same time by pushing it through a gadget that is essentially a cup with a fine
strainer at one end.

BAKING/ COOKING TOOLS

Baking or cooking tools are use during the cooking or baking process. These are usually heat resistant
and are use to ensure the finished products appearance and texture.
1. Cake Tester - a stainless steel wire which is inserted in the batter/dough while
it is being baked in the oven. This is inserted to test if the cake/bread is already
done. If the tester, after it has been inserted, it comes out clean, then the
product is baked enough already.

2. Double Boiler - Consist of two stacked saucepans or a saucepan with a fitted

bowl that sits on top. The bottom pan is filled halfway with water and then the
water is made to boil. This is normally used to prevent delicate products from
burning. It comes in handy when melting chocolate.

3. Kitchen Timer-this will help you perform different tasks at the same time; thus,
it lets you maximize your time. It is usually comes in one-hour range (manual
form and digital form)

4. Oven-there are three varieties of oven which can be used in baking. They are
standard, convection and microwave. They differ in their abilities to transfer heat
evenly and how fast they transfer heat.
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5. Cake Pan - this is where the produced batter is poured before being baked in
the oven. It is usually made of stainless steel aluminium, The batter, when bake,
will follow the shape of the cake pan. Pans come in different shapes and sizes
and depths.

6. Jelly Roll Pan- Use for jelly rolls, bar cookies and sheet cakes.

7. Muffin Tin - use for baking muffins, cupcakes, and rolls.

8. Tube Pan - Use for baking cakes such as angel food cake and chiffon cake. May
have removable bottom.

9. Loaf Pan - Use for baking bread and meat loaf

10. Sheet Pan or Cookie Sheet - looks like a metal tray. It comes in full and half
sheets.

11 .Tart/ Pie Tin-a tart tin is similar to a pie tin but the former has scalloped
sides. A pie tin is also round, like a tart tin, but its sides are slanted, not
scalloped
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FINISHING/DECORATING TOOLS

1. Cake Comb triangular in shape and has zigzag and sharp edges. It is use to
create a striped and embossed icing finish. It comes in metal and plastic forms.

2. Cooling Rack It is as big as a whole or a half-sheet pan. It is made up of metal

grids. Cakes, breads, and other baked products are placed on it immediately
after being taken out of the oven. It helps the product cool faster because air
circulates around the latter. It also prevents your hot pan from destroying your
work table.

3. Bread/Cake Knife - it can be either be serrated roast beef knife or a bread

knife.

4. Decorating Bag with tips or Pastry Bag with tips usually made of nylon or
plastic. It is use to contain icing and is paired off with a metal or plastic tip to
create different figures.

5. Steel Spatula - long, flexible blade use for spreading. It comes in different sizes.
It is use in the application of icing or filling.

6. Turn Table/Cake Turner - use to easily make the icing or frosting of a cake. It
looks like a cake stand, but it has wheels which enables you to turn the metal
plate.
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CHAPTER 4

PRINCIPLES OF BAKING

HEAT TRANSFER

Heat is a type of energy. When a substance gets hot, its molecules have
absorbed energy, which causes the molecules to vibrate rapidly, expand
and bounce off one another. As the molecules move, they collide with
nearby molecules, causing a transfer of heat energy. The faster the
molecules within a substance move, the higher its temperature. This is
true whether the substance is air, water, an aluminium pot or a sirloin
steak.

Heat energy may be transferred to foods via conduction, convection or radiation. Heat then travels
through foods by conduction. Only heat is transferred-cold is simply the absence of heat, so cold cannot
be transferred from one substance to another.

Conduction

Conduction is the most straightforward means of heat transfer. It is simply

the movement of heat from one item to another through direct contact. For
example, when the flame of a gas burner touches the bottom of a sauté pan,
heat is conducted to the pan. The metal of the pan then conducts heat to the
surface of the food lying in that pan. Some materials conduct heat better
than others. Water is a better conductor of heat than air.

This explains why a potato cooks much faster in boiling water than in an oven, and why you cannot
place your hand in boiling water at a temperature of 212°F (100°C), but can place your hand, at least
very briefly, into a 400°F (200°C) oven. Generally, metals are good conductors (as discussed in Chapter 4,
Tools and Equipment, copper and aluminium are the best conductors), and liquids and gases are poor
conductors.

Conduction is a relatively slow method of heat transfer because there must be physical contact to
transfer energy from one molecule to adjacent molecules. Consider what happens when a metal spoon
is placed in a pot of simmering soup. At first the spoon handle remains cool. Gradually, however, heat
travels up the handle, making it warmer and warmer, until it becomes too hot to touch.

Conduction is important in all cooking methods because it is responsible for the movement of heat
from the surface of a food to its interior. As the molecules near the food's exterior gather energy, they
move more and more rapidly. As they move, they conduct heat to the molecules nearby, thus
transferring heat through the food (from the exterior of the item to the interior).
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In conventional heating methods (non-microwave), the heat source causes food molecules to react
largely from the surface inward so that layers of molecules heat in succession. This produces a range of
temperatures within the food, which means that the outside can brown and form a crust long before
the interior is noticeably warmer. That is why a steak can be fully cooked on the outside but still rare on
the inside.

Convection

Convection refers to the transfer of heat through a fluid, which may be

liquid or gas. Convection is actually a combination of conduction and a
mixing in which molecules in a fluid (whether air, water or fat) move from
a warmer area to a cooler one. There are two types of convection:
natural and mechanical. Natural convection occurs because of the
tendency of warm liquids and gases to rise while cooler ones fall. This
causes a constant natural circulation of heat.

For example, when a pot of stock is placed over a gas burner, the molecules at the bottom of the pot are
warmed. These molecules rise while cooler, heavier molecules sink. Upon reaching the pot's bottom, the
cooler molecules are warmed and begin to rise. This ongoing cycle creates currents within the stock, and
these currents distribute the heat throughout the stock.

Mechanical convection relies on fans or stirring to circulate heat more quickly and evenly. This explains
why foods heat faster and more evenly when stirred. Convection ovens are equipped with fans to
increase the circulation of air currents, thus speeding up the cooking process. But even conventional
ovens (that is, not convection ovens) rely on the natural circulation patterns of heated air to transfer
heat energy to items being baked or roasted.

Radiation

Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require

physical contact between the heat source and the food being
cooked. Instead, energy is transferred by waves of heat or
light striking the food. Two kinds of radiant heat are used in
the kitchen: infrared and microwave. Infrared cooking uses
an electric or ceramic element heated to such a high
temperature that it gives off waves of radiant heat that cook
the food. Radiant heat waves travel at the speed of light in
any direction (unlike convection heat, which only rises) until
they are absorbed by a food.

Infrared cooking is commonly used with toasters and broilers. The glowing coals of a fire are another
example of radiant heat. Microwave cooking relies on radiation generated by a special oven to
penetrate the food, where it agitates water molecules, creating friction and heat. This energy then
spreads throughout the food by conduction and by convection in liquids).

Microwave cooking is much faster than other methods because energy penetrates the food up to a
depth of several centimeters, setting all water molecules in motion at the same time. Heat is generated
quickly and uniformly throughout the food. Microwave cooking does not brown foods, however, and
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often gives meats a dry, mushy texture, making microwave ovens an unacceptable replacement for
traditional ovens.

Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless material (such as a
plate) will not get hot. Any warmth felt in a plate used when microwaving food usually results from
heat being conducted from the food to plate.

Microwave cooking requires the use of certain types of utensils, usually heat-resistant glass or
microwavable plastic. But even heat-resistant glass can shatter and is not recommended for professional
use. The aluminium and stainless steel utensils most common in professional kitchens cannot be used
because metal detects microwaves and this can damage the oven.

THE EFFECTS OF HEAT

Foods are composed of proteins, carbohydrates (starches and sugars), water and fats, plus small
amounts of minerals and vitamins. Changes in the shape, texture, color and flavour of foods may occur
when heat is applied to each of these nutrients. The rate at which a substance changes when cooled or
heated varies according to its composition. By understanding these changes and learning to control
them, you will be able to prepare foods with the characteristics desired.

Proteins Coagulate

The heating of protein during cooking changes its

structure, causing it to coagulate. Proteins are large,
complex molecules found in every living cell, plant as
well as animal. They are formed from amino acids that
are chemically bonded into long, loosely folded chains.
In the presence of heat, the protein chains unfold
(denature), which allows them to re-bond and solidify
into a solid mass.

In other words, as proteins cook, they lose moisture, shrink and become firm. Coagulation refers
to the irreversible transformation of proteins from a liquid or semi liquid state to a solid state. Common
examples of protein coagulation are the firming of meat fibers during cooking, egg whites changing from
a clear liquid to a white solid when heated and the setting of the structure of wheat proteins (known as
gluten) in bread during baking. The process of coagulation begins as proteins are heated to 140°F (60°C).
Most proteins complete coagulation at 160°F to 185°F (71°C to 85°C).

Starches Gelatinize

Gelatinization is the proper tem for the

cooking of starches. Starches are
complex carbohydrates present in plants
and grains such as potatoes, wheat, rice
and corn.

When a mixture of starch and liquid is heated, remarkable changes occur. The starch granules
absorb water, causing them to swell, soften and clarify slightly. The liquid visibly thickens because of the
water being absorbed into the starch granules and the granules themselves swelling to occupy more
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space. Gelatinization occurs gradually over a range of temperatures-150°F to 212°F (66°C to 100°C)-
depending on the type of starch used. Starch gelatinization affects not only sauces or liquids to which
starches are added for the express purpose of thickening, but also any mixture of starch and liquid that
is heated. For example, the flour (a starch) in cake batter gelatinizes by absorbing the water from eggs,
milk or other ingredients as the batter bakes. This causes part of the firming and drying associated with
baked goods.

Sugars Caramelize

The process of cooking sugars is properly known as

Caramelization. Sugars are simple carbohydrates
used by all plants and animals to store energy. As
sugars cook, they gradually darken from golden to
deep brown and change flavor. Caramelized sugar
is used in many sauces, candies and desserts. But
caramelized sugar is also partly responsible for the
flavour and color of bread crusts and the browning
of meats and vegetables. In fact, the process of
caramelization is responsible for most flavors we
associate with cooking.

The Maillard reaction, named for the French scientist who discovered this principle, describes
the process of sugar breaking down in the presence of protein. Maillard browning results in darkening
as well as the development of complex, meaty and baked flavors. (Some of the aromas and flavors of
roasted nuts, chocolate and coffee derive from Maillard browning.)

Sucrose (common table sugar) begins to decompose and brown starting at 290°F (143°C) or at
higher temperatures when heated more quickly. The naturally occurring sugars in other foods, such as
maltose, lactose and fructose, also caramelize, but at varying temperatures. Because high temperatures
are required for browning (that is, caramelizing), most foods will brown only on the outside and only
through the application of dry heat. Because water cannot be heated above 212°F (100°C), foods cooked
with moist-heat methods do not get hot enough to caramelize. Foods cooked with dry-heat methods,
including those using fats, will reach the high temperatures at which browning occurs.

Water Evaporates

All foods contain some water. Some foods, especially eggs, milk
and leafy vegetables are almost entirely water. Even as much as
75 percent of raw meat is water. As the internal temperature of a
food increases, water molecules move faster and faster until the
water turns to a gas (steam) and vaporizes. This evaporation of
water is responsible for the drying of foods during cooking.

Fats Melt
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Fat is an energy source for the plant or animal in which it is stored.

Fats are smooth, greasy substances that do not dissolve in water.
Their texture varies from very firm to liquid. Oils are simply fats that
remain liquid at room temperature. Fats melt when heated; that is,
they gradually soften, and then liquefy. Butter begins to melt at
temperatures as low as 70°F (21°C). Fats will not evaporate. Most
fats can be heated to very high temperatures without burning, so
they can be used as a cooking medium to brown foods.
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CHAPTER 5
BAKING IINGREDIENTS

Although substituting ingredients may have little or

no effect on some dishes (carrots can be substituted
for turnips in a stew, for instance), this is not the
case with baked goods. Different flours, fats, liquids
and sweeteners function differently. Bread flour and
cake flour are not the same, nor are shortening and
butter. If one ingredient is substituted for another,
the results will be different.

FLOURS

Flour provides bulk and structure to baked goods.

Some flours are used to thicken liquids in items
such as puddings and pie fillings, or to prevent
foods from sticking during preparation and
baking. Flour is produced when grain kernels are
milled or ground into a powder. Grains are
grasses that bear edible seeds. Corn, rice and
wheat are the most significant grains for human
consumption, but the most frequently used—and
therefore the most important—ingredient in the
bakeshop is wheat flour.

WHEAT FLOUR

Wheat flour (Fr. farine) is produced by milling

wheat kernels (berries). A wheat kernel has an
outer covering called bran. It is composed of
several layers that protect the endosperm, which
contains starches and proteins. The innermost part
is the germ, which contains fat and serves as the
wheat seed. During milling, the kernels first pass
through metal rollers to crack them, and then the
bran and germ are removed through repeated
stages of sifting and separation.

The remaining endosperm is then ground into flour. Flour made from the portion of the endosperm
closest to the germ (also known as patent flour) is finer; flour made from the portion of the endosperm
nearer the bran (clear flour) is coarser and darker.

Composition of Flour

Flour consists primarily of five nutrients: fat, minerals, moisture, starches and proteins. Fat and
minerals each generally account for less than 1 percent of flour’s content. The moisture content of flour
is also
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relatively low—when packaged, it cannot exceed 14 percent under government standards. But its
actual moisture content varies depending on climatic conditions and storage. In damp areas, flour
absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. Starches constitute 63 to 77 percent of flour and are necessary
for the absorption of moisture during baking. This process, known as gelatinization, occurs primarily at
temperatures above 140°F (60°C). Starches also provide food for yeast during fermentation.

Flour proteins are of crucial importance because of their gluten-forming potential.

Gluten is the tough, rubbery substance created when wheat

flour is mixed with water. Gluten strands are both plastic
(that is, they change shape under pressure) and elastic (they
resume their original shape when that pressure is removed).
Gluten is responsible for the volume, texture and appearance
of baked goods.

It provides structure and enables dough to retain the gases given off by leavening agents. Without
gluten, there could be no raised breads: The gases created by yeast fermentation or chemical leaveners
would simply escape if there were no network of gluten strands to trap them in the dough. In general,
the higher flour’s protein content, the greater that flour’s gluten-forming potential. In some cases,
however, flour with, for example, 13% protein may perform better than one with 14% protein because
the proteins in the flour are of superior quality. The proteins responsible for gluten formation are
glutenin and gliadin. Flour does not contain gluten; only a dough or batter can contain gluten. Gluten is
produced when glutenin and gliadin are moistened and manipulated, as when they are stirred or
kneaded. In order to make a chewy product such as a crusty French loaf, a flour with a high protein
content must be used. Lower-protein flours are used for tender soft products such as cakes or muffins.

Aging and Bleaching

Any flour develops better baking qualities if allowed to rest

for several weeks after milling. Freshly milled flour produces
sticky dough and products with less volume than those made
with aged flour. During aging, flour turns white through a
natural oxidation process referred to as bleaching. Natural
aging and bleaching are somewhat unpredictable, time-
consuming processes, however, so chemicals are often used
to do both.

Potassium bromate and chlorine dioxide gas rapidly age flour. Chlorine dioxide and other
chemicals bleach flour by removing yellow pigments in order to obtain a uniform white color. Bleaching
destroys small amounts of the flour’s naturally occurring vitamin E. Many artisan bakers use
unbleached and unbromated flours exclusively. (It should be noted, however that potassium bromate
has been identified as a possible carcinogen and may not be added to flour milled and sold in Canada or
Europe.)
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SPECIALTY FLOURS

Whole-wheat flour is made by milling the entire wheat kernel,

including the bran and nutritious germ. Whole-wheat flour has a
nutty, sweet flavor and brown, flecked color. Products made
with whole-wheat flour will be denser, with less volume than
those made with white flour; bran particles cut through the
gluten strands in the dough, resulting in a heavier crumb.

Whole-wheat flour has a reduced shelf life because fats in the germ can become rancid during storage.
Whole-wheat pastry and high-gluten flours are available. Though not flour, wheat germ is often used in
place of some flour in recipes for flavor and fiber. Wheat germ, preferably toasted, can be used in place
of up to one-third of the wheat flour in a dough formula. The finished product will have a denser
texture, however. Vital wheat gluten (gluten flour) is the pure protein extracted from wheat flour.
With an average protein content of 75 percent, it is used to boost the protein content of weaker flours
such as rye and whole-wheat flour. It must be blended with other ingredients to form a dough or
batter.

Self-rising flour is all-purpose flour to which salt and a chemical leavener, usually baking powder, have
been added. It is not recommended for professional use. Chemicals lose their leavening ability over time
and may cause inconsistent results. Furthermore, different formulas call for different ratios of salt and
leaveners; no commercial blend is appropriate for all purposes.

Nonwheat flours, also referred to as composite flours, are made from grains, seeds or beans. Corn,
soybeans, rice, oats, buckwheat, potatoes and other items provide flours, but none of them contain
the gluten-forming proteins of wheat flour. Composite flours are generally blended with a high-protein
wheat flour for baking. Substituting composite flour for wheat flour changes the flavor and texture of
the product.

Rye flour is commonly used in bread baking. It is milled from the

rye berry much as wheat flour is milled from the wheat berry.
Rye flour comes in four grades or colors: white, medium, dark
and rye meal. White rye flour is made from only the center of the
rye berry. Medium and dark rye flours are made from the whole
rye berry after the bran is removed and have the most intense
rye flavor.

Rye meal is the entire rye berry milled into a flour of different granulations, most often coarse-
textured flour. Some mills refer to their rye meal as pumpernickel flour. Others use pumpernickel to
describe dark rye flour. All rye flours have a warm, pungent flavor similar to caraway and a gray-brown
color.
Although rye flour contains proteins, they will not form gluten, so bread made with 100% rye flour
will be dense and flat. Therefore, rye flour is usually blended with a high-protein wheat flour to
produce a more acceptable product.
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SUGAR AND SWEETENERS

Sugar (Fr. sucre) and other sweeteners serve several purposes in the bakeshop: They provide flavor and
color, tenderize products by weakening gluten strands, provide food for yeasts, serve as a preservative
and act as a creaming or foaming agent to assist with leavening.

SUGAR

Sugars are carbohydrates. They are classified as either

(1) single or simple sugars (monosaccharides), such as
glucose and fructose, which occur naturally in honey and
fruits, or (2) double or complex sugars (disaccharides),
which may occur naturally, such as lactose in milk, or in
refined sugars. The sugar most often used in the kitchen
is sucrose, a refined sugar obtained from both the large
tropical grass called sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
and the root of the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris).
Sucrose is a disaccharide, composed of one molecule each of glucose and fructose. The chemical
composition of beet and cane sugars is identical. The two products taste, look, smell and react the same.
Sucrose is available in many forms: white granulated, light or dark brown granulated, molasses and
powdered.

Sugar Manufacturing

Common refined or table sugar is produced from sugarcane or sugar beets. The first step in sugar
production is to crush the cane or beet to extract the juice. This juice contains tannins, pigments,
proteins and other undesirable components that must be removed through refinement. Refinement
begins by dissolving the juice in water, then boiling it in large steam evaporators. The solution is then
crystallized in heated vacuum pans. The uncrystallized liquid by-product, known as molasses, is
separated out in a centrifuge. The remaining crystallized product, known as raw sugar, contains many
impurities; the USDA considers it unfit for direct use in food. Raw sugar is washed with steam to
remove some of the impurities. This yields a product known as turbinado sugar. Refining continues as
the turbinado is heated, liquefied, centrifuged and filtered. Chemicals may be used to bleach and purify
the liquid sugar. Finally, the clear liquid sugar is recrystallized in vacuum pans as granulated white
sugar.
Pure sucrose is sold in granulated and powdered forms and is available in several grades. Because there
are no government standards regulating grade labels, various manufacturers’ products may differ
slightly.

Types of Sugar

Turbinado sugar, sometimes called Demerara sugar, is the closest

consumable product to raw sugar. It is partially refined and light
brown in color, with coarse crystals and a caramel flavor. It is
sometimes used in beverages and certain baked goods. Because of
its high and variable moisture content, turbinado sugar is not
recommended as a substitute for granulated or brown sugar.
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Sanding sugar has a large, coarse crystal structure that prevents it

from dissolving easily. It is used almost exclusively for decorating
cookies and pastries.

Granulated sugar is the all-purpose sugar used throughout the

kitchen. The crystals are a fine, uniform size suitable for a variety
of purposes. Sugar cubes are formed by pressing moistened
granulated sugar into molds and allowing it to dry. Most cubes
are used for beverage service.

Brown sugar is simply regular refined cane sugar with some of the molasses
returned to it. Light brown sugar contains approximately 3.5% molasses;
dark brown sugar contains about 6.5%.

Molasses adds moisture and a distinctive flavor. Brown sugar can be

substituted for refined sugar, measure for measure, in any formula where
its flavor is desired. Because of the added moisture, brown sugar tends to
lump, trapping air into pockets. Always store brown sugar in an airtight
container to prevent it from drying and hardening.

Superfine or castor sugar is granulated sugar with a smaller-sized

crystal. It can be produced by processing regular granulated
sugar in a food processor for a few moments. Superfine sugar
dissolves quickly in liquids and produces light and tender cakes.

Powdered sugar (Fr. sucre en poudre) or confectioner’s

sugar is made by grinding granulated sugar crystals
through varying degrees of fine screens. Powdered sugar
cannot be made in a food processor. It is widely available
in various degrees of fineness: 10X is the finest and most
common; 6X and 4X are progressively coarser. Because of
powdered sugar’s tendency to lump, 3% cornstarch is
added to absorb moisture. Powdered sugar is most often
used in icings and glazes and for decorating baked
products.
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LIQUID SWEETENERS

Except for leavening, liquid sweeteners can be used to achieve the same benefits as sugar in baked
goods. Most of these liquids have a distinctive flavor as well as sweetness. Some liquid sweeteners
are made from sugarcane; others are derived from other plants, grains or bees.

Corn syrup is produced by extracting starch from corn kernels and

treating it with acid or an enzyme to develop sweet syrup. This
syrup is extremely thick or viscous and less sweet tasting than
honey or refined sugar. Its viscosity gives foods a thick, chewy
texture. It stabilizes products made with sugar, preventing them
from recrystallization. Corn syrup is available in light and dark
forms; the dark syrup has caramel color and flavor added.

Corn syrup is a hygroscopic (water-attracting) sweetener, which means it will attract water from the air
on humid days and lose water through evaporation more slowly than granulated sugar. Thus, it keeps
products moister and fresher longer.

Honey (Fr. miel) is a strong sweetener

consisting of fructose and glucose. It is
created by honeybees from nectar
collected from flowers. Its flavor and color
vary depending on the season, the type of
flower the nectar came from and its age.
Commercial honey is often a blend,
prepared to be relatively neutral and
consistent. Like corn syrup, honey is highly
hygroscopic. Its distinctive flavor is found
in several ethnic foods such as baklava
and halvah, and beverages such as
Drambuie and Benedictine.

Maple syrup is made from the sap of sugar maple trees.

Sap is collected during the spring, and then boiled to
evaporate its water content, yielding sweet brown syrup.
One sugar maple tree produces about 12 gallons of sap
each season; 30–40 gallons of sap will produce 1 gallon of
syrup. Pure maple syrup must weigh not less than 11
pounds per gallon; it is graded according to color, flavor
and sugar content. The more desirable products, Grades
AA and A, have a light amber color and delicate flavor.
Pure maple syrup is expensive, but it does add a distinct
flavor to baked goods, frostings and, of course, pancakes
and waffles. Maple-flavored syrups, often served with
pancakes, are usually corn syrups with artificial colorings
and flavorings added.
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FAT

Fat is the general term for butter, margarine, lard, shortening and oil. Fats provide flavor and color, add
moisture and richness, assist with leavening, help extend a product’s shelf life and shorten gluten
strands, producing tender baked goods. The flavor and texture of a baked good depends on the type of
fat used and the manner in which it is incorporated with other ingredients. In pastry doughs, solid fat
shortens or tenderizes the gluten strands; in bread dough, fat increases loaf volume and lightness; in
cake batters, fat incorporates air bubbles and helps leaven the mixture. Fats should be selected based
on their flavor, melting point and ability to form emulsions.

Most bakeshop ingredients combine completely with liquids; fats do not. Fats will not dissolve but will
break down into smaller and smaller particles through mixing. With proper mixing, these fat particles
are distributed, more or less evenly, throughout the other ingredients, causing fat and liquid to blend
or emulsify.

BUTTER AND MARGARINE

Butter is prized for its flavor; however, it melts at a

relatively low temperature of approximately 93°F (33°C)
and burns easily. Unsalted butter is preferred for baking
because it tends to be fresher, and additional salt might
interfere with product formulas. Margarine melts at a
slightly higher temperature than butter, making it useful
for some rolled-in doughs such as puff pastry or Danish.

Because they require higher temperatures to melt, margarine and other vegetable-based
shortenings can leave a greasy taste on the tongue. Butter and margarine are discussed in Chapter 7,
Dairy Products.

LARD

Lard (Fr. saindoux) is rendered pork fat. It is a solid

white product of almost 100% pure fat; it contains only
a small amount of water. Lard yields flaky, flavorful
pastries, such as pie crusts, but is rarely used
commercially because it turns rancid quickly.

SHORTENINGS

Any fat is a shortening in baking because it shortens gluten strands and tenderizes the product. What is
generally referred to as shortening, however, is a type of solid, white, generally flavorless fat, specially
formulated for baking. Shortenings are made from animal fats and/or vegetable oils that are solidified
through hydrogenation. These products are 100% fat with a relatively high melting point. Solid all-
purpose shortening is ideal for greasing baking pans because it is flavorless and odorless. When
substituting shortening in a formula calling for butter, additional liquid must be added to compensate
for the lack of moisture in the shortening. Emulsifiers may be added to regular shortening to assist with
moisture absorption and retention as well as leavening.
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Emulsified shortenings, also known as high-ratio shortenings, are used in the commercial production of
cakes and frostings when the formula contains a large amount of sugar. If a formula calls for an
emulsified shortening, use it. If you substitute any other fat, the product’s texture suffers.

OIL

Unlike butter and other fats, oil blends thoroughly

throughout a mixture. It therefore coats more of
the proteins, and the gluten strands produced are
much shorter, a desirable result in fine-textured
products such as muffins or chiffon cakes. For
baking, select neutral flavored oil unless the
distinctive taste of olive oil is desired, as in some
breads. Never substitute oil in a formula requiring
a solid shortening.

THICKENERS

STARCHES

Starches are often used as thickening agents in the bakeshop. Cornstarch, arrowroot and flour can be
used as thickeners for pastry creams, sauces, custards and fruit fillings.

Cornstarch
Cornstarch is a grain-based starch. It must be dissolved in cold water,
and then added to the mixture to be thickened and then heated.
Once it reaches just below the boiling point, it must be cooked until it
thickens into an opaque gel. Products thickened with cornstarch
should not be vigorously stirred once cooled or they can break down.
Products thickened with cornstarch tend to separate when thawed
after freezing.

Arrowroot

Arrowroot is dissolved in cold water and added to a

liquid to thicken it. Used primarily to thicken hot
sauces, arrowroot can break down if overcooked;
making it most appropriate for thickening sauces that
will be served immediately. Although less commonly
encountered in professional bakeshops, tapioca can be
used to thicken a variety of pastry products.
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Tapioca is a starch produced from the root of the

tropical cassava (manioc) plant. It is available as
flour or as balls, referred to as pearls. Tapioca
flour can be used in the same manner as
cornstarch to thicken sauces and fruit mixtures.
Pearl tapioca is used to thicken milk for tapioca
pudding or to thicken fruit pie fillings. Most pearl
tapioca must be soaked in a cold liquid for several
hours before cooking. Instant tapioca, which is
smaller, needs to soak for only 20 to 30 minutes
before cooking.

GELATIN

One of the most commonly used thickeners in the

bakeshop is gelatin, a natural product derived from
collagen, an animal protein. It is available in two forms:
granulated gelatin and sheet (also called leaf) gelatin. A
two-step process is necessary to use either form: The
gelatin must first be softened in a cold liquid, bloomed,
then dissolved in a hot liquid.

Granulated gelatin is available in bulk or in 1⁄4-ounce (7-gram) envelopes

(slightly less than 1 tablespoon). One envelope is enough to set 1 pint (480
milliliters) of liquid into a firm gel for aspic or decorating, or 3 cups (720
milliliters) of liquid into a softer mousse consistency. Granulated gelatin
should be softened in four times its weight of cold liquid for at least 5
minutes, and then heated gently to dissolve. The initial softening in a cold
liquid is necessary to separate the gelatin molecules so that they will not
lump together when the hot liquid is added. Melting over a double boiler
prevents scorching.
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Sheet or leaf gelatin is available in 1-kilogram boxes, sometimes further

packaged in envelopes containing five or six sheets. The sheets are
produced in varying thicknesses and weights; the average weighs about
1⁄10 ounce (3 grams) per sheet. They must be separated and soaked in
ice water until very soft, at least 15 minutes. They are then removed
from the water, squeezed to remove excess moisture and stirred into a
hot liquid until completely dissolved. When sheet gelatin is added to a
hot liquid, it is not necessary to melt it first.

Granulated and sheet gelatin can be substituted in any formula. Sheet gelatin, though more expensive,
is preferred for its lack of flavor and color. It also tends to dissolve more readily and evenly and has a
longer shelf life than the granulated form. Once incorporated into a product such as a Bavarian, gelatin
can be frozen, or melted and reset once or twice, without a loss of thickening ability. Because it
scorches easily, gelatin and mixtures containing gelatin should not be allowed to boil. Products
thickened with gelatin, such as mousse or custard, can become rubbery after a few days in the
refrigerator.

LIQUID INGREDIENTS

Liquid ingredients use in baking may be plain water, milk, and cream or fruit juice.

1. Water - is the cheapest ingredients in baking. It is use to develop

gluten. It serves as dissolving agent and distributes other ingredients
evenly.

2. Milk-acts as strengthening agent to flour. It contributes to

the texture, flavor and keeping the quality of baked products.
It gives golden brown color of the crust and provides
nutrients. Examples: Condensed Milk, Fresh Milk, Evaporated
Milk, Skim
Milk etc.

3. Cream- serves as thickener. Example: whipping cream and light whipping

cream

4 Fruit juices - improve the nutrient content and

give characteristics flavor. They will be diluted with
water.
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FLAVORING

1. Salt-improves the texture of breads. It should be clean

and refined. Iodized salt must be preferred to use.

2. Vanilla- most common flavoring. Available in whole, powder

and extracts

3. Liquor, Liqueur, or Cordials - come in different flavors and these

can be matched with the existing flavor in your pastry/ cakes

a. Rhum/Rum - universal liquor which means it can be used for anything. It comes

from sugar cane.

b. Brandy- comes from grapes

c. Grand Marnier - orange flavored brandy

d. Kirshwasser distilled from cherries

e. Amaretto almond flavored liqueurs

f. Kahlua/Tia Maria - coffee flavored liqueurs

4. Orange/Lemon Zest
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5. Mocha, Hazelnut, Cinnamon

6. Chocolate- Unsweetened, Bittersweet/Semi-

Sweet, Milk Chocolate, White Chocolate

LEAVENING AGENT

Leavening are gas produced or incorporated during mixing and heating of batter or dough to make the
mixture rise, increase volume, and give shape and texture to bake products.

THREE KINDS OF LEAVENING AGENTS

1. Biological Leavening Agent- yeast is a tiny one-

celled plant that acts as a leavening agent in
bread and similar products. Fermentation is the
process through which the yeast acts on sugar
and changes this into carbon dioxide, gas and
alcohol. Yeast is available in two market forms:
active dry yeast and compressed yeast.

2. Physical leavening agent- air, water

vapour or steams are the example
of this leavening agent.

3. Chemical leavening agent- unusually in

powdered form and is used in production
of cake, quick bread and others.
a. Baking soda- chemically known
as sodium bicarbonate
b. Baking powder- is produce by
mixing baking soda, acid and a little
amount of starch which is added to
prevent lumping.
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EGGS

Eggs are the most costly ingredients in baked products. They come from different sizes. Whole eggs
consist of the yolk which is rich in fat and protein. It is made up of protein which has the ability to aid in
combining fat and liquid called emulsification. It is important to use the sizes of eggs specified in the
recipe for accurate measurement of ingredients.

MARKET FORMS OF EGGS

1. Fresh or shell eggs may be purchased

individually, by dozen or in trays of 30 pieces.
Fresh eggs have rough, white and do not have any
desirable odor.

2. Frozen eggs are made of highly quality fresh

eggs. They come in the form of whole eggs with
extra yolks and whites. Frozen eggs are
pasteurized and must be thawed before use.

3. Dried eggs are seldom use in bakeshops. Their

whites are use for preparing meringue. Dried eggs
are use by manufacturers of cake mixes.

USES OF EGGS IN BAKED PRODUCTS

1. Eggs serve as emulsifiers of fat and liquid. The yolk helps produce smooth batter that enhances
the volume and texture of the baked products.

2. They give structure to baked products.

3. They act as leavening agent. Egg foam is produce by beating eggs that absorbs air in tiny bubbles.
The air expands when heated and helps in leavening.
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