The Impact of Underage Intervention to Alcoholism

A Research Paper Presented to the Faculty of the

Senior High School Department
SAN NICOLAS NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
San Nicolas, Ilocos Norte

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

Practical Research 2

ARIANA JANELLE FIESTA

Researchers

May 2022
 CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of Findings

However, these outcomes and behaviors may not be entirely attributable to alcohol. For example,

some youths who have alcohol-related crashes or engage in alcohol-related violence or other

risk-taking behavior may have been otherwise strongly predisposed to engage in problem

behaviors of all sorts due to genetics, family circumstances, or other factors. Similarly, the higher

rates of alcohol dependence, disease, and dysfunction among adults who began heavy drinking

as youths may not be attributable to the early drinking per se. Some of these long-term outcomes

are also consistent with the possibility that some individuals have a particular vulnerability to

developing bad drinking habits and that one of the characteristics of these individuals is that they

start drinking early. For example, children of alcoholics are more likely than children of non-

alcoholics to start drinking during adolescence.

We think that prudent parents and a prudent society should assume, based on the current

evidence, that underage drinking increases the risk of future drinking problems and contributes

independently to the many deficits experienced by early drinkers over the course of their lives.

However, additional research to further refine understanding of the interaction of the multiple

interrelated factors on long-term outcomes is warranted.

Chronic health problems resulting from heavy alcohol use are generally not observed in

adolescents because such effects take longer to accumulate. However, heavy drinking during

adolescence, especially if this behavior is continued in adulthood, places a person at risk of such
health problems as pancreatitis, hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, hypertension, and anemia. Chronic liver

disease and cirrhosis among Filipinos.

In addition to being more vulnerable to experiencing (or committing) sexual assault, young

people who are drinking are also more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior. Young people

are less likely to use a condom if they have been drinking, which puts them at risk for unplanned

pregnancies and contracting sexually transmitted diseases and HIV (the virus that causes AIDS).

More disturbing still is that young people seem to be aware that using alcohol influences their

decisions about sexual behavior: 29 percent of 15- to 17-year-olds and 37 percent of 18- to 24-

year-olds said that alcohol or drugs influenced their decision to do something sexual. In other

words, young people choose to drink even though they realize that alcohol affects their decision

making and may cause them to engage in sexual behaviors they would not do while sober. Early

onset of alcohol use has also been associated with unplanned and unprotected sex.

However, an absence of evidence in this field does not mean that there is evidence of no impact

of alcohol on such individuals. Despite the methodological weakness of research in this field,

there is a large body of evidence which reports consistent trends between alcohol use and a range

of adverse effects. This convergence allows us to draw credible conclusions about the impact of

drinking on young people (particularly around or following puberty).

Conclusion

Alcohol is not an ordinary commodity. While it carries connotations of pleasure and sociability

in the minds of many, harmful consequences of its use are diverse and widespread. From a global

perspective, in order to reduce the harm caused by alcohol, policies need to take into account

specific situations in different societies.

Average volumes consumed and patterns of drinking are two dimensions of alcohol consumption

that need to be considered in efforts to reduce the burden of alcohol-related problems. Avoiding

the combination of drinking and driving is an example of measures that can reduce the health

burden of alcohol. Worldwide, alcohol takes an enormous toll on lives and communities,

especially in developing countries and its contribution to the overall burden of disease is

expected to increase in the future. The main acute effects of ethanol are on the nervous system,

causing characteristic changes in behavior and judgement. There are particular issues with regard

to driving, with different countries setting various ‘safe’ limits for blood-ethanol concentration.

Very high blood-ethanol concentrations can be fatal. Hangovers are unpleasant and are poorly

understood. Various mechanisms have been proposed including direct effects of ethanol on

organs, ethanol withdrawal, accumulation of acetaldehyde and the effects of other chemicals

present in alcoholic drinks. Many treatments are in common usage but there is little evidence of

any particular intervention being beneficial. Alcoholic liver disease results from excessive

drinking and includes fatty liver (which is the early reversible stage) and the more serious

alcohol-induced hepatitis and cirrhosis. Excessive drinking can also lead to nervous-system

damage resulting in dementia, and shrinking of central nervous system tissue. Fetal alcohol

syndrome can result from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy. It involves disruption
of fetal development causing CNS abnormalities, growth retardation and characteristic facial

features. Treatment of liver disorders is difficult other than by abstinence.

Particularly worrying trends are the increases in the average amount of alcohol consumed per

person in countries such as Philippines and the more harmful and risky drinking patterns among

young people. National monitoring systems need to be developed to keep track

of alcohol consumption and its consequences, and to raise awareness amongst the public

and policy-makers. It is up to both governments and concerned citizens to encourage debate and

formulate effective public health policies that minimize the harm caused by alcohol.

Recommendation

There’s no safe level of alcohol use for young people under 18 years. Although trying alcohol is

common among teenagers, there are many risks. Alcohol can impair brain development and

increase the risk of other alcohol-related problems, including addiction, in early adulthood and

beyond. You and other significant adults are a major influence on your child’s use of alcohol,

and you can be a role model for safe alcohol habits. For example, if you choose not to drink

alcohol, that’s great. If you do drink alcohol, you can send your child powerful messages by

drinking occasionally, in moderation and only with other people around. Even the way you talk

about alcohol and other drugs sends a message. For example, you might think about what your

child hears when an adult says something like, ‘I need a drink – I had a shocking day at work’.

Talking about alcohol use is an important way to prevent or limit your child’s use of alcohol.
Preparing to talk with your child

You can make difficult conversations like this easier by learning more about the effects and risks

of alcohol and thinking about what to say beforehand. You could also think about how to answer

questions about alcohol, including questions about your own alcohol use. This way, you’re

prepared if the issue comes up unexpectedly.

When you have a close relationship with your child, it’s easier for you to raise issues like alcohol

use with them, so work on staying connected too.

Starting a conversation

You could start a conversation by talking about something you and your child have seen – for

example, alcohol in a movie, TV show or advertisement, or alcohol at a party. Or you could ask

your child some questions. For example:

 Do kids at school talk about alcohol? What do they say?

 What do you think about our family rules on drinking alcohol?

How to talk with your child

During your conversations with your child about alcohol, you could:

 discuss values and expectations about alcohol use in your family

 communicate facts, including the effects that alcohol has on the body or how it affects

thinking and behavior

 explain things like the size of a standard drink.

It’s important to listen and be open to what your child has to say.

If your child has questions, try to answer them briefly, honestly and calmly. Be clear about your

own beliefs. And if you don’t know the answers to your child’s questions, it’s OK to say so. You

can tell your child you’ll think about it and get back to them.

If your child is going to be around alcohol with other young people, it’s safest for your child not

to drink alcohol.

But in these situations, it’s common for teenagers to want or feel pressured to try alcohol. This

might be because they want to fit in with friends, feel part of their peer group or look cool. You

can help your child plan how to respond to this pressure. For example, your child could say

‘Thanks but I’ve got a game tomorrow’ or ‘No thanks, I don’t drink’.

Some teenagers might try alcohol and enjoy the way it makes them feel. It might give them a

thrill or make them feel ‘grown up’. If you think your child might be in this situation, here are

some messages about alcohol use that can help to keep your child safe:

 Avoid unsupervised and unsafe environments – for example, with strangers, or at large

events and parties where there are no adults.

 Don’t binge-drink.

 Don’t mix alcohol with other drugs.

 Don’t drink and drive.

 Drink slowly, don’t drink on an empty stomach, and alternate alcoholic drinks with

water.

 Keep count of drinks and limit how many alcoholic drinks you have.
  Don’t get involved in drinking games.

 Have a non-drinking buddy.

Body and behavior

Alcohol affects the body in several ways.

At first it can make people feel energized and more social. But as people drink more, they might

become drowsy, lose balance and coordination, slur speech and think more slowly. They can feel

sick and vomit.

As the amount of alcohol in the blood goes up, people can’t think clearly or coordinate their

bodies properly. This means they’re at risk of accidents and injuries or being involved in

violence.

At high levels, alcohol can make people unconscious or stop them breathing normally. Young

people have been known to die from alcohol poisoning or from choking on their own vomit.

Decision-making

One of the most important tasks of adolescence is learning how to make independent,

responsible decisions. Some of these decisions will be good and some not so good – making

mistakes and learning from them is all part of growing up.

But alcohol affects people’s ability to think quickly, make good judgments and avoid dangerous

situations or risky behavior.

For example, a young person under the influence of alcohol could:

 be involved in physical or verbal violence

 have unprotected sex, or not be able to deal with unwanted sexual advances and be

sexually assaulted

 experience hallucinations or delusions that could lead to accidents or injury

 get alcohol poisoning and lose consciousness or die

 black out and forget what they’re doing or where they are

 be injured while swimming, playing sport, climbing or even trying to cross a road

 break the law or get into trouble with the police

 lose control, behave inappropriately and harm important relationships or damage their

reputation.

 greater risk of alcohol-related harm than adults

The teen years are a time of adventure, challenges, and taking risks. Alcohol is often one of the

risks young people take. But most people don’t know how alcohol affects a teen’s body and

behavior. They don’t realize that alcohol can affect young people in different ways from adults.

And they don’t realize that underage drinkers can also harm people other than themselves.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abraham C, Michie S. A taxonomy of behavior change techniques used in interventions. Health

Psychol. 2008;27:379–87.
Aas H, Klepp KI. Adolescents' alcohol use related to perceived norms. Scandinavian Journal of
Psychology. 1992;33(4):315–325. [PubMed: 1287824]
Abbey A, Ross LT, McDuffie D, McAuslan P. Alcohol and dating risk factors for sexual assault
among college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1996;20:147–169.
Allen JP, Hauser ST. Autonomy and relatedness in adolescent-family interactions as predictors
of young adults' states of mind regarding attachment. Development and Psychopathology.
1996;8(4):793–809.
American Academy of Pediatrics. Children, adolescents, and advertising. Pediatrics.
1995;95:295–297. [PubMed: 7838652]
Ary DV, Tildesley E, Hops H, Andrews J. The influence of parent, sibling, and peer modeling
and attitudes on adolescent use of alcohol. International Journal of the Addictions.
1993;28(9):853–880. [PubMed: 8359945]
Austin EW, Johnson KK. Effects of general and alcohol-specific media literacy training on
children's decision making about alcohol. Journal of Health Communication. 1997a;2(1):17–42.
[PubMed: 10977232]
Austin EW, Johnson KK. Immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third
graders' decision making for alcohol. Health Communication. 1997b;9(4):323–349.
Austin EW, Nach-Ferguson B. Sources and influences of young school-age children's general
and brand-specific knowledge about alcohol. Health Communications. 1995;7:1–20.
Bachman JG, Schulenberg J. How part-time work intensity relates to drug use, problem
behavior, time use, and satisfaction among high school seniors: Are these consequences or just
correlates? Developmental Psychology. 1993;29:220–235.
Bachman JG, Wadsworth KN, O'Malley PM, Johnston LD, Schulenberg JE. Smoking, drinking,
and drug use in young adulthood: The impacts of new freedoms and new responsibilities.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1997.
Baer JS, Stacey A, Larimer M. Biases in the perception of drinking norms among students.
Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1991;52:580–586. [PubMed: 1758185]
Baer JS, Barr HM, Bookstein FL, Sampson PD, Streissguth AP. Prenatal alcohol exposure and
family history of alcoholism in the etiology of adolescent alcohol problems. Journal of Studies
on Alcohol. 1998;59(5):533–543. [PubMed: 9718105]
Baer JS, Kivlahan DR, Blume AW, McKnight P, Marlatt GA. Brief intervention for heavy-
drinking college students: 4-year follow-up and natural history. American Journal of Public
Health. 2001;91(8):1310–1316. [PMC free article: PMC1446766] [PubMed: 11499124]
Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1986.
Barnes GM, Farrell MP, Banerjee S. Family influences on alcohol abuse and other problem
behaviors among black and white Americans. In: Boyd GM, Howard J, Zucker RA, editors.
Alcohol problems among adolescents. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1995.
Barnes GM, Reifman AS, Farrell MP, Dintcheff BA. The effects of parenting on the development
of adolescent alcohol misuse: A six-wave latent growth model. Journal of Marriage and the
Family. 2000;62(1):175–186.
Basch CE, DeCicco IM, Malfetti JL. A focus group study on decision processes of young drivers:
Reasons that may support a decision to drink and drive. Health Education Quarterly.
1989;16:389–396. [PubMed: 2793494]
Battistich V, Schaps E, Watson M, Solomon D. Prevention effects of the Child Development
Project: Early findings from an ongoing multisite demonstration trial. Journal of Adolescent
Research. 1996;11:12–35.
Bauman KE, Fisher LA, Koch GG. External variables, subjective expected utility, and
adolescent behavior with alcohol and cigarettes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
1989;19:789–804.
Baumeister RF, Muraven M. Identity as adaptation to social, cultural, and historical context.
Journal of Adolescence. 1996;19:405–416. [PubMed: 9245294]
Beck KH, Lockhart SJ. A model of parental involvement in adolescent drinking and driving.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 1992;21:35–51. [PubMed: 24263681]
Beck KH, Treiman KA. The relationship of social context of drinking, perceived social norms,
and parental influence to various drinking patterns of adolescents. Addictive Behaviors.
1996;21(5):633–644. [PubMed: 8876762]
Beck KH, Scaffa M, Swift R, Ko M. Survey of parent attitudes and practices regarding underage
drinking. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 1995;24(3):315–334.
Benthin A, Slovic P, Severson H. A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception. Journal of
Adolescence. 1993;16:153–168. [PubMed: 8376640]
Berkowitz A. From reactive to proactive prevention: Promoting an ecology of health on campus.
In: Rivers P, Shore E, editors. Substance abuse on campus: A handbook for college and
university personnel. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press; 1997. pp. 119–139.
Beyth-Marom R, Austin L, Fischhoff B, Palmgren C. Perceived consequences of risky behaviors:
Adults and adolescents. Developmental Psychology. 1993;29:549–563.
Bierness DJ, Foss RD, Wilson RJ, Mercer GW. Roadside breath testing surveys to assess the
impact of an enhanced DWI enforcement campaign in British Columbia. Presented at the
International Conference of Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety (ICADTS); Stockholm, Sweden.
May, 2000.
Bogenschneider K, Wu M-Y, Raffaelli M, Tsay JC. “Other teens drink, but not my kid”: Does
parental awareness of adolescent alcohol use protect adolescents from risky consequences?
Journal of Marriage and the Family. 1998;60:356–373.
Bonnie R. Discouraging the use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs: The effects of legal
controls and restrictions. In: Mello NK, editor. Advances in substance abuse research. II.
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; 1982. pp. 145–184.
Bonnie R. Regulating conditions of alcohol availability: Possible effects on highway safety.
Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1985;29(Supp #10):129–143. [PubMed: 3930739]
Bonnie R. The efficacy of law as a paternalistic instrument. In: Melton G, editor. Nebraska
symposium on motivation, 1985, volume 33: The law as a behavioral instrument. Lincoln, NE:
University of Nebraska Press; 1986. pp. 131–211. [PubMed: 3915343]
Botvin GJ, Baker E, Dusenbury L, Botvin EM, Diaz T. Long-term follow-up results of a
randomized drug abuse prevention trial in a white middle-class population. Journal of the
American Medical Association. 1995;273(14):1106–1112. [PubMed: 7707598]
Brannigan R, Falco M, Dusenbury L, Hansen WB. Teen treatment: Addressing alcohol problems
among adolescents. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Reducing underage
drinking: A collective responsibility, background papers; Committee on Developing a Strategy
to Reduce and Prevent Underage Drinking, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and
Education; Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2004. [CD-ROM] [PubMed:
20669473]
Brown BB, Mory M, Kinney DA. Casting adolescent crowds in relational perspective:
Caricature, channel, and context. In: Montemayor R, Adams GR, Gullotta TP, editors. Advances
in adolescent development: Vol. 6. Personal relationships during adolescence. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage; 1994.
Brown SA, Tapert SF. Health consequences of adolescent alcohol involvement. National
Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Reducing underage drinking: A collective
responsibility, background papers; Committee on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and Prevent
Underage Drinking, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Washington,
DC: The National Academies Press; 2004. [CD-ROM] [PubMed: 20669473]
Butterfoss FD, Goodman RM, Wandersman A. Community coalitions for prevention and health
promotion: Factors predicting satisfaction, participation, and planning. Health Education
Quarterly. 1996;23(1):65–79. [PubMed: 8822402]

Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: A social-cognitive theory. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1986. ; Miller, Naimi, Brewer, & Jones, 2007. Positive and Negative
Alcohol Consequences in Adolescents across Various Levels of Drinking Experience.
Caetano R, Clark CL. Trends in alcohol consumption patterns among whites, blacks, and
Hispanics: 1984-1995. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1998;59(6):659–668. [PubMed: 9811087]
Calfee JE, Scheraga C. The influence of alcohol advertising on alcohol consumption: A
literature review and econometric analysis of four European nations. International Journal of
Advertising. 1994;13:287–310.
Casswell S, Gilmore L. An evaluated community action project on alcohol. Journal of Studies on
Alcohol. 1989;50(4):339–346. [PubMed: 2755135]
Casswell S, Zhang JF. Impact of liking for advertising and brand allegiance on drinking and
alcohol-related aggression: A longitudinal study. Addiction. 1998;93:1209–1217. [PubMed:
9813902]
Cavanaugh RM, Henneberger PK. Talking to teens about family problems: An opportunity for
prevention. Clinical Pediatrics. 1996 February;35(2):67–71. [PubMed: 8775478]
Center for the Advancement of Public Health. Promising Practices: Campus Alcohol Strategies.
Fairfax, VA: Author, George Mason University; 2001. Sourcebook 2001.
Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth. Television: Alcohol's vast adland. Washington, DC:
Author, Georgetown University; 2002b.
Center on Alcohol Marketing and Youth. Drops in the bucket: Alcohol industry “responsibility”
advertising on television in 2001. Washington, DC: Author, Georgetown University; 2003.
Century Council. Promising practices sourcebook 2001: Campus alcohol strategies.
Washington, DC: Author; 2001.
Chaloupka FJ. The effects of price on alcohol use, abuse, and their consequences. National
Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Reducing underage drinking: A collective
responsibility, background papers; Committee on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and Prevent
Underage Drinking, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Washington,
DC: The National Academies Press; 2004. [CD-ROM] [PubMed: 20669473]
Chaloupka FJ, Wechsler H. Binge drinking in college: The impact of price. Contemporary
Economic Policy. 1996;14:112–124.
Chaloupka FJ, Saffer H, Grossman M. Alcohol control policies and motor vehicle fatalities.
Journal of Legal Studies. 1993;22:161–186.
Christensen PG, Henriksen L, Roberts DF. Substance use in popular primetime television.
Washington, DC: Office of National Drug Control Policy; 2000.
Christiansen BA, Smith GT. Alcoholism and memory: Broadening the scope of alcohol-
expectancy research. Psychology Bulletin. 1991;110:137–146. [PubMed: 1891515]
Christiansen BA, Goldman MS, Inn A. Development of alcohol-related expectancies in
adolescents: Separating pharmacological from social-learning influences. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology. 1982;50(3):336–344. [PubMed: 7096736]
Christiansen BA, Roehling P, Smith G, Goldman M. Using alcohol expectancies to predict
adolescent drinking behavior after one year. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
1989;57(1):93–99. [PubMed: 2925979]
Chudley EW, Pappas DM, Carlson JM, DiClemente CC. Longitudinal effects of a tailored
alcohol preventive. Jacksonville: Center for Drug Prevention and Health Promotion, University
of North Florida; 2000.
Cialdini RB, Reno RR, Kallgren CA. A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept
of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
1990;58:1015–1026.
Clapp JD. Deconstructing contexts of binge drinking among college students. The American
Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 2000;26(1):139. [PubMed: 10718169]
Clark DB, Kirisci L, Moss H. Early adolescent gateway drug use in sons of fathers with
substance use disorders. Addictive Behavior. 1998;49(2):115–121. [PubMed: 9698986]
Clark DB, Neighbors BD, Lesnick LA, Lynch KG, Donovan JE. Family functioning and
adolescent alcohol use disorders. Journal of Family Psychology. 1998;12(1):81–92.
Cloninger CR. Personality traits and alcoholic predisposition. Paper presented at the
conference of the National Institute on Drug Abuse; Los Angeles: University of California;
1991.
Coate D, Grossman M. Effects of alcoholic beverage prices and legal drinking ages on youth
alcohol use. Journal of Law and Economics. 1988;31(1):145–171.
Cohen DA, Mason K, Scribner RA. The population consumption model, alcohol control
practices, and alcohol-related traffic fatalities. Preventive Medicine. 2001;34:187–197.
[PubMed: 11817914]
Cohen DA, Richardson J, LaBree L. Parenting behaviors and the onset of smoking and alcohol
use: A longitudinal study. Pediatrics. 1994;94(3):368–375. [PubMed: 8065865]
Cohen F, Rogers D. Effects of alcohol policy change. Journal of Alcohol Drug Education.
1997;42(2):69–82.
Connell JP, Halpern-Felsher BL, Clifford E, Crichlow W, Usinger P. Hanging in there:
Behavioral, psychological, and contextual factors affecting whether African-American
adolescents stay in high school. Journal of Adolescent Research. 1995;10:41–63.
Connor JP, Young RM, Williams RJ, Ricciardelli LA. Drinking restraint versus alcohol
expectancies: Which is the better indicator of alcohol problems? Journal of Studies on Alcohol.
2000;61(2):352–359. [PubMed: 10757148]
Cook PJ. The effect of liquor taxes on drinking, cirrhosis, and auto fatalities. In: Moore M,
Gerstein D, editors. Alcohol and public policy: Beyond the shadow of prohibition. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press; 1981. pp. 255–285. [PubMed: 25032319]
Cook PJ. The expert meeting on the negative social consequences of alcohol abuse. Oslo:
Norwegian Ministry of Health and Social Affairs; 1991. The social costs of drinking.
Cook PJ, Ludwig J. Gun violence: The real costs. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000.
Cook PJ, Moore MJ. Economic perspectives on alcohol-related violence. In: Martin SE, editor.
Alcohol-related violence: Interdisciplinary perspectives and research directions. Rockville, MD:
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; 1993a. pp. 193–212. NIH Publication No.
93-3496.
Cook PJ, Moore MJ. Drinking and schooling. Journal of Health Economics. 1993b;12:411–429.
[PubMed: 10131754]
Cook PJ, Moore MJ. Alcohol. In: Culyer AJ, Newhouse JP, editors. Handbook of health
economics. New York: Elsevier; 2000. pp. 1629–1673.
Cook PJ, Tauchen G. The effect of liquor taxes on heavy drinking. Bell Journal of Economics.
1982;13(2):379–390.
Cook PJ, Tauchen G. The effect of minimum drinking age legislation on youthful auto fatalities,
1970-77. Journal of Legal Studies. 1984;13:169–190.
Cook R, Schlenger W. Prevention of substance abuse in the workplace: Review of research on
the delivery of services. Journal of Primary Prevention. 2002;31(1):115–142.
Cowan CD. Coverage, sample design, and weighting in three federal surveys. Journal of Drug
Issues. 2001;31(3):12–239.
Crews FT, Braun CJ, Hoplight B, Switzer RC III, Knapp DJ. Binge ethanol consumption causes
differential brain damage in young adolescent rats compared with adult rats. Alcoholism,
Clinical and Experimental Research. 2000;24(11):1712–1723. [PubMed: 11104119]
Csikszentmihalyi M, Larson R. Being adolescent. New York: Basic Books; 1984.
Darkes J, Goldman MS. Expectancy challenge and drinking reduction: Process and structure in
the alcohol expectancy network. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology.
1998;6(1):64–76. [PubMed: 9526147]
Dean J. Approaches to alcohol abuse prevention. In: Dean J, Bryan W, editors. Alcohol
programming for higher education. Carbondale, IL: ACPA Media Southern Illinois University
Press; 1982. pp. 82–84.
De Bellis MD, Clark DB, Beers SR, Soloff PH, Boring AM, Hall J, Kersh A, Keshavan MS.
Hippocampal volume in adolescent-onset alcohol use disorders. American Journal of
Psychiatry. 2000;157(17):737–744. [PubMed: 10784466]
DeJong W, Hingson R. Strategies to reduce driving under the influence of alcohol. Annual
Reviews Public Health. 1998;19:359–378. [PubMed: 9611624]
DeJong W, Langford LM. A typology for campus-based alcohol prevention: Moving toward
environmental management strategies. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002;14:140–147.
[PubMed: 12022720]
DeJong W, Langford LM, Pryor JH. College students' support for tougher alcohol policies: A
silent majority. Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs Spring. 2001;16(2):9–12.
Dishion TJ, Kavanagh K, Schneiger A, Nelson S, Kaufman NK. Preventing early adolescent
substance use: A family-centered strategy for the public middle school. Prevention Science.
2002;3(3):191–201. [PubMed: 12387554]
Donaldson SI, Graham JW, Hansen WB. Testing the generalizability of intervening mechanism
theories: Understanding the effects of adolescent drug use prevention interventions. Journal of
Behavioral Medicine. 1994;17(2):195–216. [PubMed: 8035452]
Donaldson SI, Graham JW, Piccinin AM, Hansen WB. Resistance-skills training and onset of
alcohol use: Evidence for beneficial and potentially harmful effects in public schools and in
private Catholic schools. Health Psychology. 1995;14(4):291–300. [PubMed: 7556032]
Donohew RL, Hoyle RH, Clayton RR, Skinner WF, Colon SE, Rice RE. Sensation seeking and
drug use by adolescents and their friends: Models for marijuana and alcohol. Journal of Studies
on Alcohol. 1999;60(5):622–631. [PubMed: 10487731]
Dresser J, Gliksman L. Comparing statewide alcohol server training systems. Pharmacology,
Biochemistry, and Behavior. 1998;61:150.
Dunn ME, Goldman MS. Empirical modeling of an alcohol expectancy memory network in
elementary school children as a function of grade. Experimental and Clinical
Psychopharmacology. 1996;4(2):209–217.
Durkin KF, Wolfe TW, Phillips DW III. College students' use of fraudulent identification to
obtain alcohol: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education. 1996;41:92–
104.
Dusenbury L. Family-based drug abuse prevention programs: A review. Journal of Primary
Prevention. 2000;20:337–352.
Dusenbury L, Brannigan R, Falco M, Hansen WB. A review of research on fidelity of
implementation: Implications for drug abuse prevention in school settings. Health Education
Research. 2003;18:237–256. [PubMed: 12729182]
Disney, L. D., & LaVallee, R. A. (2013). The effect of internal possession laws on underage drinking
among high school students: A 12-state analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 103(6), 1090–
1095.

Eccles JS, Barber BL. Student council, volunteering, basketball, or marching band: What kind of
extracurricular involvement matters? Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 1999;6(3):281–294.
Eggert LL, Thompson EA, Herting JR, Nicholas LJ. A prevention research program:
Reconnecting at-risk youth. Issues in Mental Health Nursing. 1994;15:107–135. [PubMed:
8169117]
Eigen L. An OSAP White Paper. Rockville, MD: Office for Substance Abuse Prevention; 1991.
Alcohol practices, policies, and potentials of American colleges and universities.
Elder RW, Shults RA. Involvement by young drivers in fatal alcohol-related motor-vehicle
crashes—United States, 1982-2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2002
December;51(48):1089–1091. [PubMed: 12528920]
Ellickson PL, Bell RM, Harrison ER. Changing adolescent propensities to use drugs: Results
from Project ALERT. Health Education Quarterly. 1993;20:227–242. [PubMed: 8491635]
Engelberts AC, De Jonge GA, Kostense PJ. An analysis of trends in the incidence of sudden
infant death in the Netherlands 1969 to 1989. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health.
1991;27(6):329–333. [PubMed: 1756073]
Ennett ST, Bauman KE. Mediators in the relationship between parental and peer characteristics
and beer drinking by early adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
1991;21(20):1699–1711.
Entertainment Software Review Board. ESRB game ratings, game rating and descriptor guide.
2003. Available:http://www.esrb.com/esrbratings_guide.asp [August, 2003]
Fawcett SB, Lewis RK, Paine-Andrews A, Francisco VT, Richter KP, Williams EL, Copple B.
Evaluating community coalitions for prevention of substance abuse: The case of Project
Freedom. Health Education and Behavior. 1997;24:812–828. [PubMed: 9408793]
Feldman SS, Rosenthal DA. The acculturation of autonomy expectations in Chinese high
schoolers residing in two Western nations: Effects of length of residence. International Journal
of Psychology. 1990;25:259–281.
Fendrich M, Johnson TP. Examining prevalence differences in three national surveys of youth:
Impact of consent procedures, mode, and editing rules. Journal of Drug Issues. 2001;31(3):615–
642.
Ferguson SA, Fields M, Voas RB. Enforcement of zero tolerance laws in the United States.
Paper presented at the 15th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs, and Traffic Safety;
Stockholm, Sweden. May, 2000.
Finken LL, Jacobs JE, Laguna K. The role of age, experience, and situational factors in the
drinking and driving decisions of college students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence.
1998;27:493–511.
Flynn BS, Worden JK, Secker-Walker RH, Pirie PL, Badger GJ, Carpenter JH, Geller BM. Mass
media and school interventions for cigarette smoking prevention: Effects two years after completion.
American Journal of Public Health. 1994;84(7):1148–1150. [PMC free article: PMC1614753]
[PubMed: 8017542]

Forster JL, Murray DM, Wolfson M, Wagenaar AC. Commercial availability of alcohol to young
people: Results of alcohol purchase attempts. Preventive Medicine. 1995;24:342–347. [PubMed:
7479623]

Foster SE, Vaughan RD, Foster WH, Califano JA. Alcohol consumption and expenditures for
underage drinking and adult excessive drinking. Journal of the American Medical Association.
2003;26(8):989–995. [PubMed: 12597750]

Fowler FJ Jr, Stringfellow VL. Learning from experience: Estimating teen use of alcohol, cigarettes,
and marijuana from three survey protocols. Journal of Drug Issues. 2001;31:643–664.

Garfield CF, Chung PJ, Rathouz PJ. Alcohol advertising in magazines and adolescent readership.
Journal of the American Medical Association. 2003;289(18):2424–2429. [PubMed: 12746369]

Gliksman L, McKenzie D, Single E, Douglas R, Brunet S, Moffatt K. Role of alcohol providers in

prevention: An evaluation of a server intervention programme. Addiction. 1993;88:1195–1203.
[PubMed: 8241919]
Goldberg JH, Halpern-Felsher BL, Millstein SG. Beyond invulnerability: The importance of benefits
in adolescents' decision to drink alcohol. Health Psychology. 2002;21:477–484. [PubMed:
12211515]

Gottfredson DC, Wilson DB. Characteristics of effective school-based substance abuse prevention.
Prevention Science. 2003;4(1):23–38. [PubMed: 12611417]

Grant BF, Dawson DF. Age of onset of alcohol use and its association with DSM IV alcohol abuse
and dependence: Results from the national longitudinal alcohol epidemiologic survey. Journal of
Substance Abuse. 1997;9:103–110. [PubMed: 9494942]

Greenberger E, Steinberg L. When teenagers work: The psychological and social costs of adolescent
employment. New York: Basic Books; 1986.

Grube JW. Comparison of drinking rates and problems: European countries and the United States.
Calverton, MD: Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, Office of Juvenile Justice Enforcing
the Underage Drinking Laws Program; 2001.

Grube JW. Alcohol in the media: Drinking portrayals, alcohol advertising, and alcohol consumption
among youth. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Reducing underage drinking: A
collective responsibility, background papers; Committee on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and
Prevent Underage Drinking, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Washington,
DC: The National Academies Press; 2004. [CD-ROM] [PubMed: 20669473]

Grube JW, Nygaard P. Adolescent drinking and alcohol policy. Contemporary Drug Problems.
2001;28:87–131.

Grube JW, Chen M, Madden P, Morgan M. Predicting adolescent drinking from alcohol expectancy
values: A comparison of additive, interactive, and nonlinear models. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology. 1995;25(10):839–857.

Grube JW, Wallack L. Television beer advertising and drinking knowledge, beliefs, and intentions
among schoolchildren. American Journal of Public Health. 1994;84:254–259. [PMC free article:
PMC1614998] [PubMed: 8296950]

Gruber E, DiClemente RJ, Anderson MM, Lodico M. Early drinking onset and its association with
alcohol use and problem behavior in late adolescence. Preventive Medicine. 1996;25:293–300.
[PubMed: 8781007]

Grunbaum JA, Kann L, Kinchen SA, Williams B, Ross JG, Lowry R, Kolbe L. Youth risk behavior
surveillance, United States, 2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2002 June;51(SS04):1–64.
[PubMed: 12102329]
Hackbarth DP, Schnopp-Wyatt D, Katz D, Williams J, Silvestri B, Pfleger M. Collaborative research
and action to control the geographic placement of outdoor advertising of alcohol and tobacco
products in Chicago. Public Health Reports. 2001;116(6):558–567. [PMC free article:
PMC1497388] [PubMed: 12196615]

Hafemeister TL, Jackson SL. Effectiveness of sanctions and law enforcement practices targeted at
underage drinking not involving operation of a motor vehicle. National Research Council and

Haines M, Spear S. Changing the perception of the norm: A strategy to decrease binge drinking
among college students. Journal of American College Health. 1996;45:134–140. [PubMed:
8952206]

Hallfors D, Cho H, Livert D, Kadushin C. Fighting back against substance abuse: Are community
coalitions winning? American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2002;23(4):237–245. [PubMed:
12406477]

Halpern-Felsher BL, Cauffman E. Costs and benefits of a decision: Decision making competence in
adolescents and adults. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 2001;22:257–273.

Halpern-Felsher BL, Ozer EM, Millstein SG, Wibbelsman CJ, Fuster CD, Elster AB, Irwin CE.
Preventive services in a health maintenance organization: How well do pediatricians screen and
educate adolescent patients? Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 2000;154:173–179.
[PubMed: 10665605]

Hansen W, Graham JW. Preventing alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use among adolescents: Peer
resistance training versus establishing conservative norms. Preventive Medicine. 1991;20:414–430.
[PubMed: 1862062]

Hanson DJ. The drinking age should be lowered. In: Engs RC, editor. Controversies in the addictions
field. Vol. 1. Baltimore, MD: American Council on Alcoholism; 1990. pp. 85–95.

Hardesty PH, Kirby KM. Relation between family religiousness and drug use within adolescent peer
groups. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 1995;10(2):421–430.

Harford TC. Situational factors in drinking: A developmental perspective on drinking contexts. In:
Miller PM, Nirenburg TD, editors. Prevention of alcohol abuse. New York: Plenum Press; 1984. pp.
119–156.

Harford TC, Wechsler H, Muthen BO. The impact of current residence and high school drinking on
alcohol problems among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002;63(3):271–279.
[PubMed: 12086127]
Harrington NT, Leitenberg H. Relationship between alcohol consumption and victim behaviors
immediately preceding sexual aggression by an acquaintance. Violence and Victims. 1994;9(4):315–
324. [PubMed: 7577759]

Harrison LD. Understanding the differences in youth drug prevalence rates produced by the MTF,
NHSDA, and YRBS studies. Journal of Drug Issues. 2001;31(3):665–694.

Harrison PA, Fulkerson JA, Park E. Relative importance of social versus commercial sources in
youth access to tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs. Preventive Medicine. 2000;31:39–48. [PubMed:
10896842]

Harter S, Marold DB, Whitesell NR, Cobbs G. A model of the effects of perceived parent and peer
support on adolescent false self behavior. Child Development. 1996;67:360–374. [PubMed:
8625718]

Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Kosterman R, Abbott R, Hill KG. Preventing adolescent health-risk
behaviors by strengthening protection during childhood. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine.
1999;153:226–234. [PubMed: 10086398]

Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Miller JY. Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug
problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance-abuse prevention.
Psychological Bulletin. 1992;112(1):64–105. [PubMed: 1529040]

Hawthorne G, Garrard J, Dunt DR. The Trojan Horse: Life education's drug education program,
does it have public health benefit. Addiction. 1995;90(2):205–215. [PubMed: 7703814]

Herd D. Contesting culture: Alcohol-related identity movements in contemporary African-American

communities. Contemporary Drug Problems. 1993;20:739–758.

Herd D. Changes in the prevalence of alcohol use in rap song lyrics, 1979-1997. 2003 Unpublished.
[PubMed: 16128715]

Hibell B, Andersson B, Ahlström S, Balakireva O, Bjarnason T, Kokkevi A, Morgan M. Stockholm:

Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs; 2000. The 1999 ESPAD report:
Alcohol and other drug use among students in 30 European countries.

Higher Education Center. Planning campus events (HEC 712). Newton, MA: The Higher Education
Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention; 1998.

Hingson RW, Heeren T, Winter M. Effects of lower legal blood alcohol limits for young and adult
drivers. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving. 1994;10:243–252.
Hingson RW, Heeren T, Zakocs RC, Kopstein A, Wechsler H. Magnitude of alcohol-related mortality
and morbidity among U.S. college students ages 18-24. Journal of Studies on Alcohol.
2002;63(2):136–144. [PubMed: 12033690]

Hingson RW, Howland J. Comprehensive community interventions to promote health: Implications

for college-age drinking problems. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 2002;(Suppl 14):226–240.
[PubMed: 12022727]

Hingson RW, Howland J, Levenson S. Effects of legislative reform to reduce drunken driving and
alcohol-related traffic fatalities. Public Health Reports. 1988a;103(6):659–667. [PMC free article:
PMC1478153] [PubMed: 3141962]

Hingson RW, Howland J, Morelock S, Heeren T. Legal interventions to reduce drunken driving and
related fatalities among youthful drivers. Alcohol, Drugs and Driving. 1988b;4:87–98.

Hingson RW, McGovern T, Howland J, Heeren T, Winter M, Zakocs R. Reducing alcohol-impaired

driving in Massachusetts: The Saving Lives Program. American Journal of Public Health.
1996;86(6):791–797. [PMC free article: PMC1380396] [PubMed: 8659651]

Holder HD. Supply side approaches to reducing underage drinking: An assessment of the scientific
evidence. National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Reducing underage drinking: A
collective responsibility, background papers; Committee on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and
Prevent Underage Drinking, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Washington,
DC: The National Academies Press; 2004. [CD-ROM] [PubMed: 20669473]

Holder HD, Gruenewald PJ, Ponicki WR, Grube JW, Saltz RF, Voas RB, Reynolds R, Davis J,
Sanchez L, Gaumont G, Roeper P, Treno AJ. Effect of community-based interventions on high-risk
drinking and alcohol-related injuries. Journal of the American Medical Association.
2000;284(18):2341–2347. [PubMed: 11066184]

Holder HD, Janes K, Mosher J, Saltz RF, Spurr S, Wagenaar AC. Alcoholic beverage server liability
and the reduction of alcohol-involved problems. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1993;54:23–36.
[PubMed: 8355497]

Holder HD, Saltz RF, Grube JW, Treno AJ, Reynolds RI, Voas RB, Gruenewald PJ. Summing up:
Lessons from a comprehensive community prevention trial to reduce alcohol-involved trauma.
Addiction. 1997a;92(Suppl 2):S293–S301. [PubMed: 9231452]

Holder HD, Saltz RF, Grube JW, Voas RB, Gruenewald PJ, Treno AJ. A community prevention trial
to reduce alcohol-involved accidental injury and death: Overview. Addiction. 1997b;92(Suppl
2):S155–S172. [PubMed: 9231442]
Holder HD, Treno AJ. Media advocacy in community prevention: News as a means to enhance policy
change. Addiction. 1997;92(Suppl 2):S189–S199. [PubMed: 9231444]

Holder HD, Wagenaar AC. Mandated server training and reduced alcohol-involved traffic crashes: A
time series analysis of the Oregon experience. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 1994;26:89–97.
[PubMed: 8110360]

Hornik R, Maklan D, Cadell D, Prado A, Barmada C, Jacobsohn L, Orwin R, Sridharan S, Zador P,

Southwell B, Zanutto E, Baskin R, Chu A, Morin C, Taylor K, Steele D. Evaluation of the National
Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign: Fourth semi-annual report of findings: Executive summary.
Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse; May, 2002.

Humphrey J, Friedman J. The onset of drinking and intoxication among university students. Journal
of Studies on Alcohol. 1986;47:455–458. [PubMed: 3795959]

Hurst PM, Wright PG. Deterrence at last: The Ministry of Transport's alcohol blitzes. In: Goldberg
L, editor. Alcohol, drugs and traffic safety. III. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell International; 1981.

Healey, C., Rahman, A., Faizal, M., & Kinderman, P. (2014). Underage drinking in the UK:
Changing trends, impact and interventions. A rapid evidence synthesis. International Journal of Drug
Policy, 25(1), 124–132.

Hagger MS, Chatzisarantis NLD. An integrated behavior-change model for physical activity.
Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2014;42:62–9.
Hudson, A., Wekerle, C., & Stewart, S. H. (2015). Associations between personality and drinking
motives in adolescents involved in the child welfare system.  Personality and Individual Differences,
81(1), 84–89.

International Center for Alcohol Policies. Drinking age limits. Washington, DC: International Center
for Alcohol Policies; 2002. (ICAP Reports 4), revised.

Jaccard J, Turrisi R. Cognitive processes and individual differences in judgments relevant to drunk
driving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1987;53:135–145. [PubMed: 3612486]

Jacobs JE. Perceptions of risk and social judgments: Biases and motivational factors. National
Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Reducing underage drinking: A collective responsibility,
background papers; Committee on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and Prevent Underage Drinking,
Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Washington, DC: The National
Academies Press; 2004. [CD-ROM] [PubMed: 20669473]
Jacobs JE. Everyone else is doing it: Relations between bias in base rate estimates and involvement
in problem behaviors. Paper presented at the Society for Research on Adolescence; Chicago, IL.
2000.

Jacobs JE, Ganzel AK. Decision making in adolescence: Are we asking the wrong question? In:
Maehr ML, Pintrich PR, editors. Advances in achievement and motivation. Vol. 8. Greenwich, CT:
JAI Press; 1994. pp. 1–31.

Jacobs JE, Greenwald JP, Osgood DW. Developmental differences in base rate estimates of social
behaviors and attitudes. Social Development. 1995;4:165–181.

Jacobs JE, Klaczynski PA. The development of judgment and decision making during childhood and
adolescence. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2002;11:145–149.

Jainchill N, Bhattacharya G, Yagelka J. Therapeutic communities for adolescents. NIDA Research

Monograph. 1995;156:190–217. [PubMed: 8594472]

Jenson JM, Howard MO, Yaffe J. Treatment of adolescent substance abusers: Issues for practice and
research. Social Work in Health Care. 1995;21:1–18. [PubMed: 8553196]

Jernigan D, O'Hara J. Alcohol advertising and promotion. National Research Council and Institute
of Medicine, Reducing underage drinking: A collective responsibility, background papers; Committee
on Developing a Strategy to Reduce and Prevent Underage Drinking, Division of Behavioral and
Social Sciences and Education; Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2004. [CD-ROM]
[PubMed: 20669473]

Jernigan D, Wright PA. Making news, changing policy: Case studies of media advocacy on alcohol
and tobacco issues. Rockville, MD: University Research Corporation, Marin Institute, Center for
Substance Abuse Prevention; 1994.

Jernigan D, Wright PA. Media advocacy: Lessons from community experiences. Journal of Public
Health Policy. 1996;17(3):306–329. [PubMed: 8918021]

Jessor R, Jessor S. A social-psychological framework for studying drug use. NIDA Research
Monograph. 1980;30:102–109. [PubMed: 6779164]

Johannessen K, Glider P, Collins C, Hueston H, DeJong W. Preventing alcohol-related problems at

the University of Arizona's homecoming: An environmental management case study. American
Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 2001;27(3):587–597. [PubMed: 11506270]
Johnson V, Pandina RJ. A longitudinal examination of the relationships among stress, coping
strategies, and problems associated with alcohol use. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental
Research. 1993;17:696–702. [PubMed: 8333603]

Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG. Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug
use: Overview of key findings, 2002. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 2003. NIH
Publication No. 03-5374.

Jones BT, Corbin W, Fromme K. A review of expectancy theory and alcohol consumption. Addiction.
2001;96(1):427–436. [PubMed: 11177520]

Jones N, Pieper C, Robertson L. The effect of the legal drinking age on fatal injuries of adolescents
and young adults. American Journal of Public Health. 1992;82:112–114. [PMC free article:
PMC1694407] [PubMed: 1536313]

Jones-Webb R, Toomey TL, Short B, Murray DM, Wagenaar A, Wolfson M. Relationships among
alcohol availability, drinking location, alcohol consumption, and drinking problems in adolescents.
Substance Use and Misuse. 1997;32:1261–1285. [PubMed: 9286000]

Kallgren CA, Reno RR, Cialdini RB. A focus theory of normative conduct: When norms do and do not
affect behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2000;26:1002–1012.

Kaminer Y, Bukstein O. Adolescent chemical use and dependency: Current issues in epidemiology,
treatment and prevention. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989;79:415–424. [PubMed: 2665421]

Kandel DB. Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of
Sociology. 1978;84:427–436.

Kandel DB, Logan JA. Patterns of drug use from adolescence to young adulthood: I. Periods of risk
for initiation, continued use, and discontinuation. American Journal of Public Health.
1984;74(7):660–666. [PMC free article: PMC1651682] [PubMed: 6611092]

Kellogg. Binge drinking on college campuses. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and
Improvement; 1999.

Kelly JJ, Slater MD, Karan D. Image advertisements' influence on adolescents' perceptions of the
desirability of beer and cigarettes. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing. 2002;21(2):295–304.

Kenkel DS. Drinking, driving and deterrence: The effectiveness and social costs of alternative
policies. Journal of Law and Economics. 1993;36(2):877–914.
Kenkel DS. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 10th special report to the U.S.
Congress on alcohol and health. Bethesda, MD: Author; 2000. Effects of changes in alcohol prices
and taxes; pp. 341–354.

Kenny ME, Donaldson GA. Contributions of parental attachment and family structure to the social
and psychological functioning of first-year college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology.
1991;38:479–486.

Lang E, Stockwell T, Rydon P, Beel A. Can training bar staff in responsible serving practices reduce
alcohol-related harm? Drug and Alcohol Review. 1998;17:39–50. [PubMed: 16203467]

Langley JD, Wagenaar AC, Begg DJ. An evaluation of the New Zealand graduated driver licensing
system. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 1996;28:139–146. [PubMed: 8703271]

Larimer ME, Cronce JM. Identification, prevention and treatment: A review of individual-focused
strategies to reduce problematic alcohol consumption by college students. Journal of Studies on
Alcohol. 2002;14:148–163. [PubMed: 12022721]

Larson R, Kleiber D. Free-time activities as factors in adolescent adjustment. In: Tolan P, Choler B,
editors. Handbook of clinical research and practice with adolescents. New York: Oxford University
Press; 1990.

Lastovicka JL. Methodological interpretation of the experimental and survey research evidence
concerning alcohol adverting effects. In: Martin SE, editor. The effects of the mass media on the use
and abuse of alcohol. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism; 1995. pp.
69–81.

Lustig JL, Ozer EM, Adams SH, Wibbelsman CJ, Fuster CD, Bonar RW, Irwin CE. Improving the
delivery of adolescent clinical preventive services through skills-based training. Pediatrics.
2001;107:1100–1107. [PubMed: 11331693]

Manger TH, Hawkins JD, Haggerty KP, Catalano RF. Mobilizing communities to reduce risks for
drug abuse: Lessons on using research to guide prevention practice. Journal of Primary Prevention.
1992;13(1):3–22. [PubMed: 24258340]

Mann RE, Stoduto G, Anglin L, Pavic B, Fallon F, Lauzon R, Amitay OA. Graduated licensing in
Ontario: Impact of the 0 BAL provision on adolescents' drinking-driving. In: Mercier-Guyon C,
editor. Alcohol, drugs, and traffic safety. Vol. 3. Annecy, France: Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches en
Médecine du Trafic; 1997. pp. 1055–1060.

Michie S, Whittington C, Hamoudi Z, Zarnani F, Tober G, West R. Identification of behaviour

change techniques to reduce excessive alcohol consumption. Addiction. 2012;107:1431–40.
Oei TP, Fergusson S, Lee NK. The differential role of alcohol expectancies and drinking refusal self-
efficacy in problem and nonproblem drinkers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 1998;59(6):704–711.
[PubMed: 9811092]

Ohsfeldt RL, Morrisey MA. Beer taxes, workers' compensation, and industrial injury. Review of
Economics and Statistics. 1997;79(1):155–160.

Olds RS, Thombs DL. The relationship of adolescent perceptions of peer norms and parent
involvement to cigarette and alcohol use. Journal of School Health. 2001;71(6):223–228. [PubMed:
11512489]

Perry CL, Williams CL, Komro KA, Veblen-Mortenson S, Forster JL, Bernstein-Lachter R, Pratt LK,
Dudovitz B, Munson KA, Farbakhsh K, Finnegan J, McGovern P. Project Northland high school
interventions: Community action to reduce adolescent alcohol use. Health Education and Behavior.
2000;27(1):29–49. [PubMed: 10709791]

Peterson PL, Hawkins JD, Abbott RD, Catalano RF. Disentangling the effects of parent drinking,
family management, and parental alcohol norms on current drinking by Black and White adolescents.
Journal of Research on Adolescence. 1994;4:203–228.

Ramirez, J. J., Monti, P. M., & Colwill, R. M. (2015). Alcohol-cue exposure effects on craving and
attentional bias in underage college-student drinkers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(2),
317–322.

Roper Center at University of Connecticut. Public opinion online, accession # 0025861, question 001,
Gallup Poll. Sep, 1987. Available:http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/ipoll.html[February, 2003].

Roper Center at University of Connecticut. Public opinion online, accession # 0150315, question 005,
Gallup Poll. Sep, 1988. Available:http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/ipoll.html[February, 2003].

Saffer H, Grossman M. Beer taxes, the legal drinking age, and youth motor vehicle fatalities. Journal
of Legal Studies. 1987;16:351–374.

Saltz RF. Roles of bars and restaurants in preventing alcohol-impaired driving: An evaluation of
server intervention. Evaluation and Health Professions. 1987;10:5–27.

Saltz RF. Research needs and opportunities in server intervention programs. Health Education
Quarterly. 1989;16:429–438. [PubMed: 2793495]

Zuckerman M. Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum; 1979.