01.

FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN

TOTAL MARKS: 14
❖ Definition:

✓ Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and

improving the existing ones.

✓ A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the

overall cost of production and operation. The process of design
is a long and time consuming one.

✓ In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a

good knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics,
Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Theory of
Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.

❖ Classifications of Machine Design :

1. Adaptive Design.
In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of
existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or
skill and can be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training.
The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the
existing
designs of the product.

2. Development Design.
This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by
adopting a new material or different method of manufacture. In this
case, though the designer starts from the existing design, but the final
product may differ quite markedly from the original product.
3. New Design.
This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and
creative thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of
a sufficiently high order can take up the work of a new design.

❖ General Considerations in Machine Design:

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine

component:

1. Type of Load and Stresses Caused By the Load.

The load, on a machine component, may act in several ways due to
which the internal stresses are set up.

2. Motion of the Parts or Kinematics of the Machine.

The successful operation of any machine depends largely upon the
simplest arrangement of the parts which will give the motion required.
The motion of the parts may be:
(a) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating
motions.
(b) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple
harmonic.
(c) Constant velocity.
(d) Constant or variable acceleration.

3. Selection of Materials.
It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of
the properties of the materials and their behavior under working
conditions. Some of the important characteristics of materials are:
strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and
corrosion, ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability,
electrical conductivity, etc.
4. Form and Size of The Parts.

The form and size are based on judgment. The smallest practicable
Cross-section may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses
induced in the designed cross-section are reasonably safe. In order to
design any machine part for form and size, it is necessary to know the
forces which the part must sustain.

5. Frictional Resistance and Lubrication.

There is always a loss of power due to frictional resistance and it
should be noted that the friction of starting is higher than that of
running friction. It is, therefore, essential that a careful attention must
be given to the matter of lubrication of all surfaces which move in
contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding, or rolling bearings.

6. Convenient and Economical Features.

In designing, the operating features of the machine should be
carefully studied. The starting, controlling and stopping levers should
be located on the basis of convenient handling.

7. Use of Standard Parts.

The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because the cost of
standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts
made to order.

8. Safety of Operation.
Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which are
speeded up to insure production at a maximum rate.
Therefore, any moving part of a machine which is within the zone of
a worker is considered an accident hazard and may be the cause of an
injury.
It is, therefore, necessary that a designer should always provide safety
devices for the safety of the operator.

9. Workshop Facilities.
A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his
employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work
done in some other workshop.
It is sometimes necessary to plan and supervise the workshop
operations and to draft methods for casting, handling and machining
special parts.

10. Number of machines to be manufactured.

The number of articles or machines to be manufactured affects the
design in a number of ways. The engineering and shop costs which
are called fixed charges or overhead expenses are distributed over the
number of articles to be manufactured.

11. Cost of Construction.

The cost of construction of an article is the most important
consideration involved in design. In some cases, it is quite possible
that the high cost of an article may immediately bar it from further
considerations.

12. Assembling.
Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can
function. Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and
then taken to be transported to their place of service.
 ❖ General Procedure in Machine Design:

1. Recognition of Need.
First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating the
need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.

2. Synthesis (Mechanisms).

Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which will

give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of Forces.
Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.

4. Material Selection.
Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.

5. Design of Elements (Size and Stresses).

Find the size of each member of the machine by considering the force
acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material
used. It should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect
or deform than the permissible limit.

6. Modification.
Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and
judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be
necessary by consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.

7. Detailed Drawing.
Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes
suggested.

8. Production.
The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.
 ❖ Load:

“It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine

part”.

The following four types of the load are important from the subject
point of view:

1. Dead or Steady Load.

A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not change in
magnitude or direction.

2. Live or variable load.

A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads.
A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load, when
it is suddenly applied or removed.

4. Impact load.
A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some
initial velocity.

❖ Stress:

“Internal force per unit area at any section of the body is

known as Unit Stress or simply a Stress”.
It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).

Mathematically,
Stress, σ = P/A
where P = Force or load acting on a body, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the body.
In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such
that 1 Pa = 1 N/m2.
In actual practice, we use bigger units of stress i.e. megapascal
(MPa) and Gigapascal (GPa), such that;
1 MPa = 1 × 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2
and 1 GPa = 1 × 109 N/m2 = 1 kN/mm2.

▪ Tensile Stress:

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P

(also called tensile load) as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a), then the stress
induced at any section of the body is known as tensile stress as shown
in Fig. 4.1 (b).
A little consideration will show that due to the tensile load, there will
be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in length of the
body. The ratio of the increase in length to the original length is
known as tensile strain.

Tensile stress, σt = P/A

and tensile strain, εt = δl / l
▪ Compressive Stress:

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes P

(also called compressive load) as shown in Fig. (a), then the stress
induced at any section of the body is known as compressive stress
as shown in Fig.(b).
A little consideration will show that due to the compressive load,
there will be an increase in cross-sectional area and a decrease in
length of the body.
The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length is known as
compressive strain.

Compressive stress, σc = P/A

and compressive strain, εc = δl /l
 ▪ Shear Stress:
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across
the resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off the section, then
the stress induced is called shear stress.

Tangential Force
Shear stress, τ =
Resisting Area

shear stress on the rivet cross-section,

It may be noted that when the tangential force is resisted by two cross-sections of the
rivet (or when the shearing takes place at two cross-sections of the rivet), then the
rivets are said to be in Double Shear. In such a case, the area resisting the shear off
the rivet,
▪ Torsional Shear Stress:
When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and
opposite couples acting in parallel planes (or torque or twisting
moment), then the machine member is said to be subjected to torsion.
The stress set up by torsion is known as Torsional Shear Stress.
It is zero at the centroidal axis and maximum at the outer surface.
Consider a shaft fixed at one end and subjected to a torque (T) at the
other end as shown in Fig. As a result of this torque, every cross-
section of the shaft is subjected to Torsional Shear Stress.
The maximum torsional shear stress at the outer surface of the shaft
may be obtained from the following equation:

where ;
τ = Torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft or
maximum
shear stress,
r = Radius of the shaft,
T = Torque or twisting moment,
J = Second moment of area of the section about its polar axis or polar
moment of inertia,
C = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material,
l = Length of the shaft, and
θ = Angle of twist in radians on a length l.
▪ Bending Stress:
“In engineering practice, the machine parts of structural members
may be subjected to static or dynamic loads which cause Bending
Stress in the sections besides other types of stresses such as tensile,
compressive and shearing stresses”.

Consider a straight beam subjected to a bending moment M as shown

in Fig.
A little consideration will show that when a beam is subjected to the
bending moment, the fibres on the upper side of the beam will be
shortened due to compression and those on the lower side will be
elongated due to tension.

It may be seen that somewhere between the top and bottom fibres
there is a surface at which the fibres are neither shortened nor
lengthened. Such a surface is called Neutral Surface.

The intersection of the neutral surface with any normal cross-section

of the beam is known as Neutral Axis.

The bending equation is given by:

 Where;
M = Bending moment acting at the given section,
σ = Bending stress,
I = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis,
y = Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibre,
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the beam, and
R = Radius of curvature of the beam.
Also from the above equation, the bending stress,

The ratio I/y is known as section modulus and is denoted by Z.

▪ Bearing Pressure:

“Local compression which exists at the surface of contact between

two members of a machine part that are in relative motion, is called
Bearing Pressure”.

This term is commonly used in the design of a journal supported in a

bearing, pins for levers, crank pins, clutch lining, etc.
Let us consider a journal rotating in a fixed bearing as shown in
Fig.(a).

The journal exerts a bearing pressure on the curved surfaces of the

brasses immediately below it. The distribution of this bearing pressure
will not be uniform, but it will be in accordance with the shape of the
surfaces in contact and deformation characteristics of the two
materials. The distribution of bearing pressure will be similar to that
as shown in Fig. (b).

Since the actual bearing pressure is difficult to determine, therefore

the average bearing pressure is usually calculated by dividing the load
to the projected area of the curved surfaces in contact. Thus, the
average bearing pressure for a journal supported in a bearing is given
by:
 ▪ Bearing Stress or Crushing Stress:

“A localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between two

members of a machine part, that are relatively at rest is known as
Bearing Stress or Crushing Stress”.

The bearing stress or crushing stress is taken into account in the

design of riveted joints, cotter joints, knuckle joints, etc. Let us
consider a riveted joint subjected to a load P as shown in Fig.
In such a case, the bearing stress or crushing stress at the surface of
contact between the rivet and a plate,
▪ Strain:

“When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some

deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as unit strain
or simply a strain”.
It is denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (ε).
Mathematically ;

▪ Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity:

“Hooke's law states that when a material is loaded within elastic

limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain, i.e.”
▪ Stress-Strain Diagram For Ductile Material:

1. Proportional Limit.

We see from the diagram that from point O to A is a straight line,

which represents that the stress is proportional to strain. Beyond point
A, the curve slightly deviates from the straight line. It is thus obvious,
that Hooke's law holds good up to point A and it is known as
proportional limit. It is defined as that stress at which the stress-strain
curve begins to deviate from the straight line.

2. Elastic Limit.

It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A upto
the point B, the material will regain its shape and size when the load
is
removed. This means that the material has elastic properties up to the
point B. This point is known as elastic limit. It is defined as the stress
developed in the material without any permanent set.
3. Yield Point.

If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach
i.e. on the removal of the load, the material will not be able to recover
its original size and shape. A little consideration will show that
beyond point B, the strain increases at a faster rate with any increase
in the stress until the point C is reached. At this point, the material
yields before the load and there is an appreciable strain without any
increase in stress. In case of mild steel, it will be seen that a small
load drops to D, immediately after yielding commences. Hence there
are two yield points C and D. The points C and D are called the upper
and lower yield points respectively. The stress corresponding to yield
point is known as yield point stress.

4. Ultimate Stress.
At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of
stresses are required for higher strains, than those between A and D.
The stress (or load) goes on increasing till the point E is reached. The
gradual increase in the strain (or length) of the specimen is followed
with the uniform reduction of its cross-sectional area. The work done,
during stretching the specimen, is transformed largely into heat and
the specimen becomes hot. At E, the stress, which attains its
maximum value is known as ultimate stress. It is defined as the largest
stress obtained by dividing the largest value of the load reached in a
test to the original cross-sectional area of the test piece.
5. Breaking Stress.
After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed,
which decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen. A little
consideration will show that the stress (or load) necessary to break
away the specimen, is less than the maximum stress. The stress is,
therefore, reduced until the specimen breaks away at point F. The
stress corresponding to point F is known as breaking stress.

▪ Stress-Strain Diagram For Brittle Material:

 ❖ Working Stress:
“When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the
stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which
failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the
working stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or
allowable stress.”

❖ Factor of Safety :

“It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to

the working stress”.

i) In case of Ductile Materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is
clearly defined, the factor of safety is based upon the yield point
stress. In such cases,

ii) In case of Brittle Materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well
defined as for ductile materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for
brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.

▪ Selection of Factor of Safety:

The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any

machine component depends upon a number of considerations, such
as the material, mode of manufacture, type of stress, general service
conditions and shape of the parts. Before selecting a proper factor of
safety, a design engineer should consider the following points:

1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these

properties during service.
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these
results to actual machine parts;
3. The reliability of applied load;
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions;
6. The extent of localized stresses;
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture;
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs; and
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.

❖ Mechanical Properties of Metals :

1.Strength.
It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied
forces without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance
offered by a part to an externally applied force is called stress.

2.Stiffness.
It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress.
The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

3.Elasticity.
It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed.

4.Plasticity.
It is property of a material which retains the deformation
produced under load permanently. This property of the
material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on
coins and in ornamental work.
 5.Ductility.
It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into
wire with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material
must be both strong and plastic.

6.Brittleness.
It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the
property of breaking of a material with little permanent
distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads,
snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a
brittle material.

7.Malleability.
It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be
rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material
should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.

8.Toughness.
It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high
impact loads like hammer blows. The toughness of the
material decreases when it is heated.

9.Machinability.
It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case
with which a material can be cut.

10.Resilience.
It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist
shock and impact loads.

11.Creep.
When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow
and permanent deformation called creep.
 12.Fatigue.
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at
stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of
a material is known as fatigue.

13.Hardness.
It embraces many different properties such as resistance to
wear, scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also
means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are
dependent on the method of making the test. The hardness of
a metal may be determined by the following tests:
i)Brinell hardness test,
ii)Rockwell hardness test,
iii)Vickers hardness test.
❖ S-N Curve:

Fatigue properties of materials are often described using the fatigue limit or the S-N curve.
The S-N curve describes the relation between cyclic stress amplitude and number of cycles
to failure. The figure above shows a typical S-N curve. On the horizontal axis the number
of cycles to failure is given on logarithmic scale. On the vertical axis (either linear or
logarithmic) the stress amplitude (sometimes the maximum stress) of the cycle is given.
• Number of cycles to failure at varying stress levels is plotted on log-log scale
• For steels, a knee occurs near 106 cycles
• Strength corresponding to the knee is called endurance limit Se.
• Stress levels below Se (Endurance Strength) predict infinite life •
 • Between 103 and 106 cycles, finite life is predicted
• Below 103 cycles is known as low cycle.

S-N curves are derived from fatigue tests. Tests are performed by applying a cyclic
stress with constant amplitude (CA) on specimens until failure of the specimen. In
some cases the test is stopped after a very large number of cycles (N>106). The
results is then interpreted as infinite life.

Fatigue Limit:
The fatigue limit, also known as the endurance limit or fatigue strength, is the stress level
below which an infinite number of loading cycles can be applied to a material without
causing fatigue failure.
 ❖ Creep:
“When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow
and permanent deformation called creep.”

✓ First Stage :-
The first stage of creep is known as Primary creep which
represents a region of decreasing creep rate.
It is a period of predominantly transient creep in which
the creep resistance of material increases by virtue of it's
own deformation.

✓ Secondary Stage :-
The second stage of creep is known
as Secondary creep.
It is a period of nearly constant creep rate, which results
from a balance between the competing processes
of strain hardening and recovery.
For this reason secondary creep is usually referred to as
steady state creep. The average value of creep rate during
secondary creep is called minimum creep rate.
 ✓ Third stage :-
The third of creep is known as Tertiary Creep.
It mainly occurs in constant load creep test at high
stresses at high temperature.
Tertiary creep occurs when there is an effective
reduction in cross-sectional area either because
of necking or internal void formation.

❖ STRESS CONCENTRATION :

✓ A stress concentration (often called stress raisers or stress risers)

is a location in an object where stress is concentrated.
✓ An object is stronger when force is evenly distributed over its area,
so a reduction in area, e.g., caused by a crack, results in a localized
increase in stress.
✓ A material can fail, via a propagating crack, when a concentrated
stress exceeds the material's theoretical cohesive strength.
✓ The real fracture strength of a material is always lower than the
theoretical value because most materials contain small cracks or
contaminants (especially foreign particles) that concentrate stress.
✓ Fatigue cracks always start at stress raisers, so removing such
defects increases the fatigue strength.

Causes:

1) Change in cross section such as stepped axle,Key-

ways,Grooves,Threaded Holes.
2) Concentrated loads applied at minimum areas of machine parts
such as contact between gear teeth , a beam and its support.
3) Variation in mechanical properties of materials from point to
point due to cavities , cracks or air pockets.
4) Surface irregularities or poor surface finish.
Methods to reduce stress concentration:

Although it is not possible to completely eliminate the effect of stress

concentration, there are methods to reduce stress concentrations. This
is achieved by providing a specific geometric shape to the component.
(a) Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member:
A flat plate with a V-notch subjected to tensile force is shown in Fig.
(a). It is observed that a single notch results in a high degree of stress
concentration.
The severity of stress concentration is reduced by three methods:
(I) Use of multiple notches as shown in fig (b)
(II) Drilling additional holes as shown in fig (c)
(III) Removal of undesired material as shown in fig (c)
(b) Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending
A bar of circular cross-section with a shoulder and subjected to
bending moment is shown in Fig. (a).
Ball bearings, gears or pulleys are mounted against this shoulder. The
shoulder creates a change in cross-section of the shaft, which results
in stress concentration.
There are three methods to reduce stress concentration at the base of
this shoulder.
(I) By providing fillet radius at shoulder as shown Fig (b).
(II) By undercutting the shoulder as illustrated in Fig. (c).
(III) By additional notch at the top of shoulder as shown in Fig. (d).

(c) Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft:

A transmission shaft with a keyway is shown in Fig. (a). The keyway
is a discontinuity and results in stress concentration at the corners of
the keyway , therefore holes are drilled to minimise the stress
concentration at the corners of keyway as shown in fig (b).
 (d) Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members
A threaded component is shown in Fig. (a). There are three methods
to reduce stress concentration
(I) Undercutting as shown in Fig. (b)
(II) Reduction in Shank Diameter shown in Fig. (c)

❖ Notch Sensitivity:
“ The degree to which theoretical expected effect of stress
concentration is reached.”
Notch Sensitivity =
Increase in actual stress over nominal stress

Increase in theoretical stress over nominal stress

❖ Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor:

“ It is the ratio of maximum stress in member (i.e. stress at notch or
fillet ) to nominal stress at same section based upon net area.”
 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Stress Concentration Factor (Kt) =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

✓ When a component made up of brittle material is subjected to static

loading , theoretical stress concentration factor is used for safe
design.
✓ Its value may vary due to :
• Type of loading i.e.dead load or live load.
• Type of force such as tensile , compressive , Torque or
combined loading.
• Material used.

❖ Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor:

Fatigue Stress Concentration:

• The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes,
grooves, or notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses
significantly in the immediate vicinity of the discontinuity.
• Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its
effect must be accounted and normally a fatigue stress-
concentration factor Kf is applied when designing against
fatigue, even if the materials behavior is ductile.

Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor:

Stress concentration factor need not be used with ductile materials
when they are subjected to only static loads, because (local) yielding
will relieve the stress concentration.
• However under fatigue loading, the response of material may
not be adequate to nullify the effect and hence has to be
accounted.
• The factor Kf commonly called a fatigue stress concentration
factor is used for this. Normally, this factor is used to indicate
 the increase in the stress; hence this factor is defined in the
following manner. Fatigue stress concentration factor can be
defined as :

❖ Designation Of Materials as Per Indian Standard:

Types Of Cast Iron:

1.Grey Cast Iron
2.White Cast Iron
3.Malleable Cast Iron
4.Ductile Cast Iron or Nodular Cast Iron

1. DESIGNATION OF CAST IRON :

(1) Grey Cast Iron:

Grey cast iron specified by FG followed by its
tensile strength. I.e., FG200 that means grey cast
iron with ultimate tensile strength 200 N/mm2.
Cylinder block, brake drum, clutch plate etc. are
made from Grey Cast iron.
(2) Malleable Cast Iron:
Malleable cast iron represented by the Letter BM,
WM, PM followed by tensile strength.
i.e.,
i) BM 300 – Blackheart Malleable cast iron with
300 N/mm2 minimum tensile strength
ii) WM 420 – White heart Malleable cast iron with
420 N/mm2 minimum tensile strength
iii) PM 550 – Pearlitic Malleable cast iron with
550 N/mm2 minimum tensile strength.

(3) Ductile Cast Iron Or Nodular Cast

Iron Or Spheroidal Cast Iron :
When a component of ductile cast iron fails, it
shows a bright surface at the fractured surface. It is
designated by SG followed by minimum tensile
strength and minimum percent of elongation. i.e.,
SG 850/3 is spheroidal cast iron with a minimum
tensile strength of 850 N/mm2 and 3% minimum
elongation.

❖ Steel:
✓ This is the most important engineering material and there is
an enormous variety of steel to meet the wide variety of
engineering requirements.
 ✓ Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the
carbon content can be less than 1.7% and carbon is present
in the form of iron carbide to impart hardness and strength.

✓ Two main categories of steel are (a) Plain carbon steel and
(b) alloy steel.

2.DESIGNATION OF STEEL:

Plain Carbon Steels are designated by two methods:

1. By Specifying Tensile Strength
2. By Specifying chemical composition.

1. By Specifying Tensile Strength:

✓ These steels are carbon and low alloy steels where the main
criterion in the selection and inspection of steel is the
tensile strength or yield stress.

✓ These steels are designated by a symbol ‘Fe’ or ‘Fe E’

depending on whether the steel has been specified on the
basis of minimum tensile strength or yield strength,
followed by the figure indicating the minimum ultimate
tensile strength in N/mm2.

✓ For example ‘Fe290’ means a steel having minimum

tensile strength of 290 N/mm2 and ‘FeE 220’means a steel
having yield strength of 220 N/mm2.

2. By Specifying chemical composition :

According to Indian standard, the carbon steels are designated

in the following order:
(a) Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of
carbon content,
 (b) Letter ‘C’, and
(c) Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of
manganese content. The figure after multiplying shall be
rounded off to the nearest integer.
• For example 20C8 means a carbon steel containing 0.15
to 0.25 per cent (0.2 per cent on average) carbon and 0.60
to 0.90 per cent (0.75 per cent rounded off to 0.8 percent
on an average) manganese.

3. DESIGNATION OF ALLOY STEEL :

According to Indian standard, IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974
(Reaffirmed 1993), low and medium
alloy steels shall be designated in the following order :
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage carbon.
2. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by
the figure for its average percentage content multiplied by a
factor as given below :

Element Multiplying Factor

Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, Si and W 4
Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr and 10
Mo
P, S and N 100

For example:

i) 40Cr4Mo2 means alloy steel having average 0.4%

Carbon, 1% Chromium and 0.2% Molybdenum.

ii) 25Cr3Mo55 means alloy steel having average 0.25%

Carbon, 0.75% Chromium and 5.5% Molybdenum.
DESIGNATION OF HIGH ALLOY STEEL :

According to Indian standard, IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974

(Reaffirmed 1993), the high alloy steels (i.e. stainless steel
and heat resisting steel) are designated in the following order:
1. Letter ‘X’.
2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon
content.
3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by a
figure for its average percentage content rounded off to the
nearest integer.
4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to
allow the desired properties.

NOTE:
If it is not designated by X , then see chromium % . If it
is written Cr13 , Cr14 (i.e.more than 9) , then it is a
high alloy steel.
Example:

30Cr13 = Alloy steel having 0.3% carbon & chromium

13%.
20Cr18Ni2 = Alloy steel having 0.2% carbon , chromium
18% & Nickel 2%.
 4. DESIGNATION OF FREE CUTTING STEEL :
The free cutting steels contain sulphur and phosphorus. These
steels have higher sulphur content than other carbon steels.

These steels are used where rapid machining is the prime

requirement.
According to Indian standard, IS:1570 (Part III) -1979
(Reaffirmed 1993), carbon and carbon manganese free cutting
steels are designated in the following order :
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of
carbon,
2. Letter ‘C’,
3. Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of
manganese, and
4. Symbol ‘S’ followed by the figure indicating the 100 times
the average content of Sulphur.
Example:
10C8S10: Steel with 0.1% carbon, 0.8%
Manganese & 0.1% Sulphur.

❖ Theories of Elastic Failure:

➢ It has already been discussed in the previous

chapter that strength of machine members is
based upon the mechanical properties of the
materials used. Since these properties are usually
determined from simple tension or compression
tests, therefore, predicting failure in members
subjected to uniaxial stress is both simple and
straight-forward.
 ➢ But the problem of predicting the failure stresses
for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
stresses is much more complicated.
➢ The principal theories of failure for a member
subjected to bi-axial stress are as follows:

1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory

(also known as Rankine’s theory).

2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as

Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).

3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory

(also known as Saint Venant theory).

4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known

as Haigh’s theory).

5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also

known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).

1. Maximum Principal (Or Normal) Stress Theory :

“According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs
at a point in a member when the maximum principal or
normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the
limiting strength of the material in a simple tension
test”.
Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield
point stress and for brittle materials (which do not have
well defined yield point) the limiting strength is
ultimate stress, therefore according to the above theory,
taking Factor of Safety (F.S.) into consideration, the
maximum principal or normal stress (σt1) in a bi-axial
stress system is given by :

2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s

or Tresca’s theory):

“According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs

at a point in a member when the maximum shear stress
in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the
shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test”.

Mathematically,
τmax = τyt /F.S. .................................................... (i)
where;
τmax = Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system,
τyt = Shear stress at yield point as determined from
simple tension test,
and
F.S. = Factor of safety.
Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple
tension test is equal to one-half the yield stress in
tension,

therefore the equation (i) may be written as

“This theory is mostly used for designing members of

Ductile Materials”.
 STANDARDIZATION
“The main purpose of standardization is to establish
mandatory or obligatory norms for the design and
production of machines so as to reduce variations in
their types and grades and to achieve quality
characteristics in raw materials, semi-finished and
finished products”.
Standardization provides following benefits:

(a) Better product quality, reliability, and longer life

service.

(b) Mass production of components at low cost.

(c) Easy availability of parts for replacement and

maintenance.

(d) Less time and effort required to manufacture.

(e) Reduction in variations in size and grades of an

article.

✓ In the area of machine design, items of the

following categories are standardized and this
process is ongoing one:
 (1) Engineering materials, their compositions,
properties and method of testing.

(2) Rules of preparing drawings and use of symbols.

(3) Fits and tolerances for various parts from assembly

considerations.

(4) Dimensions and Preffered sizes for various machine

components, namely rivets, bolts, nuts, keys, couplings,
ball and roller bearings and so on.

• ADVANTAGES OF STANDARDIZATION:
1. Simplify decision making.
2. Helps in improving decisions.
3. Makes mass production possible.
4. Increases efficiency of both machines and men.
5. Reduces time of manufacture.
6. Decreases manpower requirements.
7. Cost of production is reduced.
8. Standard testing methods improve quality of products.
9. Increases durability and life of products.
10. Makes interchangeability possible for worn out and
damaged parts.
• Categories Of Standards:
Based on the defining body or organization, the
standards can be divided into three types:

i) Company Standards:
These standards are defined or set by a
company or a group of companies.

ii) National Standards:

• National standards of India are defined and set by
an apex body, known as Bureau of Indian Standard
(BIS).
• It is mandatory (compulsory) for every organization
to follow these standards throughout the country.

iii) International Standards:

• These standards are defined and set by an
international apex body and normally followed all
over the world.
• These standards are prepared by :
1.International Standards Organization(ISO)
2.International Bureau of Weights &
Measures(IBWM).
❖ Preferred Series and Numbers:

✓ Preferred Numbers are an important tool which

minimizes unnecessary variations in sizes.
✓ The complete range is covered by minimum
number of sizes, which is advantageous for both
producer and customer.
✓ With the acceptance of standardization, there is
need to keep the standard sizes or dimensions of
component in discrete steps.
✓ The sizes should be spread over wide range and at
the same time, they should be spaced properly. e.g.
diameters are to be standardized between 10mm to
25mm, then sizes should be 10mm, 12.5mm,
16mm, 20mm, and 25mm. This lead to use the
geometrical series known as preferred series.
✓ It includes S5, S10, S20, S40, S80 series and each
series has a series factor.
 ERGONOMICS
• Ergonomics is defined as the relationship between
man and machine and the application of anatomical,
physiological and psychological principles to solve
the problem arising from this relationship.
• The word ergonomics is coined from the two Greek
words ‘ergon’ which means ‘work’ and ‘nomos’
which means ‘ natural laws’.
• Ergonomics means the natural law of work.
• The main objective of the ergonomics is to make
machine fit for the user rather than to make the user
adapt himself to the machine.
• It aims to decreases the physical and mental stresses
of the users.
• Areas of Ergonomics are
1. The relation between man and machine.
2. The working environment.
3. The human anatomy and posture while using the
machine.
4. The energy expenditure in hand and foot
operations.
 MAN-MACHINE RELATIONSHIP
• Any machine cannot be continue working for a longer
period of time without the aid of man.
• The work can be perform by a man machine system.
• Hence a man-machine system may be defined as a
combination of activities between man and machine
to get the desire output from the given input.
From display instruments, the operator can get the
information about the operation of machine.

✓ If he feels that the correction is necessary then he

take the corrective action to operate the control or
lever.

✓ This corrective action of man alter the performance

of the machine.

✓ Which will be indicated on display panel.

✓ The contact of man machine system in a closed

loop system arise at two places – information
display instrument which gives information to the
man and control which will operate by man to
adjust the machine.
 ❖ ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS WHILE
DESIGNING A MACHINE :

Major ergonomic considerations in the process of

designing a machine are:
i) Design of Displays.
ii) Design of Controls.
iii) Environment & Safety.

❖ TYPES OF DISPLAYS:

1. Qualitative Displays –
• The display or signal is used to indicate only
the condition or state without giving the values
are known as qualitative display.
• E.g. on/off response to open or closed the
valve, power on/off traffic signals.
2. Quantitative Display –
▪ This type of display gives the quantitative
measurement or numerical information are
known as quantitative display.
▪ E.g. Fuel indicator in motorcycle,
voltmeter, ammeter, speedometer,
watches, etc.
▪ Ergonomic Consideration In
Design Of Display:

1. The scale on the dial indicator should be

divided in suitable linear progression.
2. The number of subdivisions should be
minimum.
3. The vertical figures should be used for
stationary dials and radically oriented figures
should be used for rotating dials.
4. The pointer should have knife edge with a
mirror to minimize parallax error.
5. Differentiation in display group should be
made with the help of colour, shape and size.

6. The numbering should be increase in

clockwise direction on a circular scale,
upwards on vertical scale and rightward on a
horizontal scale.
 7. Important displays like warning , can be
made more effective by the use of flashing
lights.

8. The height of the letter or numbers should

be

❖ Design Of Equipment for

Control:
✓ The communication system consists of the
control equipment of devices.
✓ Which may include a graduated dial or a
display or signal to indicate the response of
the machine to the instruction.
✓ The type and size of the control devices
selected depends upon the following number
of factors, the principle ones are –
 1. The required speed of operation.
2.The required accuracy of the control.
3.The required operating force.
4. The direction of movement for on/off or
increase/decrease.
5. The required range.

• Types of Controls:

1. Hand Wheel –
Torque corresponding to tangential force as
300 to 400 N if the rim of the wheel grasped
firmly by both hands.
2. Small Crank –

Can be operated at high speeds with load of

the order of 10 to 20 N, maximum speed of
crank 200 rpm, handle length 40 mm and grip
diameter 10 mm.
3. Round knob –

• Be operated by hand.
• Diameter – 10 mm to 150 mm max.
suitable
• Diameter – 50 mm, torque – 25 Nm
4. Joysticks –

It is a lever with two degree of freedom and

used to control two independent variable
simultaneously e.g. gear box operating lever
of automobile and selector switches.

5. Push Buttons –

•These are used for controlling two state

parameters and can be biased to return to the
unoperated condition when not presses (car
horn) or may require second pressure to
release them (T.V. on/off switch).

▪ Design Of Environment &

Safety:
The working environment affects the man-
machine relationship.
•The various functions are performed by man
in industrial environment such as supervising,
controlling and maintaining the work and
equipment.
•The environment affects the efficiency and
the health of the operator.
•The most important factors which affect the
efficiency of human are :
1. Lighting –
• Working in dim or overbright work
environments can result in eyestrain,
headaches, irritability and, inevitably,
reduced productivity.
• Light sources, including the sun, can
create unwanted reflections, glare and
shadows in the workplace that can cause
discomfort and distraction, and can
interfere with the performance of visual
tasks.
• Low levels of lighting can cause
depression, which for some people may be
severe.

2. Noise –

• Excessive exposure to loud noise can

irreversibly damage the ear, resulting in
noise-induced hearing loss.
 • ‘Nuisance’ noise can be annoying and
distracting and result in reduced job
performance and satisfaction.
• Noise may also be unsafe if it impairs
communication in the work environment,
such as by overpowering auditory alarms.

3. Temperature –

• For an operator to perform the task

efficiently, he should neither feel hot or
cold.
• When the heavy work is done, the
temperature should be relatively lower and
when the light work is done, the
temperature should be relatively higher.

4. Humidity and Air Circulation

• Humidity has little effect on the efficiency

of the operator at ordinary temperatures.
 • However, at high temperatures, it affects
significantly the efficiency of the operator.
• The proper air circulation is necessary to
minimize the effect of high temperature
and humidity.

5. Vibration –

•Whole body vibration, e.g. from riding a

mower, can affect comfort and performance
even at low levels and can cause damage to
the spine, stomach pain and gastrointestinal
complaints.
• Hand-arm vibration, such as from hand tools,
can have negative effects on muscles and the
skeleton, and can contribute to carpal tunnel
syndrome, low-back pain and vibration white
finger, for example.

▪ Aesthetic Consideration in
Design:

•Each product has a definite purpose.

•It has to perform specific function to the
satisfaction of customer.
•The relation between the product and the
customer arises due to the necessity of their
functional requirement.
•Ex- the functional requirement of a domestic
refrigerator is to preserve the commodities for
a week.
•So the functional requirement bring product
and people together.

•However there are number of products in the

market, having same qualities of efficiency,
durability and cost.
•Hence the customers are attracted towards the
most appealing product.
•The parameters that are considered by the
customer while selecting the product are:

1.Functional performance.
2.Durability
3.Appearance
4. Service support available
5. Initial and running cost
6.Comfort to the users
7.Ability to withstand the adverse
conditions.

•The word Aesthetics is defined

as a set of principles of beauty.

•It deals with the appearance of the

product.

•The growing realization of the need of

aesthetic consideration in the product
design given rise to a separate discipline
known as industrial design.

•The industrial designer is to create new

forms and shapes which are aesthetically
pleasing.
 •Ex- chromium plating of an automobile
component improve the corrosion
resistance along with appearance.

❖ Guidelines in Aesthetic Design:

•The appearance should contribute to the

performance of the product e.g. the
aerodynamic shape of a automobile will
decrease air resistance results in improve fuel
economy by decreasing fuel consumption.
•The appearance should reflect the function of
the product e.g. the aerodynamic shape of car
indicate the speed.

•The appearance should reflect the quality of

the product.

•The appearance should not be at too much of

extra cost unless it is the prime requirement.

•The appearance should be suitable to the

environment in which the product is used.
•The appearance should be achieved by the
effective and economical use of the material.

▪ Aspects of Aesthetic Design

•The various aspects of the aesthetic design

are
1.Shape (form)
2.Colour
3.Variety
4.Style
5.Continuity
6.Contrast
7. Symmetry and balance
8. Material and surface finish
9.Tolerance
10.Noise
1. Shape (Form)
•There are basic five shapes of the product
namely step, taper, shear, streamline and
sculpture.
•The external shape of any product can be
given is based on the one or combination of
basic shapes.
a) Step form – The step form is a stepped
structure having vertical accent. It is similar to
the shape of a multistory building.
b) Taper form – The taper form consists of a
tapered blocks or tapered cylinders.

c) Shear form – The shear form has a square

outlook.

d) Streamline form – The streamline form

has a streamlined shape having a smooth flow
as seen in automobile and aero-plane structure.
e) Sculpture form – The sculpture form
consists of ellipsoids, paraboloids and
hyperboloids.

2. Size

•Due to miniaturization of the advance

technology developed in electronics and other
field the designer can now use previously
unacceptable housing got integrated items.
•So freeing them from many of design
constraints, new design of telephone is an
example of integrating the entire telephone in
a single component provide good balance,
proportions and ergonomic styling.
•This freedom of design now manifest in the
choice.

3.Colour :

•Colour is one of the major important factor to

the aesthetic appeal of the product.
•Such as creating interest, eliminating eye
fatigue, assisting memory, directing attention.
• The choice of colour should be
compatible with the conventional ideas of the
operator.
•Morgon has suggested the meaning of the
colour as shown in the table.

COLOUR MEANING
Red Danger – Hazard - Hot
Orange Possible Danger
Yellow Caution
Green Safety
Blue Caution - cold
Gray Dull
4. Symmetry and Balance:

•Symmetry suggest a state of order but

asymmetry can create a greater sense of
interest.
•Both have been used successfully in
architecture.
•Symmetrical arrangement of identical
component on a board contributes to an
impression or order and tidiness.
•The computer system is an example of
functional requirements to led the use of
asymmetrical arrangement.
•This increate visual attraction.

5.Material and Surface Finish:

•The material and surface finish of the product

contribute significantly to the appearance.

•The production of smooth and harder surface

is necessary for greater strength and bearing
load is depend upon the property of material
e.g. the material like stainless steel gives better
appearance than the cast iron, plain carbon
steel or low alloy steel.
•It was found that the bearing properties, wear
qualities and fatigue life of any machine
component have a directly related to surface
texture.

•Hence to increase the life of any machine

component subjected to various types of load
the working and non working surfaces must be
very good finish.
•The component or the product with better
surface finish are always aesthetically
pleasing.
•The surface coating processes like spray
painting, electroplating, anodizing etc. greatly
enhance the aesthetic appeals of the product.

6. Impression and Purpose:

•The product designed with aesthetic not only

look nice but should also create an impression
that it work more efficiently.
•The product should gives the impression of
the satisfactory performance or purpose.
•The taper shape gives the impression of
strength and stability.
7. Contrast:
•Contrast is distinction between adjustment
elements of the product which have clearly
different characteristics and functions.
•The contrast improve the appearance of the
product.
•The choice of the colours can be particularly
important.

8. Variety -

Variety is particularly important in marketing

range of products like refrigerator, fans, stereo
system, vehicles, etc.

9. Continuity –

✓ A product which has good continuity

of element is aesthetically appealing.
✓ Continuity is thus associated with the
order or tidiness of the product.
 ✓ For example – a fillet radius at the
change of cross section adds the continuity
to the product and hence improve the
appearance.

9. Style –

• Style is visual quality of the product

which set it apart from the rest of the
functionally identical products.
• Good style, with skillful work
increases the product attraction.

10. Proportion –

• Proportion is concerned with the relationship in

size between connected component or elements of
items.
• The spanner satisfies the functional requirement
and can be easy to manufacture.
• But it is out of proportion hence poor in
appearance.