Iournal of African Earth Sciences. Vol. 2. No, 2. pp. 81 to 90. ＱＹＸｾ 0731-7247/8453.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain © 1984 Pergamon Press Ltd.

Contrasting styles of Sn-Nb-Ta-Zn mineralization in Nigeria

J. A. KINNAIRD
University of St. Andrews. Department of Geology, Purdie Building,
North Haugh. St. Andrews. Fife KYI69ST, U.K.

(Recei\"l!d 5 December 1983)

Abstract-Two distinct and economically important types of primary Sn-Nb-Ta-Zn mineralization occur in
Nigeria.
The early stage is related to Palaeozoic pegmatites which occur sporadically in a 400 km long north-cast
trending belt. Mineralogically the pegmatites consist of quartz, potash feldspar, albitized mica and arc
characterized by extensive development of tourmaline. Economically they are important for minerals of the
columbo-tantalite series.
The later stage of mineralization is found in granites of the Mesozoic ring complexes. Tantalum-bearing
columbite , accompanied by cassiterite, and rare earth minerals have been disseminated in the cupola zones of
biotite granites during an albitization process. A similar albitization process in the arfvcdsonite granites has led
to the dissemination of pyrochlore, thorite , monazite and xenotirne. Mineralized veins, which are limited in
occurrence to the biotite granites, form four major types which contain either an oxide series of minerals
dominated by cassiterite and wolframite or a series of sulphides dominated by sphalerite.
Fluid inclusion studies related to the Younger Granite mineralization show a gradual evolution of fluids fr,
highly saline, at around 500o e. to dilute fluids at 3200 e or below. It isfrom these later dilute fluids that the suIpi ; lc
ore assemblage is deposited.
The contrasting styles of Palaeozoic pegmatite and Younger Granite mineralization are related to granites vI
differing chemistry whose tectonic setting may also be different.

INTRODUCTION site and calc-silicate schists, marbles and quartzites

Two DISTINCT and economically important types of pri-
mary Sn-Nb-'Ta-Zn mineralization occur in Nigeria.
Each is related to differing chemistry, tectonic setting
and age of magmatism which have produced the con-
trasting styles of mineralization.
(i) Upper Proterozoic pegmatites occur as dykes or
sheets associated with Pan-African metamorphic and
igneous assemblages. These barren pegmatites, found
within and around calc-alkaline to monzonitic plutons,
are up to 100 Ma older than a mineralized Palaeozoic
series which is not obviously genetically related to the
Pan-African orogeny. Petrologically this younger series
is characterized by extensive development of tourmaline
and economically by tantalite mineralization.
(ii) In contrast to the Palaeozoic pegmatites, the
Mesozoic mineralization is related to the alkaline ring
complexes. Pegmatite mineralization is insignificant,
tourmaline is absent and tantalum is restricted to occurr-
ence within other minerals. Instead the economic
mineralization, dominated by columbite and cassiterite,
is related to the roof zones of granite plutons.
BASEMENT GEOLOGY
The Nigerian basement has a complex history proba-
bly spanning the period from the Dahomeyan 2800 Ma
ago through to the Pan-African orogenic event which
occurred in Precambrian to Cambrian.
The oldest rocks consist of dispersed relicts of metaba-
81
within high grade hornblende gneisses and migmatites.
Younger metasediments of Upper Proterozoic age form
north-south orientated metasedimentary belts of low
grade psammitic to pelitic compositions with locally
developed calc-alkaline lavas.
Accumulated palaeomagnetic and field evidence led
Black et al. (1979) to suggest the existence, during the
closing stages of the Pan-African, of a modern-type
orogenic belt, involving the collision between the passive
continental margin of the West African craton and the
active continental margin of an eastern continent. This is
further substantiated by the occurrence of ophiolites at
Bou Azzer, Morocco, situated along the northern mar-
gin of the West African craton (Leblanc 1976) and of
back arc basin facies and pillow lavas in the Anka and
Zungeru belts, Nigeria (Fitches et al. 1983), along the
southern margin. The general pattern of shear belts in
Nigeria (McCurry 1971,1973,1976, Grant 1978) and the
whole of the Touareg Shield, combined with the pattern
of Pan-African structures bears striking similarities to
the tectonic pattern of Asia produced by the collision of
India (Black et a/1979).
The Upper Proterozoic ocean was about the size of
the Red Sea or Mediterranean. Ocean closure coincided
with a peak of plutonism which occurred in North Cen-
tral Nigeria about 597 Ma ± 20 (van Breemen et al.
1977).
The granitic rocks associated with the Pan-African
orogeny in Nigeria have contrasting petrological and
geochemical compositions compared with the later
Palaeozoic (Niger) or Mesozoic age (Nigeria) suite of
 J. A. KINNAIRD

alkaline ring complexes. To distinguish these two pet- Q

rologically and tectonically contrasting suites of

granitoids, the Pan-African group are collectively ｾ modal analyses
known as the 'Older Granites' and the anorogenic suite Niger - Nigeria
as 'Younger Granites'.
The older granitic intrusions were emplaced at differ-
ent stages during the tectonic evolution of the collision
zone. Early granitoids are foliated calc-alkaline
granodioritic intrusions whilst later undeformed post-
tectonic intrusives are monzonitic, sub-alkaline to
alkaline in character.
The early foliated granitoids are heterogeneous, fine
to medium grained biotite ± muscovite granodiorites
with a highly irregular form. The later phase of post-tec-
tonic intrusives are homogeneous, porphyritic, medium A p

to coarse grained biotite ± hornblende granites and
monzonites with well-defined intrusive form (MacLeod
etal.1971).
The modal compositions of quartz, alkali feldspar and
plagioclase are plotted on the Streckeisen modal dia-
gram (Fig. 1) as circles with selected chemical composi-
tions .and normative calculations in Table 1. The older
Pan-African granites are modally richer in the plagioc-
lase component and are also richer in CaOz, FeO, MgO
and usually alumina with a slight overall decrease in
silica content.
Barren pegmatites are found within and around the
granodioritic plutons. These barren pegmatites which
are up to 100 Ma older than a mineralized Palaeozoic
series of pegmatites, are not directly related to any
apparent intrusive activity. (Matheis and Caen-Vachette
1983). These mineralized pegmatites are distributed
with a marked concentration in a broad zone, extending
Fig. I. Representative modal data collated for the Nigerian 'Older
Granitc' suite (circles) and for the Niger-Nigerian anorogenic
'Younger Granite' suite (triangles). Q = quartz, A = alkali feldspar.
P = plagioclase plotted in the Streckeisen diagram recommended for
granitoid classification (Lameyre and Bowden in press).
400 km north-east from the Ife area towards the
Younger Granite Province (Fig. 2). It appears that the
economically mineralized pegmatites occur within the
north-south orientated younger metasedimentary belts
composed of biotite schists and amphibolites.
The distinction of two separate ages for pegmatite
formation can be interpreted in terms of the model
proposed by Varlamoff (1972). The simple barren peg-
matites which are small in size and occur within or
adjacent to granitic bodies Varlamoffwould interpret as
granites that had intruded to shallow depth. In contrast
the mineralized pegmatites in his model would be related
to granites that had crystallized at greater depth with the

Table I. Chemical analyses of selected Older (Nos 1-8) and Younger Granites (Nos 9-12)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12

SiO! 71.45 65.70 72.45 67.46 68.34 67.73 69.80 68.45 75.49 75.02 73.96 71.52
TiO! 0.32 0.43 0.25 1.11 0.80 0.95 0.66 0.78 0.12 0.12 0.22 0.37
AI!OJ 14.26 15.75 14.05 15.29 14.55 14.40 14.48 14.24 12.62 11.56 12.68 12.88
Fe!OJ 0.18 0.26 0.17 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.70 1.13 0.62 1.53 1.12 1.26
FeO 2.34 3.98 1.71 4.15 3.j9 3.79 2.67 3.21 1.02 1.11 1.30 2.68
MnO 0.10 0.13 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.09
MgO 0.82 0.59 0.57 1.22 0.85 0.85 0.76 0.86 0.16 0.21 0.24 0.26
CaO 1.84 2.19 1.40 2.81 2.03 1.95 2.08 1.68 0.54 0.50 0.87 1.17
Na!O 3.57 3.92 3.18 2.96 3.06 2.78 2.66 2.60 4.18 4.84 3.93 4.29
KzO 4.64 5.94 5.75 4.68 5.23 5.35 5.61 6.33 4.63 4.34 5.14 4.88
p!o.. 0.12 0.12 0.16 0.47 0.31 0.35 0.21 0.26 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.06
HzO+ 0.55 0.65 0.47 0.47 0.55 0.46 0.59
H!O- 0.04 0.05 0.04
CO! 0.11 0.24 0.20
CI 0.02 0.02 0.02
F 0.02 0.02 0.02
S 0.02 tr tr

100.40 99.99 100,49

LessO 0.02 0.01 0.01

100.38 99.98 100,48 99.09 99.21 98.51 99.68 99.60 99.90 99.85 100.00 100.05

Older Granite: analysis; I, medium grained Gora biotite granite; 2, medium to coarse grained hornblende biotite granite; 3, fine to medium
grained Assob biotite muscovite granite; and 4-8 porphyritic granites of the Igbo Ora Complex, SW Nigeria (Kayode 1976).
Younger Granite: 9. average of 12biotite granites; 10, average of 12arfvedsonite granites; II, average of9 hastingsite biotite granites; and 12,
average of 15 hastingsite fayalite granites.
Analyses 1-3 and 9-12 taken from Macleod et al, (1971).
 Contrasting styles of Sn-Nb-Ta-Zn mineralization 83

Key

Tert iary to Quaternary

Cretace ous

Mesolo ic rin9
o 100 200 300 km complexes
Pre cambrian to
Scale L.Pa laeolo ic

Fig. 2. General geology of Nigeria showing the location of the pegmatite zone.

pegmatites not confined to the cupola zone. Instead, the
pegmatites would be formed by hydrothermal fluids in
the country rock above the cupola.
If the age range of the pegmatites is from barren late
Proterozoic to mineralized Palaeozoic then it is reasona-
ble to suggest that the earliest pegmatites are related to
shallow depth calc-alkaline 'plate-collision' granitoids
whilst the mineralized pegmatites may be related to 'late
orogenic' or even anorogenic 'Older' granites.
derived from the later Jurassic mineralization, virtually
all the tantalum is extracted from the pegrnatites.
Some ofthe mineralized pegmatites are zoned parallel
to their margins with minimal wall rock alteration and
narrow zones rich in tourmaline, quartz or greisen. The
nature of the wallrock appears to have no influence on
Table 2. Minerals of the Palaeozoic pcgmatites
Major Minor

Mineralization Quartz Tourmaline

Potash feldspar Lepidolite; sericite
The mineralized pegmatites occur as dykes and sheets Albite Garnet; almandine-spessartine
Muscovite Beryl
of varying dimensions; the dykes range from a few em to Biotite Chrysoberyl
tens of m in width, with strike lengths up to 2 km. The Apatite, arnblygonite, monazite
pegmatite sheets may also be of considerable thickness, lithiophilite-triphilite
Pyrite
up to 40 m, and these sheeted structures arc economi- Magnetite, gahnite
cally the most important. Cassiterite, nigcrite, wodginitc
Mineralogically these mineralized pegrnatites consist Columbo-tantalite, tapiolite
microlite, pandaite, ilrneno-rutilc
of quartz, potash feldspar, albite, muscovite or more Bismuthinite, bismutite
rarely biotite,accompanied by an assemblage of acces- Scheelite
sory minerals including tourmaline (Table 2) of which Chlorite
Andalusite, sillimanite
colurnbo-tantalite and cassiterite are economically
important. Although over95% of Nigerian cassiterite is Modified after Jacobson and Webb (1946).
84 J. A. KINNAIRD

the amount, type or degree of ore mineralization or

ｾ
Ｈ ｾ
gangue mineralogy. The list of pegmatite minerals shows
how the elements of economic importance in the later - AIR
mineralization are well represented in the basement
pegmatites also, with Nb-Ta in the minerals of the
colurnbo-tantalite series, Sn in cassiterite, W in scheelite
---- --- -- -
f:---------- ',,
-- '. ,
- Ｍｾ -- Ｍ
r.::' , AR EA ｏ ｾ

and zinc, not as sphalerite (the dominant ore of the

Mesozoic mineralization) but as nigerite or more com-
- - - --
1- - - - - -
- ---- Ｍ ｾ
ｾ
1 Ｍ - -
- --- - - ---- "\
I ｾ \1 ,." ｜ ｬ ｾ I

monly gahnite (Batchelor and Kinnaird in press). All

the ore minerals are represented as oxide phases.
Like the Mesozoic mineralization the mineralized ----- -;r--
------
• - - - - - Ｎ ｾＬ ！ Ｑ ｇｾ - RＮ - - - - - - - - 53
=>
ｾ
ｾ
ｃ ｾ Ｚ Ｍ Ｇｃ ｆ ｏ ｕｓ TO RF C ENT
ＧＭ Ｍｩ
I
lｾ ｾ ｾ Ｌ Ｉ ｾ ｾ ｾ ｾ ｾ Ｚ ｾ ｲ
> ALA EOZOIC
- ------- ------------- ------- 0 3 ASE ..Ｑ ｾ ＢＧ ｉ ｔ
pegmatites are also enriched in Rb, Li, Be and Y in
addition to Sn, Nb, Ta and Zn. Processes of alteration in Ｍｾ Ｍｾ Ｍｾ Ｍ ｾ Ｍｾ Ｍ ＾ ｾＭ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ ］Ｍ Ｍ Ｐ Ｍ Ｍ Ｚ ＧＷ ｾｋ Ｍ ｌ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ ＺＭ Ｍ Ｍ Ｍ

ｾ ｲ ｾ
both cases show similarities so that albitization, micro-
c1inization, greisenization and silicification may be com-
mon to both Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rriineralization
periods. What is different is the absence of tourmaline in - _-_-_ -_ ｊ \.::I
ｾ ｅ ｆｉ ｉ ａ - - -- - - 1-', - - - ｾｾＭＭ

the Younger Granite Province whilst it is a common

feature of the pegmatites. The difference in tourrnalini-
zation may reflect the metamorphic grade of the country
rock since the Palaeozoic pegmatites occur in low grade
metamorphosed, metasedimentary belts whereas the
ring-complex mineralization is related to granites
intruded into high grade amphibolite and granulite facies
which would have been much less fluid-rich during gra- ./
nite emplacement. .>.
."
,.' ,
C A : RO U
Clearly, the generation of the Palaeozoic pegmatites ...•
was closely linked with the depth of emplacement of the .. Ｇ ｾ Ｎ
, loOo...

granitoid plutons. It is most likely that the Pan-African

Fig, 3. Distribution of the alkaline ringcomplcxes in Niger and Nigeria.
plate tectonic events introduced concentrations of ore
metals into the continental crust by accretion and
reworking during ocean closure. These metals must
have been subject to further recycling during the sub-
sequent 'ring-complex' alkaline magmatism.

JURASSIC YOUNGER GRANITE RING 500

.B AiR

ｾ
COMPLEXES ｔ ｫ (Niger)
·A
·0
The ring complexes of Nigeria form part of a 200 km .Ta
400
wide zone of ring complex development between the 8th
and 10th meridians, extending 1600 km from N Niger to Rb-Sr
oge in
the margin of the Benue Trough in Nigeria (Fig. 3). M.A.

Rb-Sr whole rock and mineral measurements show 300

definite trends and form an overall pattern for both

Niger and Nigeria. If the measured Rb-Sr whole rock
ages are plotted against distance from the oldest centre 200
(Fig. 4) a linear plot indicating a migration rate of
approx. 0.35 cm a year is inferred. The age progressions
200 400 600 800 1000 '200 '40r '600
can be grouped into distinct 50-60 Ma cycles during the di,tonce in Km

Palaeozoic and Mesozoic. Briden (1967) has made tenta-

tive correlations of these periods with the quasi-static
periods of plate migration based on palaeomagnetic
data.
The ring complexes represent periods of mid-plate
magmatism. 'Their disposition is largely determined by
structures and lineations in the basement. There are
more than 50 ring complexes in Nigeria (Fig. 5) varying
in size and complexity from 2 to 25 km in diameter with
Fig. 4. Diagrammatic representation of the variation in age with
distance from the Hoggar (start of the Phanerozoic anorogenic mag-
matism) projected onto the 9th meridian. Corrected to Rb-Sr decay
constant = 1042 x 1O-IIYr- l . Niger group: B = Bous, Tk = Tam-
gak, A = Arayan , 0 = Ofoud, Ta = Tarrouadji, Z = Zinder and
G = Goure. NigerialNiger border: Da = Daura and M = Matsena,
Nigeria group: Du = Dutsc, F = Fagarn, Ni = Ningi, Za = Zaranda,
R = Ririwai, Jb = Jos Bukuru, P = Pankshin (Sara Fier) and
Af = Afu. Source: van Breemen and Bowden (1973). Bowden et al.
(1976). Karche and Vachette (1976). van Breemen et al. (1977).
Rahaman et al. (1984).
 Contrasting style s of Sn-Nb-Ta-Zn mineralization
Nigeria
Jos Plateau
0 1
gs] 2
§3
;;;/ 4
05
. ;.' 6
Kaduna .
o 50 100
,
150
I
. _
g..... --'-:----'-:---"
km
Fig. 5. The Younger Granite Complexes in Nigeria drawn from a
I : 500.00 scale map comp iled by Kinnaird (1981). Figures indicat e
age dates in millions of years . Identific ation of ind ividual complexes by
same letters as described for Fig. 4. (I) Granite-syenite, (2) ring dyke
with porphyritic textures, (3) volcanic rock s mainly ignimbritic, (4)
edge of Cretaceous to Recent sedimentary cover, (5) Precambrian
basement and (6) major structural trends in the basem ent.
concentrically arranged intrusions. Within Nigeria these
ring complexes cover a total area of 7500 km 2 with
individual massifs from 1000 to smaller stocks less than
I krn", The majority are between 100 and 250 km 2 with
circular or elliptical outline.
Each of the ring complexes began as chains of vol-
canoes. The volcanic sequences are dominated by rocks
of rhyolitic composition with only thin basic horizons
within the volcanic pile. Early ash fall tuffs and agglom-
erates were deposited from eruptions of explosive
activity-abundant ignimbrites deposited from ash flows
dominate the volcanics with only minor flows. Volcanic
feeder intrusions are a minor but important link during
the caldera-forming stage between the subvolcanic roots
and the overlying volcanic pile. Fayalite hedenbergite
quartz porphyry often has ignimbritic textures but intru-
sive forms and represents part of the ash flow material
which welded and consolidated in ring fissures.
The Younger Granites are discordant high level intru-
sions which succeed the extensive acid volcanics and are
emplaced by block subsidence. They commonly have a
clear topographic definition standing between 100 and
300 m above the surrounding ba sement plain. In the
north of Nigeria they occur as isolated hill masses (e.g.
Dutse and Shira) whereas in the Jos area of central
Nigeria there is such a proximity of complexes that a
continuous upland plateau has resulted. The granitoid
suite is more than 95% granitic; intermediate and basic
rocks , whilst widely distributed are proportionally less
than 5%. On a Streckeisen plot (Fig. I) their distinction
85
from the trend of the basement granitoids is obvious and
this is emphasized in the differing styles of mineraliza-
tion . On the Streckeisen plot there is also a contrast
within the Younger Granite Suite between the peral-
kaline granites or syenites which lie along the Q-A join
and the peraluminous granites which lie to the right.
These peraluminous granites are the most important
mineralized group.
Mineralization
Tin mineralization has been known in Nigeria since
1904. The source of the tin was located around 1920 in
the Jos Plateau region, then called the Bauchi Plateau,
as cassiterite-bearing sands and gravels. The tin ore had
been derived from the exposure and erosion of the apical
regions of cassiterite rich biotite granites and gradually
concentrated in placer deposits which have been worked
on a commercial basis for decades.
Essentially, the mineralization forms in two ways: (i)
it is induced by residual fluids affecting the roof zones of
granites producing a disseminated mineralization in
which Nb minerals are important and REE minerals and
uranium etc. are concentrated and (ii) as cooling frac -
tures develop and hydrothermal fluids escape along
fissures and joints a vein type mineralization results, the
coalescence of a number of parallel veins may result in
lode form ation. In this latter type of mineralization tin,
tungsten and zinc minerals are impor tant.
(i) Disseminated mineralization, related to albitiza-
tion , may affect both peralkaline and peraluminous
granite types and in both there is an increase in REE,
uranium, thorite, monazite and/or xenotime with an
important introduction of Nb as pyrochlore in the peral-
kaline granites and columbite in biotite granites. 'U nlike
the Nb-Ta mineralization in the basement there is
always a strong dominance of Nb with Nb : Ta ratios
around 8 : 1.
The albitization process is concentrated in the granite
roof and decreases with depth unless the roof of a further
granite is encountered below. Evidence from the Ririwai
Complex, Nigeria shows lamellar perthite without albiti-
zation in a sample from 280 m depth (Fig. 6, Plate I) . A
surface sample which comes from approx. 30 m below
the original roof and within the albitize.d zone has perth-
itc , partially replaced by albite (Fig. 6, Plate 2). The
albite may form rims around the perthite or occur as
interstitial laths. A sample from 436 m depth however,
in the roof facies of a further intrusion (Fig. 6, Plate 3),
shows the albitization process preserved in another
cupola zone. In this case replacement of the potash
component is virtually complete and the albitization has
also resulted in desilication and is accompanied by the
introduction of columbite, zircon, xenotime etc. (Table
3).
This process is revealed at the right erosional level in
the Jos-Bukuru and Afu complexes. In the Rayfield and
Jantar areas of the Jos-Bukuru and the Odegi area of the
Afu complex where columbite occurs in the exposed
86 J. A. KINNAIRD

Table 3. Minerals of the Younger Granite Province

Primary mineralization Secondary mineralization

Dispersed mineralization
Pegmatiticpods: Peraluminous granites: Peralkaline granites: Metaluminous granites: Placer deposits:
beryl colurnbite V-rich pyrochlore fergusonite cassiterite
genthelvite cassiterite cryolite allanite columbite
topaz tho rite Th-rich monazite zircon zircon
uraninite zircon (Th, Hf, V rich) molybdenite (Kigom only) ilmenite
xenotime magnetite
monazite
xenotime
thorite
fergusonite
Vein mineralization
Abundant: Common but not abundant: Abundant in a few Limited occurrence:
localities, never
common:
sphalerite monazite uraninite
cassiterite siderite phenakite native copper
chalcopyrite genthelvite danalite pyromorphite
galena molybdenite bismuthinite scheelite
pyrite wolframite bismuthite tetrahedrite
zircon (Hfrich) bismuth bornite
arsenopyrite greenockite
pyrrhotite
stannite
rutile
columbite Miaroliticcavities:
chalcocite cassiterite
covellite sphalerite
blaubleibender-covellite wolframite
mackinawite
marcasite
cubanite
haematite

roof zones, it is being worked along with accessory
cassiterite as a placer mineral since the intensity of the
albitization process has rendered the rock soft and clay-
like.
The process of albitization in the peralkaline granites
ultimately leads to the production of a distinct sacchroi-
dal textured arfvedsonite albite granite. The rocks are
characterized by the high proportion of late albite and by
the assemblage of accessory minerals which include
pyrochlore (Table 3).
(ii) The disseminated mineralization related to albiti-
zation is followed in the biotite granites by later potash
or H+ ion metasomatism and vein mineralization. There
are no such mineralized vein equivalents in the peral-
kaline granites.
Within the biotite granites a whole series of processes,
each with its own accompanying pattern of mineraliza-
tion may occur after albitization. The first of these, a K
silicate alteration or microclinization process is largely
restricted to the margins of fissures and fractures in the
roof zones although it may occur occasionally in greisen
bordered pockets. During K silicate alteration there is
Na for K exchange in the feldspars accompanied by a
release of iron from the feldspar lattice. The iron forms
minute rods of haematite which impart a characteristic
brick red colouration to the rnicrocline-rich rock. In thin
section the microcline does not exhibit the distinctive
cross-hatch twinning of mjcrocline formed by the recon-
structive transformation of orthoclase which is typical in
the microline of the Palaeozoic pegmatites. Instead it
appears as a pale pink, cloudy low birefringent material
(Fig. 6, Plate 4). XRD data of this feldspar indicates that
this is a disordered microcline and chemical analyses
show that virtually all Na20 has been lost from the
system (Martin and Bowden 1981). The process of Na
for K exchange has been arrested at different stages in
different complexes; locally the host rock may be exten-
sively desilicated resulting in the formation of rnicrocli-
nite. Sphalerite and cassiterite may be deposited in voids
caused by the desilication process. Since the process of
microclinization is limited it is economically insignifi-
cant, although the ore minerals introduced at this stage
may be remobilized at a later stage of alteration process.
Thus this is not a major ore deposition phase.
There may be a gradual change in the mineral
assemblage generated during lower temperature potash
metasomatism leading to pervasive greisenization. Such
a series of changes may be due to the gradually changing
ratio of K+/H+ in the fluid. Acid metasomatism or
greisenization results from the instability of earlier
formed minerals which readjust to the changing condi-
tions and produce a new mineral assemblage. Initially,
alkali feldspars become unstable and break down to
form chlorite or sericite and topaz in HF enriched fluids
(Fig. 7, Plate 5). New mica compositions are developed
and quartz is deposited in later stages as fissure filling
veins. Pervasive acid metasomatism occurs throughout
the apical region of a biotite granite cupola and may be
 'f'. , ｾ

..
• I
"
'.r ｾ ..;' ｾＮ
f' ...,, " ".r
, ' "

.. ..

Q
..,ｾ
el
Vl
e,
:l
Otl

-e
...
Vl

(S"
Vl
o-.
en
:l

:1:

ｾ
:l
3
S'
..,C'l
ｾ
N'
...o'
el

:l

ｾ
Fig. 6. Plate I. Biotite gra nite from 280 m depth in the Ririwai complex showing lamellar pcnhitc without albitization.Plate
2. A surface sample of Ririwai biotite granite which comes from approx. 30 m below the original roof. It comes from within
the albiti zcd zon e and shows perthite partially replaced by albite. Plate 3. Albite biotite granite from 436 m depth in the
Rir iwai Complex . Th e granite is rich in albite with chlor ite and a zoned zircon . Plate 4. Microclinite from a surface sample.
Turbid rnicroclinc has almost completely replaced orig inal perth ite. The microclini zation process has a lso resulted in a 00
decrease of mod al qu art z. -..J
 00
00

....
>
:;:::
zz
>
;;;
e

8
Fig. 7. Plate 5. Altered microclinc-quartz wallrock showing mica development from feldspar. The process results in greisen
formation. Plate 6. Photomicrogmph of multi phase inclusions in aquamarine from the Afu complex. The inclusion which is
I mm long is believed to contain possible Iluorosilicatc phases. Plate 7. Photomicrograph of a plane of probably
pscudosccondary inclusions in topaz, parallel to {nOI}, each containing a large vapour bubble (approx. 35'}\. by volume) in
the liquid. Each contains solid phases, believed to be daughter minerals although these crystals arc unidentified. Inclusions
arc lip to 100 Jim. Plate 8. Photomicrograph of abundant two phase inclusions in quartz associated with cassiterite and
sphalerite mineralization. Inclusion size is approx. 10 Jim.
 Contrasting styles of Sn-Nb-Ta-Zn mineralization
superimposed on zones that have already been albitizcd
arid/or microlinizcd. The greisenization process is even-
tually concentrated in distinct zones as the host rock
cools and fissures develop with the result that discrete
tabular veins up to 5 krn long may be produced.
A different pattern of fluid evolution depending on its
pressure, temperature, salinity, the chemistry of the
host rock and that of the country rock produces four
different vein types.
Type 1. Massive sulphide-fluorite type. Dominated
by massive sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena with
pyrite pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite, monazite,
chlorite, mica and fluorite with minor cassiterite and
quartz.
Type 2. Quartz-sulphide type. Disseminated fine-
grained sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena with sericite,
topaz, quartz and cassiterite where transitional to type 3.
Type 3. Cassiterite-mica (Greisen type). Cassiterite,
annitic siderophyllite to zinnwaldite mica and quartz,
with or without topaz. Rare sulphides.
Type 4. Quartz-wolframite type. Massive quartz veins
or stringers with wolframite, bismuth minerals, some-
times abundant cassiterite and sulphides.
Commonly the vein systems represent multiple
fissures that have channelled the fluids responsible for
more than one alteration type so that later alteration
stages and ore assemblages have been superimposed on
earlier stages.
The most extensive of the vein systems occur in the
Tibchi and Ririwai Complexes. In these two areas, the
formation of major lode systems up to 5 krn long have
recently led to the exploration and development stages
of underground mining by the Ministry of Mines and
Power.
Mineralized vein development is limited to only a few
complexes-Tibchi, Ririwai, Saiya Shokobo , Jos-Buk-
uru and Afu-and with the exception of Ririwai and
Tibchi the vein swarms are not extensive.
The available evidence indicates that like the albitiza-
tion process the veins are concentrated in the roof and
marginal zones of the granites, a feature that is particu-
larly noticeable in the Saiya Shokobo Complex. It is
believed to be the erosion of these apical regions as the
granites have been successively unroofed that has been
responsible for the accumulation of extensive placer
deposits of cassiterite, columbite and other less econom-
ically important orcs. Such placer deposits have been
reworked and reconcentrated since the erosion of the
granites began in late Cretaceous.
Fluid inclusion studies
The earliest fluid separation is recorded in aquamarine
and topaz crystals (Fig. 7:Plates 6 and 7) which occur in
89
marginal drusy pegmatitic cavities in some of the biotite
granites. These inclusions show saline fluids at high
temperatures with possible fluorosilicate phases in the
aquamarine in addition to the liquid and gas phases.
There arc as many as eight daughter phases in the topaz
crystals none of which are dissolved on normal heating
before the homogenization temperature of the fluid!
liquid phase is reached. They are nevertheless regarded
as daughter minerals crystallized from a saline fluid
because of the similarity of ratio of daughter minerals to
inclusion volume and because of the similarity of solid
phases from one inclusion to the next. Homogenization
temperatures are in the range 400-500°C.
The albitization process appears to take place between
400 and 500°C at moderate to high salinities with impor-
tant vapour phase separation as a result of release of CO 2
gas.
Fluid inclusion measurements on quartz from micro-
cline rich wall rocks give similar thermometric results to
those from the later veins. This is interpreted as due to
void-filling in the vuggy microclined wallrock by later
quartz. The potash metasomatism and greisenization
phases result from a lower pressure environment accom-
panied by falling salinity and a reduction in temperature.
Veins with inclusions that have moderate to high
salinities around 28% NaCI arc barren. These salinities
arc too high for the deposition of the ore minerals and
elements like Sn remain within the mica lattice. As
temperature and salinities fall the oxide ore minerals are
deposited, whilst the massive sulphide deposits arc
formed from fluids around 320°C or below and with
salinities around 10 eq. wt. % NaCI (Fig. 7, Plate 8).
It is the behaviour of these fluids that is responsible for
the shifting isotopic patterns (van Dreemen et al. 1977).
The coarse grained, unmineralized biotite granites such
as that at Jos, have consistently low initial ratios in the
range 0.706-0.709. In contrast initial ratios range up to
0.730 for mineralized biotite granites and mineralized
veins (Bonin et al. 1979) and up to 0.752 ± 0.021 for an
albitizcd peralkaline granite at Ririwai (van Breemen et
al. 1977).
Ore petrology
The earliest mineralization is the disseminated oxide
stage associated with albitization. In the peralkalinc
granites this takes the form of uraniferous pyrochlore,
accompanied by cryolite, fluorite, thomsenolite, mala-
con, Th-rich monazite, ilmenite with enrichment in
thorium, uranium and rare-earths. The distribution of
these granites is so limited, and the abundance of acces-
sories like pyrochlore so variable, as to render these
granites of limited economic interest at present.
In the peraluminous biotite granites the oxide
mineralization related to albitization is dominated by
columbite with dispersed cassiterite, thoritc, Th-rich
monazite, Hf-rich zircon and xcnotime (Table 1).
K silicate alteration (microclinization) is accompanied
by a further oxide phase of mineralization which
90 J. A. KINNAIRD
although disseminated throughout the microclinized
rock is concentrated in clusters associated with the phyl-
losilicates. There is a paragenetic sequence from early
monazite and zircon to ilmenite, cassiterite, wolframite,
columbite and rutile (Kinnaird et al. 1984).
The main oxide mineralization is associated with the
greisen alteration in the same paragenetic sequence as
that above. At the junction with the later cross-cutting
quartz veins there is a coarsening of grain size in all these
minerals and the introduction of molybdenite, sphaler-
ite, galena and chalcopyrite. Within the late quartz veins
the major minerals are often very coarse grained, reach-
ing several em in size. The mineralization is a sulphide
assemblage dominated by sphalerite.
In the younger granite mineralization, the availability
and abundance of the ore elements in the crust, in
addition to the fluid reactions suitable for ore deposition,
have both been important factors in controlling the
location of ore deposits.
Acknowledgements-s-i would like to thank Peter Bowden and Rob
Ixer for help in the completion of this manuscript. I would also like to
thank the Organizing Committee of the 12th Colloquium on African
Geology held in Brussels in April 1983 who allowed me to present this
paper. Thanks arc also due to Professor Walton for his support. The
help of lim Allan and Mrs Galloway in the presentation of this paper is
also acknowledged.
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