Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300

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Precambrian Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precamres

Geological evolution of the Neoproterozoic Bemarivo Belt, northern Madagascar

R.J. Thomas a , B. De Waele a,1 , D.I. Schofield a , K.M. Goodenough b,∗ , M. Horstwood c , R. Tucker d,2 ,
W. Bauer a , R. Annells a , K. Howard d,2 , G. Walsh d,2 , M. Rabarimanana e , J.M. Rafahatelo e ,
A.V. Ralison e , T. Randriamananjara e
a
British Geological Survey, Kingsley Dunham Centre, Keyworth NG12 5GG, UK
b
British Geological Survey, Murchison House, Edinburgh EH9 3LA, UK
c
NERC Isotope Geoscience Laboratories, Kingsley Dunham Centre, Keyworth NG12 5GG, UK
d
United States Geological Survey, Reston, VA 20192, USA
e
Projet de Gouvernance des Ressources Minérales, Ampandrianomby 101, Antananarivo, Madagascar

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The broadly east-west trending, Late Neoproterozoic Bemarivo Belt in northern Madagascar has been
Received 15 December 2008 re-surveyed at 1:100 000 scale as part of a large multi-disciplinary World Bank-sponsored project. The
Received in revised form 31 March 2009 work included acquisition of 14 U–Pb zircon dates and whole-rock major and trace element geochemical
Accepted 27 April 2009
data of representative rocks. The belt has previously been modelled as a juvenile Neoproterozoic arc
and our findings broadly support that model. The integrated datasets indicate that the Bemarivo Belt
Keywords:
is separated by a major ductile shear zone into northern and southern “terranes”, each with different
Madagascar
lithostratigraphy and ages. However, both formed as Neoproterozoic arc/marginal basin assemblages that
Bemarivo
Neoproterozoic
were translated southwards over the north-south trending domains of “cratonic” Madagascar, during the
Gondwana main collisional phase of the East African Orogeny at ca. 540 Ma. The older, southern terrane consists of
Geochronology a sequence of high-grade paragneisses (Sahantaha Group), which were derived from a Palaeoproterozoic
source and formed a marginal sequence to the Archaean cratons to the south. These rocks are intruded by
an extensive suite of arc-generated metamorphosed plutonic rocks, known as the Antsirabe Nord Suite.
Four samples from this suite yielded U–Pb SHRIMP ages at ca. 750 Ma. The northern terrane consists of
three groups of metamorphosed supracrustal rocks, including a possible Archaean sequence (Betsiaka
Group: maximum depositional age approximately 2477 Ma) and two volcano-sedimentary sequences
(high-grade Milanoa Group: maximum depositional age approximately 750 Ma; low grade Daraina Group:
extrusive age = 720–740 Ma). These supracrustal rocks are intruded by another suite of arc-generated
metamorphosed plutonic rocks, known as the Manambato Suite, 4 samples of which gave U–Pb SHRIMP
ages between 705 and 718 Ma.
Whole-rock geochemical data confirm the calc-alkaline, arc-related nature of the plutonic rocks. The
volcanic rocks of the Daraina and Milanoa groups also show characteristics of arc-related magmatism, but
include both calc-alkaline and tholeiitic compositions. It is not certain when the two Bemarivo terranes
were juxtaposed, but ages from metamorphic rims on zircon suggest that both the northern and southern
terranes were accreted to the northern cratonic margin of Madagascar at about 540–530 Ma. Terrane
accretion included the assembly of the Archaean Antongil and Antananarivo cratons and the high-grade
Neoproterozoic Anaboriana Belt. Late- to post-tectonic granitoids of the Maevarano Suite, the youngest
plutons of which gave ca. 520 Ma ages, intrude all terranes in northern Madagascar showing that terrane
accretion was completed by this time.
© 2009 Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Madagascar occupies a critical, central position within the East

African Orogen (EAO; Fig. 1). The Bemarivo Belt is the northernmost
Precambrian terrane of Madagascar, and one of the fundamental
building blocks of the island (Fig. 2). The other major Precambrian
∗ Corresponding author.
terranes that make up Madagascar include the Archaean Antongil
E-mail address: kmgo@bgs.ac.uk (K.M. Goodenough).
1
Present address: SRK Consulting, Perth, Western Australia, Australia. Craton, in the east of the island, and the Antananarivo Craton which
2
Also Regional Offices. also largely dates from the Archaean, and which underlies much

0301-9268/$ – see front matter © 2009 Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2009.04.008
280 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
Fig. 1. Location of the Bemarivo Belt in northern Madagascar (M), in its position within the East African Orogen (EAO) and Gondwana at between 530 and 500 Ma (Modified
from Jacobs and Thomas, 2004). ANS = Arab-Nubian Shield; Da = Damara Orogen; Z = Zambezi Belt; EF = European fragments; LH = Lützow-Holm Bay.
of central Madagascar (Collins, 2006). The Bemarivo Belt (Collins
and Windley, 2002) represents juvenile Neoproterozoic arc-related
crust that was tectonically juxtaposed with cratonic (Archaean)
Madagascar in the late Neoproterozoic to Cambrian (Tucker et al.,
1999; Kröner et al., 2000; Collins, 2006). The Bemarivo Belt is also
in tectonic contact with a newly recognised Neoproterozoic ter-
rane termed the Anaboriana Belt (BGS-USGS-GLW, 2008, Fig. 2).
The Anaboriana Belt is a Neoproterozoic terrane which is regarded
as representing the suture zone between the Archaean Antongil
and Antananarivo domains, and broadly corresponds with the “Bet-
simisiraka suture” of Kröner et al. (2000). Based on palaeomagnetic
constraints and similar age and isotopic data, several authors have
suggested a genetic link for the Bemarivo Belt with the Seychelles
and with the Rajasthan Belt of north-west India (e.g. Tucker et al.,
1999; Torsvik et al., 2001; Ashwal et al., 2002; Jöns et al., 2006).
Between 2005 and 2008 a consortium composed of the British
Geological Survey (BGS) and the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) undertook a regional geological survey of northern Mada-
gascar, including the entire Bemarivo Belt at 1:100 000 scale, along
with a regional stream sediment sampling programme and repre-
sentative rock sampling for whole-rock geochemistry, U–Pb zircon
geochronology and metamorphic studies (BGS-USGS-GLW, 2008).
The purpose of this paper is to present the major findings of the
study, including the presentation of 14 new U–Pb zircon dates and
77 whole-rock major and trace element analyses in order to con-
strain the geological evolution of the Bemarivo Belt and its place
within the Gondwana jigsaw puzzle.
2. Previous research
The earliest reported geological work in northern Madagas-
car was conducted by Baron (1895) and Lemoine (1906). The
first major regional geological mapping projects were carried out
by French geologists including H. Bésairie and A. Lenoble before
WWII, and immediately after by R. Dormois, P. Brenon, J. Diet-
rich, L. Laplaine, J. de Saint-Ours and co-workers. Based on the
mapping by Dormois (1949) and Brenon (1951), two main assem-
blages were postulated for the Bemarivo Belt: a lower series of
leucocratic gneisses, granitic gneisses and migmatites was ascribed
to the “Système de Graphite”, while an upper series of meta-
morphosed mafic volcanic rocks was ascribed to the “Système de
Vohibory”. de Saint-Ours (1956, 1958) distinguished four “series”,
ranging from granulite to amphibolite–greenschist grade, namely:
Mangily (sericite schist, and muscovite ± biotite schist); Mamoro-
Mananjeba (two-mica gneiss, biotite gneiss and amphibolite); Ifasy
(leucocratic granitoid and sillimanite-bearing gneiss); Sambirano
(granulite facies migmatite and paragneiss). Later, Bésairie (1959)
reverted to the old ideas and suggested a lower “Système de
Graphite” to include the granitoids, and a “Système de Vohibory”
to comprise a redefined “Série du Sambirano” including amphi-
bolite, calc-silicate and quartzite, and a “Série Daraina–Milanoa”
containing predominantly mafic volcanic rocks.
Further reconnaissance mapping at 1:200 000 scale was carried
out by Bésairie et al. (1965) and Bésairie (1965). This, and more
detailed mapping in the 1960s and 1970s, resulted in the near
complete coverage of the Bemarivo Belt at 1:100 000 scale. The
various geological maps show that the Bemarivo Belt, comprising
granitoids, norite–gabbros, charnockites and minor sillimanite-
gneisses and impure quartzites, was considered to rest in the south
on the “Antongilien” (the “Groupe Ampanefena–Tsaratanana” of
Jourde, 1968). The Antongilien rocks were considered to be overlain
by the “Série de Graphite” or “Série de Sahantaha”, which com-
prises quartzites, migmatites and schists, “granitised” at the base
(Bousteyak et al., 1970–1972; Bousteyak, 1972). To the north, Jourde
(1968) and Jourde et al. (1978), introduced the term “Groupe de Bet-
siaka” for paragneisses with minor volcanic components that were
thought to directly overly granitoids ascribed to the “Antongilien”.
A younger complex of granitoids was ascribed to the Groupe de
Manambato–Basse Mahavavy, and included mainly granites and
granodiorites. Overlying this, an extensive succession called the
“Groupe de Daraina”, was recognised in the central and northern
parts of the Bemarivo Belt, comprising a lower series, called “Niveau
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300 281

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of North Madagascar, showing the main constituent lithologies of the Bemarivo Belt. Inset map shows the major Precambrian crustal
terranes of Madagascar, modified after Collins (2006) and BGS-USGS-GLW (2008). BE = Bemarivo Belt; AB = Anaboriana Belt; AN = Antongil Craton; NT = Antananarivo Belt;
IT = Southern mobile belts including the Itremo Group; VO = Vohibory Unit.

Ambaliha”, consisting of mica schists, and upper units, “Niveau
Milanoa” and “Niveau Daraina”, representing mafic and semi-mafic
volcanic and volcaniclastic units (Jourde et al., 1967, 1978; Jourde,
1968). These authors equated the Daraina–Milanoa units with the
“Système Supérieure de Andriamena–Sahantaha”, implying that
the Sahantaha and Daraina–Milanoa series were possibly lateral
equivalents.
More recent work recognised a southern region dominated by
high-grade metasedimentary gneisses, mica schists and quartzites
(Sahantaha Series), and a northern region comprising granitoid
domes intruding migmatites and orthogneisses, and including
three meta-(volcano) sedimentary successions (“Betsiaka, Daraina
and Milanoa Series”) together called the Daraina Group (Windley
et al., 1994).
Early inconclusive geochronology using whole-rock Rb–Sr anal-
yses in the Bemarivo Belt was carried out on the “Groupe de
Manambato–Basse Mahavavy” (Vachette and Bousteyak, 1974).
Later, Tucker et al. (1999) reported U–Pb zircon ages between 754
and 715 Ma for magmatic rocks in the central part of the Bemarivo
Belt. These magmatic units were further reported to have positive
␧Nd(T) values between +2.4 and +2.8 indicating juvenile extrac-
tion from the mantle with little or no participation of older crust.
282 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
Table 1
Mineralogy and composition of the main lithodemic units of the Sahantaha Group.
Unit Compositional range (major bold)
Faraiana schist Mica schist/gneiss, migmatite, amphibolite
Bebasy gneiss Quartzofeldspathic gneiss, metaconglomerate
Antanandava gneiss Biotite paragneiss, migmatite
Anambovody quartzite Quartzite, quartz-sericite schist
Androranga calc-silicates Calc-silicate rocks, marble, amphibolite
Sambirano migmatite Banded migmatite, paragneiss
Amphibolite Amphibolite, hornblende gneiss
Based on similarities in age and chemistry, the Bemarivo Belt, the
rocks of the Seychelles and the Malani Igneous Suite in Rajasthan
(India) were interpreted as remnants of a dismembered relict Neo-
proterozoic Andean-style arc (Tucker et al., 1999; Ashwal et al.,
2002). However, some authors have suggested that this magma-
tism in the Seychelles and India could be the product of melting
above a plume-head, associated with Rodinia break-up (Li et al.,
2008).
Buchwaldt and co-workers (Buchwaldt and Tucker, 2001;
Buchwaldt et al., 2002, 2003; Buchwaldt, 2006) studied the south-
ern margin of the Bemarivo Belt. There, high-grade assemblages
in metapelites of the Sahantaha ‘Group’ indicate P–T conditions of
6.5–8.5 kbar and 800–900 ◦ C, while U–Pb TIMS (Thermal Ionisation
Mass Spectrometer) ages on titanite, monazite and zircon indicate
that emplacement of charnockite intrusions and metamorphism
took place between 520 and 510 Ma (Buchwaldt et al., 2003). A sim-
ilar study of metapelitic rocks by Jöns et al. (2005a,b, 2006) gave
P–T estimates at 9 kbar and up to 970 ◦ C. In situ monazite dating
by electron microprobe, however, indicated magmatic monazite
cores at 737 ± 19 Ma, interpreted to represent the maximum age
of sedimentation. Successive monazite rims were recognised and
dated. The first overgrowths were dated at between 563 ± 28 and
532 ± 23 Ma and interpreted to date collision. A second series of
overgrowths were dated at between 521 ± 25 and 513 ± 14 Ma and
interpreted to date peak metamorphic conditions.
3. Lithostratigraphy and broad crustal architecture
The results of our mapping and revised lithodemic nomen-
clature (BGS-USGS-GLW, 2008), show that the Bemarivo Belt can
be subdivided into two different terranes, based on lithology and
isotopic age (Fig. 2) as follows: (a) a southern terrane, which
is structurally juxtaposed in the south with “cratonic” Mada-
gascar (i.e. the Archaean Antongil and Antananarivo cratons and
the Neoproterozoic Anaboriana Belt), includes the high-grade,
metasedimentary paragneiss succession (previously called the
Sahantaha Series (Bousteyak, 1972), now raised to group status by
BGS-USGS-GLW (2008)) and called the Sahantaha Group (Fig. 2).
These rocks may be of Palaeoproterozoic age (De Waele et al.,
2008a). The Sahantaha Group is intruded by a plutonic magmatic
suite named here the Antsirabe Nord Suite (Fig. 2). The status
of an enigmatic sequence of low-grade metasedimentary rocks
which tectonically overlie the eastern part of the Antongil craton
(Andrarona Group) remains controversial and is not considered in
this paper (BGS-USGS-GLW, 2008). (b) A northern terrane con-
tains three supracrustal successions as follows: the amphibolite
grade metasedimentary Betsiaka Group which crops out along a
narrow strip in the NW part of the Bemarivo Belt; the Milanoa
Mineralogy Notes
Quartz-K-feldspar-albite- Heterogeneous, typically pelitic,
biotite ± hornblende ± garnet ± sillimanite± grading to/interlayerd with
graphite ± cpx ± kyanite quartzofeldspathic schist/gneiss
Quartz-feldspar-biotite ± hornblende ± cpx Strongly banded, locally migmatitic
Quartz-K-feldspar-plagioclase- Evidence of two phases of
biotite ± hornblende migmatisation
± garnet ± sillimanite ± cpx
Quartz-feldspar ± mica ± sillimanite Massive quartzites interlayered with
micaceous layers
Quartz-plagioclase- Finely-laminated to massive layers
cpx ± amphibole ± calcite ± titanite ± garnet ± within the metasedimentary sequences
olivine ± scapolite ± epidote
Quartz-feldspar-mica ± sillimanite ± garnet Migmatite grading to
quartzofeldspathic gneiss
Hornblende-plagioclase ± garnet ± cpx Subordinate layers, pods and boudins
Group, an amphibolite grade volcano-sedimentary sequence that
occurs predominantly in the western part of the Bemarivo Belt;
and the Daraina Group, which is a low-grade (greenschist to lower
amphibolite grade) volcano-sedimentary sequence that occurs pre-
dominantly in the eastern part of the terrane. The supracrustal
sequences have been intruded by a plutonic suite named the Man-
ambato Suite (Fig. 2).
The two terranes are separated by the Antsaba shear zone
(Fig. 2). This is a prominent curvilinear zone running from the west,
south of Ambilobe, eastwards, to become a far less distinct, narrow
tectonic lineament that can be traced towards the east coast. The
zone is some 15 km wide in the west and thins eastwards into the
high rainfall zone of the eastern coastal region where its presence
is inferred. Both terranes are intruded by early Cambrian plutons
of the Maevarano Suite that were emplaced during, and just after,
the final amalgamation of Gondwana. These plutons, which were
intruded throughout the northern Madagascar basement between
540 and 520 Ma (Buchwaldt et al., 2003; BGS-USGS-GLW, 2008),
are the subject of an ongoing study and are not described in detail
in this paper.
The boundaries of the Bemarivo Belt (Fig. 2) are defined as fol-
lows: (a) the belt is unconformably overlain in the NW by Palaeozoic
to Mesozoic sedimentary successions of the Antsiranana (formerly:
Diego) Basin; (b) in the NE coastal region, it is unconformably over-
lain by the Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary sequence. Cretaceous
magmatism, associated with the break-up of Gondwana, gave rise
to flood basalt extrusion and emplacement of plutons and coast-
parallel mafic dyke swarms (e.g. Coffin and Rabinowitz, 1988); (c)
in the NW and central areas the belt is overlain and intruded by
Neogene volcanic and intrusive magmatic rocks; (d) the southern
margin of the Bemarivo Belt with other basement units of Mada-
gascar is tectonic (Fig. 2). In the SW, it abuts the Anaboriana Belt and
a short segment of the Antananarivo Craton along the Sandrakota
shear zone. In the SE, the southern Bemarivo rocks are thrust in
a low-angle imbricate zone along a décollement, southwards over
the Antongil Craton.
In the Bemarivo Belt, meta-igneous units are intimately associ-
ated with each other, and are often structurally complex, so that it
has not always proved possible to completely unravel their rela-
tionships. We therefore use lithodemic terminology in place of
lithostratigraphic nomenclature for all of the plutonic rock units
described here. Similarly, the high-grade supracrustal units are
strongly deformed and metamorphosed and of relatively uniform
character, which has not allowed an unbiased construction of (syn-
thetic) lithostratigraphy either within, or between groups—hence
the mapped rock types are also lithodemic units. The one exception
to this is the Daraina Group of the northern terrane. This group is
of lower metamorphic grade and, in places, less deformed, allow-
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300 283

Fig. 3. Photographs of typical rocks of the Sahantaha Group. (a) Rhythmically interlayered pelitic (dark grey) and psammitic (light grey) biotite schist of the Faraiana Schist. (b)
Heterogeneous banded paragneiss with sub-vertical foliation-compositional banding (Antanandava Gneiss). (c) Metapelitic gneiss with abundant large garnet porphyroblasts
(Antanandava Gneiss). (d) Well-layered quartzite (massive layer by hammer) and interlayered quartz-schist (Anambovody Quartzite). (e) Finely laminated marble-calc-silicate.
White bands consist of pure calcite marble; dark bands are rich in diopside, grossular, tremolite and titanite (Androranga marble).

ing a tentative lithostratigraphy, with informal formations, to be
proposed. In the following account, the rocks of the older south-
ern terrane are discussed first, followed by those of the northern
terrane. The distribution of the major units in the Bemarivo Belt is
shown in Fig. 2.
4. Southern Bemarivo terrane
As noted above, the southern terrane contains two major
lithostratigraphic groupings; the older supracrustal rocks of the
Sahantaha Group, and the younger intrusions of the Neoproterozoic
Antsirabe Nord Suite.
the Itremo Group of central Madagascar and suggest Palaeopro-
terozoic to Archaean sources and a Palaeoproterozoic or younger
age of deposition (Cox et al., 1995, 1998, 2004; Fitzsimons and
Hulscher, 2005; BGS-USGS-GLW, 2008; De Waele et al., 2008a). It
is worth noting that no zircons have been detected with ages older
than 2.7 Ga, and only a few with ages of ∼2.5 Ga. This provides an
argument against deposition along the margin of the now-adjacent
Antongil or Antananarivo cratons, the former of which is dominated
by magmatism of ca. 2.5 and 3.2 Ga, with the latter largely made up
of ca. 2.5 Ga rocks (De Waele et al., 2008b).
4.2. Antsirabe Nord Suite

4.1. Sahantaha Group
The Sahantaha Group, comprising the supracrustal rocks of the
southern terrane of the Bemarivo Belt (Fig. 2), consists of high-grade
(upper amphibolite to granulite facies), predominantly metasedi-
mentary gneiss, migmatite, schist, calc-silicate and quartzite. It has
been subdivided into seven named major lithodemic units and a
number of un-named litho-types which are outlined in Table 1.
Full descriptive details of the group, including lithological varia-
tion, petrography and mineralogy can be found in BGS-USGS-GLW
(2008) and field examples of typical rock types are shown in
Fig. 3.
The age of deposition of the Sahantaha Group is not well con-
strained. Age distributions of detrital zircons resemble those of
The Antsirabe Nord Suite comprises a voluminous suite of
foliated calc-alkaline plutonic igneous rocks that range in compo-
sition from gabbro and diorite through tonalite and granodiorite
to granite. The suite intrudes the Sahantaha Group in the southern
Bemarivo terrane (Fig. 2). Based on lithology, texture and regional
distribution, the suite has been subdivided into eight lithodemic
units, which are described in Table 2. Examples of the typical field
appearance of the suite are given in Fig. 4.
5. Northern Bemarivo terrane
The northern terrane contains three supracrustal successions
(Betsiaka, Milanoa, and Daraina groups), intruded by the Neopro-
terozoic plutonic Manambato Suite.
284 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300

Table 2
Mineralogy and composition of the main lithodemic units of the Antsirabe Nord Suite.

Unit Compositional Mineralogy Notes

range (major bold)

Mahanara granite Granitic Quartz-feldspar- Ranges from granodioritic to granitic

orthogneiss (sensu biotite ± amphibole orthogneiss, non-megacrystic, often
lato) migmatitic
Ampapamena granite Augen gneiss Quartz-feldspar- Coarse-grained granitic to granodioritic,
biotite ± amphibole porphyroblastic, K-feldspar augen up to 2 cm
Mankana granite Two-mica granite Quartz-feldspar-biotite- Minor aluminous granite body
muscovite ± tourmaline
Andratambo diorite Diorite, Quartz-plagioclase-amphibole- Polyphase, with at least 4 generations of
quartz-diorite, biotite ± cpx variable grain size and composition
gabbroic
orthogneiss
Antsahamanara tonalite Tonalitic Quartz-plagioclase-amphibole- Volumetrically minor migmatised tonalitic
orthogneiss, biotite ± cpx ± epidote orthogneiss in discrete bodies
meta-diorite,
amphibolite
Granodioritic orthogneiss Granodioritic Quartz-feldspar- Granodioritic, calcic, with epidote, migmatitic
orthogneiss/migmatite biotite ± amphibole
Ampanefena gabbro Metagabbro, Plagioclase-amphibole- Massive to foliated, locally associated with
norite, dioritic cpx ± biotite ± opx ± quartz pyroxene syenite
orthogneiss,
amphiboliote
Orthopyroxenite Pyroxenite, Opx ± amphibole ± opaque Coarse-grained, massive, podiform
hornblendite minerals

5.1. Milanoa Group
The Milanoa Group crops out over a wide area north of the major
Antsaba Shear Zone (see Fig. 2). It comprises metasedimentary
and metavolcanic units metamorphosed under amphibolite facies
conditions with some migmatisation (Fig. 5). On his 1:500 000
geological map, Bésairie (1971) defined the Milanoa Group as
comprising a “facies Daraina” which included metamorphosed,
epidote-bearing mafic–felsic lavas and paragneisses, and a “facies
Milanoa”, dominated by epidotic mafic metavolcanics. In the
current study, we have recognised a number of informal units
(Table 3). Field relations suggest that the Milanoa Group units
were deposited broadly simultaneously and that some of them
interfinger, though deformation and metamorphism obscure the
original field relationships, facing and stratigraphic succession.
5.2. Daraina Group
The Daraina Group comprises a series of volcanic and volcani-
clastic units, metamorphosed under greenschist facies conditions,

Fig. 4. Photographs of typical rocks of the Antsirabe Nord Suite. (a) Four phases of the Andratambo Diorite–oldest phase dark microgabbro–enclaves in grey second-oldest
co-magmatic diorite phase (top right), cut by (and included as xenoliths within) pale grey coarse leuco-diorite phase (top left), in turn cut by youngest phase of weakly layered
grey, sparse-porphyritic quartz diorite (bottom). (b) Stromatic migmatitic leucosomes in tonalitic to granodioritic orthogneiss (Antsahamanara Tonalite). (c) Strongly foliated
coarse-grained biotite granitic orthogneiss (Mahanara Granite). (d) Coarse-grained granodioritic orthogneiss with biotite-hornblende schlieren.
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300 285

Fig. 5. Photographs of typical rocks of the Milanoa and Daraina Groups. (a) Migmatite of the Malaimotro formation, showing stromatic migmatite (bottom right and top)
with dismembered amphibolite bands with second-generation granitic leucosome in tensional boudin necks. (b) Layered amphibolite. (c) Mafic metavolcaniclastic schist
with sub-angular, pale-weathering amphibolitic blocks (bombs?) and stretched quartz-epidote clasts (cut by quartz veins). (d) Primary cross-current-bedding in schistose
arenites indicating that the sequence is the right way up.

which crop out in the eastern part of the terrane (Figs. 2 and 5).
The distinction with the Milanoa Group lies in the lower metamor-
phic grade of the Daraina Group, although the two successions are
speculatively regarded as approximately coeval. The Daraina Group
is subdivided into three informal formations based on distinctive
lithofacies assemblages (Table 3). Field relationships suggest that
these were deposited broadly simultaneously as, in places, the
quartzofeldspathic and pelitic schist units of one formation interfin-
ger with the other Daraina Group formations.
5.3. Betsiaka Group
6. Structure of the Bemarivo Belt
Pervasive fabrics of the Bemarivo Belt affect all the Neopro-
terozoic rocks and can be attributed to the Late Neoproterozoic to
Cambrian terminal phase of the East African Orogeny (EAO). The
structure is dominated by gently to steeply inclined, schistose to
gneissose planar fabrics produced under upper greenschist to gran-
ulite facies conditions. The main structural features are illustrated
in Fig. 7. Mesozoic and younger movements produced a variety of
brittle faults and dykes related to the break-up of Gondwana and
rifting in the Mozambique Channel.

6.1. First deformation (D1 )

The volumetrically minor Betsiaka Group occurs along a narrow
strip in the NW part of the Bemarivo Belt (Fig. 2). It is comprised
mainly of mica schist and quartzite, but also contains minor units
of amphibolite and calc-silicate gneiss (Table 3). In the west, the
Betsiaka Group is unconformably overlain by Phanerozoic rocks,
while the eastern contact with the other Bemarivo belt units is
tectonic.
5.4. Manambato Suite
The Manambato Suite comprises an assemblage of plutonic
rocks which occur north of the Antsaba Shear Zone, and have a
wide distribution over the northern Bemarivo terrane (Fig. 2). The
suite largely equates with “Granitoïdes indifférenciés stratoïdes,
migmatitiques ± noyaux antongiliens possibles” on the 1:2 000 000
compilation map of Hottin (1972). Like the Antsirabe Nord Suite,
it is a calc-alkaline, plutonic suite with a range of compositions
from minor ultramafic and metagabbroic to granitic orthogneisses.
A summary of the different units within the suite is given in Table 4,
and typical outcrops shown in Fig. 6.
The oldest deformation (D1 ) is recognised as a gently-dipping
penetrative schistosity with shear zone surfaces (S1 ), and associated
folds (F1 ). The effects of D1 are variable over the belt. Bedding (S0 )
has been locally recognised, especially in the low-grade Daraina
Group, and parallel re-alignment of granule- through to cobble-
scale tuffaceous clasts can be equated with a composite S0 /S1 fabric.
In higher grade rocks (e.g. Sahantaha Group), anatexis within pelitic
units has locally given rise to migmatitic textures including planar
structures parallel to the main foliation (S1 ) such as lensoid coarse-
grained leucosomes and stromatic gneissose banding.
First order F1 folds comprise regional scale, ca. 5 km wavelength,
downward and upward facing, recumbent, tight to isoclinal struc-
tures refolded by F2 domes to give an overall type 2 fold interference
pattern (Ramsay, 1967). At outcrop-scale, first-generation folds
occur as intrafolial, tight to isoclinal, inclined to recumbent, locally
rootless structures with cm- to m-scale wavelengths. Although they
cannot be directly related to the regional-scale F1 in metasedimen-
tary rocks, these early intrafolial folds can be seen folding an earlier
tectonic fabric as well as being enveloped by the main, more or
286 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300

Table 3
Mineralogy and composition of the main lithodemic units of the Milanoa, Daraina and Betsiaka Groups.

Unit Compositional range Mineralogy Notes

Milanoa Group
Ankijabe Formation
Anjabanakely Formation
Tsiandrorana Formation
Amborondolo Formation
Malaimotro Formation
Minor lithologies
Quartzofeldspathic paragneiss Quartz-K-feldspar-albite-
biotite ± hornblende ± garnet
± sillimanite ± muscovite
Paragneiss Quartz-plagioclase-biotite-
epidote ± hornblende
Garnet mica schist Quartz-feldspar-
2 micas ± sillimanite ± garnet ± epidote
Amphibole-rich paragneiss Quartz-plagioclase-
hornblende-biotite ± K-
feldspar ± epidote ± titanite ± garnet
Migmatite Quartz-feldspar-
biotite ± sillimanite ± hornblende
Quartzite, calc-silicate rocks, amphibolite Various
Most widespread formation.
Very wide range of
metasedimentary lithotypes
Mainly felsic-calcic
metasediment with minor
calc-silicate pods and pelitic
schist
Predominantly meta-pelitic
metasedimentary rocks
Schistose amphibolite
interlayered with minor pelitic
and psammitic schist
Strongly migmatitic banded
paragneiss
Thin layers within the other
gneiss formations

Daraina Group
Ambanja Formation Amphibolite, mafic volcanic rocks Plagioclase-hornblende- Basalt and basaltic tuffs, locally
(including tuffs) biotite-chlorite- with clasts (volcanic bombs?),
epidote ± quartz ± K-feldspar psammitic metasediments
Ambodimadiro Formation Quartzofeldspathic metasedimentary rocks Quartz-feldspar- Meta-psammites, locally with
chlorite ± opaque preserved primary structures
minerals ± garnet and conglomeratic layers
Ambatojoby Formation Acid to intermediate metavolcanic rocks Quartz-feldspar- Meta-rhyolite + dacite (locally
biotite ± hornblende ± glass vesicular, tuffaceous) with
minor metasedimentary
interlayers

Betsiaka Group
Mantalimanera Formation Mica schist, quartzite Quartz-feldspar-biotite Strongly layered,
(chlorite) ± muscovite ± garnet heterogeneous paragneiss
sequence
Amphibolite unit Amphibolite Plagioclase-actinolite- Meta-mafic volcanic rocks,
chlorite ± quartz ± garnet locally migmatised, strongly
retrogressed
Calc-silicate unit Calc-silicate rocks Quartz-plagioclase- Occurs as thin layers and pods
diopside ± hornblende ± micas in paragneiss

Table 4
Mineralogy and composition of the main lithodemic units of the Manambato Suite.

Unit Compositional range Mineralogy Notes

(major units in bold)

Bevoay granite Leucocratic two-mica Quartz-K-feldspar-muscovite- Forms number of plutons up to

granite biotite 20 km across
Antsahavalany granite Granitic to Quartz-feldspar- Strong compositional variation,
granodioritic, tonalitic biotite ± cpx ± amphibole variably migmatitic, variably
orthogneiss foliated, many mafic xenoliths
Monzogranitic orthogneiss Monzogranitic Quartz-feldspar- Massive, foliated rocks with
orthogneiss biotite ± muscovite sub-equal K-feldspar and
plagioclase, fairly
homogeneous
Fatihitanarana orthogneiss Migmatitic Quartz-feldspar-cpx- Very strongly foliated,
granodioritic biotite ± amphibole pyroxene-bearing
orthogneiss
Maintialaka granitoid Tonalitic orthogneiss Quartz-plagioclase- Almost no granitic
granodiorite, biotite ± cpx ± amphibole (K-feldspar-bearing) rocks,
metagabbro locally migmatitic
Dioritic orthogneiss Dioritic orthogneiss Quartz-plagioclase-biotite- Relatively small bodies, locally
amphibole migmatised
Andravory metabasite Metagabbro, norite Plagioclase-amphibole- Compositionally variable
and dioritic cpx ± quartz meta-mafic rocks, podiform to
orthogneiss sinuous, strongly foliated and
migmatised
Andrarobo ultramafic rocks Ultramafic rocks, Talc-tremolite- Small pods and pockets up to
hornblendite, actinolite ± pyroxene ± chlorite ± opaque 1 km across. Locally in
serpentinite, minerals dismembered, elongate
pyroxenite “trains”
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300 287

Fig. 6. Photographs of typical rocks of the Manambato Suite. (a) Pinkish granitic orthogneiss showing small porphyroblasts of K-feldspar, tight folding and amphibolitic
xenoliths. (b) Strongly foliated grey coarse-grained granodioritic orthogneiss, with foliation-parallel leucocratic (leucosome) veins.

less axial planar (S1 ) schistosity, suggesting that, at least locally,
S1 is itself a composite fabric. The geometry of F1 with respect to
a restored sub-horizontal S1 is of recumbent structures which we
interpret as probably having formed during emplacement of the
Bemarivo Belt against terranes to the south. This geometry is par-
ticularly well-developed in the southern, supracrustal-dominated
part of the southern terrane, which is transected by an array of
narrow, low-angle ductile shear zones, folded around the younger
F2 structures. The shear zones are associated with well-developed,
down-dip plunging, L1 mineral stretching lineations and rare S–C

Fig. 7. Schematic map of the main tectono-stratigraphic zones of northern Madagascar showing the major structural features. First order F2 fold axial traces and significant
foliation form lines show the trends of the principal fabrics in the Bemarivo Belt. White arrows illustrate sense of D1 translation. Grey arrows illustrate approximate orientation
of D2 shortening. Inset box shows example stereographic plot (lower hemisphere) illustrating planar and linear structures: planar fabrics contoured (n = 442), filled circles
are undifferentiated mineral lineations (n = 18), filled triangles are undifferentiated fold axes (n = 18).
288 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300

Fig. 8. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of selected typical zircon grains: (a) sample BT/06/36; (b) BT/06/41; (c) RT-06-467; (d) WB73; (e) RT-07-61; (f) BDW357; (g) BDW500
and (h) RT-06-78.
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300 289

Table 5
Details of the U–Pb zircon geochronology samples from the Bemarivo Belt.

Stratigraphic unit Sample number Sample lithology Location (Laborde grid) Age (Ma) Interpretation of age Method

x y

Northern Bemarivo terrane

Manambato Suite RT-07-121 Foliated granodiorite 648242 1364720 711 ± 6 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP
BDW315A Foliated granodiorite 717414 1365715 718 ± 6 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP
RT-07 146 Charnockite 656572 1376650 705 ± 6 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP
RT-07-76 2 mica granite 725175 1401963 708 ± 6 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP

Milanoa Group BDW500 Quartzofeldspathic paragneiss 759187 1379759 <740 Maximum deposition U–Pb LA-ICP-MS
RT-07-61 Quartzite 725942 1407406 <770 Maximum deposition U–Pb LA-ICP-MS
BDW357 Paragneiss 689390 1362394 <ca. 720 Maximum deposition U–Pb LA-ICP-MS

Daraina Group RT-06-78 Rhyolite 758734 1456650 741 ± 5 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP
BB/06A/12 Rhyolite 772797 1416592 719 ± 6 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP

Betsiaka Group RT-06-46 Quartzite 716323 1437636 <2447 Maximum deposition U–Pb SHRIMP

Southern Bemarivo Terrane

Antsirabe Nord Suite RT-06-467 Granodioritic orthogneiss 756214 1309456 755 ± 6 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP
BT/06/36 Metadiorite 775827 1339493 755 ± 5 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP
WB73 Granite orthogneiss 776418 1240968 758 ± 5 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP
BT/06/41 Tonalitic orthogneiss 778511 1332488 746 ± 4 Crystallisation U–Pb SHRIMP

fabrics and are interpreted as low-angle thrust planes that show
an approximate top-to-the-south sense of translation. Overall, the
D1 architecture forms a thick thrust imbricate fan in which individ-
ual thrust planes are marked by a step-like topographic expression
where units of contrasting competency and strain have been juxta-
posed. The basal décollement of the Bemarivo Belt, herein termed
the Andaparaty Thrust, against the Antongil Craton is located north
of Maroantsetra (Fig. 2), where stacked thick quartzitic units of the
Sahantaha Group are preserved in the upper plate.
6.2. Second deformation (D2 )
Post-D1 structures are dominated by an assemblage of open,
dome-like, regional folds (F2 ) and steep curvilinear shear zones.
Relationships between these features are complex and their
detailed resolution is outside the scope of this study. However,
they are favourably oriented to have formed in a coherent stress
regime and are therefore considered together to describe a single
deformation episode.

Table 6
Physical properties of zircons separated from the dated samples.

Sample Colour Size (␮m) Aspect ratio Morphology Internal zoning Interpretation

BT/06/36 Light yellow 150–400 2:1–3:1 Euhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic

Clear

BT/06/41 Colourless, clear 100–200 1:1–3:1 Euhedral–subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic

Some light-brown opaque

RT/06/467 Colourless to grey-brown 100–400 2:1–5:1 Euhedral–subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic

Minor inclusions

WB73 Yellow-grey 50–100 1:1–4:1 Euhedral Concentric zoning, somewhat Magmatic

Slightly turbid “washed out”

RT-07-61 Colourless 100–250 1:1–2:1 Subhedral Concentric zoning, narrow bright Magmatic sources
Clear Some euhedral grains CL rim

BDW357 Colourless 50–200 1:1–3:1 Subhedral Concentric zoning, narrow bright Magmatic sources
Clear Some euhedral grains CL rim

BDW500 Grey to colourless 50–200 1:1–3:1 Euhedral–sub-rounded Concentric zoning Magmatic sources
Clear

RT/06/78 Grey to colourless 50–100 1:1–2:1 Euhedral–subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic

Clear

BB/06A/12 Colourless to pale grey 50–200 2:1–3:1 Euhedral (but broken) Concentric zoning Magmatic
Some inclusions

RT-06-46 Light grey–pale brown 50–150 1:1–3:1 Subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic sources
Some inclusions Some euhedral grains

BDW315 Colourless 50–250 1:1–3:1 Subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic sources

Clear Some euhedral grains

RT/07/76 Pale grey–pink grey 50–250 2:1–4:1 Euhedral–subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic
Clear

RT/07/121 Light yellow 100–350 2:1–4:1 Euhedral–subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic

Clear, some embayments

RT/07/146 Grey brown–pink brown 100–300 2:1–4:1 Euhedral–subhedral Concentric zoning Magmatic
Clear
290 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300

Fig. 9. CL images of selected typical zircon grains: (a) sample BB-06A-12; (b) RT-06-46; (c) BDW315; (d) RT-07-76; (e) RT-07-121 and (f) RT-07-146.

Regional-scale first order, dome shaped antiforms (F2 ), occur
throughout the Bemarivo Belt (Fig. 7). F2 folds are irregularly dis-
tributed across the whole belt with the wavelength varying from
around 2 to 40 km. They are open, upright and vary from conical
through to periclinal forms. Lower order F2 folds are rarely pre-
served, with the exception of local open warping at outcrop-scale.
F2 folds have been locally modified by subsequent widespread
granitic intrusion (Maevarano Suite), and deformed in two regional-
scale ductile structures herein termed the Antsaba and Sandrakota
shear zones (Fig. 2). The former defines the boundary between the
northern and southern Bemarivo terranes, while the latter largely
constitutes the western part of the contact between the Bemarivo
Belt and the Antananarivo Craton and Anaboriana Belt (Fig. 2).
The Antsaba shear zone is a prominent arcuate linear zone that
transects the Bemarivo Belt in a broadly west-east direction. It
is best exposed in its western part where it forms a broad high-
strain zone which is conspicuous on aeromagnetic maps draped
over topography. The structure becomes progressively less distinct
toward the east, where it is traced tentatively by remote sensing
techniques, coupled with lithological control from the sparse out-
crops. It is traced between exposures to the north that include
metavolcanic rocks characteristic of the Daraina Group, and those to
the south that include quartzite and calc-silicate rock typical of the
Sahantaha Group. The shear zone is about 15 km wide at its widest
in the west, thinning to <1 km in the east (where it is not exposed).
In the field, the zone is characterised by intense strike-slip defor-
mation with zones of steeply inclined intense planar fabrics and
prominent shallowly plunging, strike parallel, mineral stretching
lineations. Intervening lower-strain zones of less steeply inclined
gneisses preserve an earlier generation of upright, tight, more cylin-
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
Fig. 10. Tera–Wasserburg plots of U–Pb SHRIMP data from zircon from the Antsirabe Nord Suite. All error crosses at 2 confidence. Concordant data (100 ± 5% concordant)
shown in black, discordant data in grey.
drical folds. Few unambiguous kinematic indicators were observed,
but scattered  porphyroclasts give a sinistral sense of movement.
The Antsaba shear zone represents the fundamental structure along
which the two Bemarivo terranes are juxtaposed. The shear zone
itself is not folded by F2 , but is parallel with F2 axes in its western
part, suggesting that it formed during or subsequent to D2 defor-
mation.
The Sandrakota shear zone comprises a broad, arcuate, NW to NE-
trending high-strain zone along the contact between the southern
Bemarivo terrane and the Anaboriana Belt to the west (Fig. 2). The
southerly extension of this structure also forms the eastern con-
tact of the Anaboriana Belt and the Antananarivo Craton where it
becomes a component of the composite NNE-trending eastern EAO
suture that transects northern Madagascar (e.g. Collins, 2006). In
the segment marking the Bemarivo–Anaboriana Belt contact, the
zone of structural parallelism is up to 50 km wide at its broadest,
narrowing to about 4 km wide further south, where it makes up
the contact between the Anaboriana Belt and Antananarivo Cra-
ton.
At its northwestern extremity, the shear zone is characterised
by NW-striking, steeply inclined gneisses, locally with rootless,
intrafolial, steeply plunging isoclinal folds, and gently plunging
mineral lineations and/or rodding. Along its southern extension,
where it intervenes between the Anaboriana Belt and the bulk of
the Antananarivo Craton, mineral lineations plunge to the NW and
planar fabrics dip at moderate angles westwards.
In the northern part, the assemblage of steep planar fabrics and
gently plunging mineral lineations indicates that the movement on
291
this structure had a dominantly strike-slip sense of displacement.
In the southern part, steeply plunging lineations are interpreted
to reflect a change to SE-directed horizontal translation along this
segment of the shear zone. In the absence of asymmetric structures
this sense of movement cannot be proven, but is an interpreta-
tion based on the overall contractional setting of the EAO. The
southern part of the shear zone is interpreted from remote sensed
imagery to truncate the early D1 fabric and the basal décollement
west of Maroantsetra, in the Matsoandaka district (Fig. 2), although
the actual relationship is largely obscured by Cenozoic superficial
deposits. The Sandrakota shear zone is not folded by F2 , but given
that F2 structures appear to become tighter adjacent to, and within
it, it seems likely that it has experienced displacement syn-D2 , in a
similar fashion to the Antsaba shear zone.
7. Geochronology
In order to build on the previous geochronological work in the
Bemarivo Belt (Tucker et al., 1999; Buchwaldt and Tucker, 2001;
Buchwaldt et al., 2002, 2003; Buchwaldt, 2006; Jöns et al., 2005a,b,
2006), 14 representative samples of the igneous and metased-
imentary rocks from throughout the belt were taken for U–Pb
zircon analysis. Details of the samples are given in Table 5. The
dataset includes 10 igneous rocks which were dated by the Sensi-
tive High Resolution Ion Microprobe (SHRIMP) technique at Curtin
University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia and 4 metasedi-
mentary rocks (detrital zircons) which were dated by Laser Ablation
Multiple Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrome-
292 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
Fig. 11. Tera–Wasserburg plots of U–Pb SHRIMP data from detrital zircon from the Milanoa Group. All error crosses at 2 confidence. Concordant data (100 ± 5% concordant)
shown in black, discordant data in grey.
try (LA-MC-ICP-MS) at the NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory
(NIGL), Keyworth, UK. The analytical data for the 14 samples are
given in Appendix 1.
7.1. Methodology
Zircon was separated from large, fresh rock samples using stan-
dard crushing, washing, heavy liquid separation (LST and MI liquids)
and magnetic separation (Frantz Isodynamic Separator), followed
by hand-picking under a binocular microscope. The grains were
mounted in epoxy, and polished mid-section to expose their cen-
tre. Mounts were imaged using transmitted and reflected optical
microscopy as well as by cathodoluminescence (CL) on a Scanning
Electron Microscope. Examples of CL images of analysed zircon are
shown in Figs. 8 and 9 and details of the zircons are given in Table 6.
Methodologies for SHRIMP analyses followed that described in
De Waele and Pisarevsky (2008), while LA-MC-ICP-MS method-
ologies followed those described by Horstwood et al. (2003) and
Simonetti et al. (2005). Common Pb correction was applied on
SHRIMP data, using measured 204 Pb, and applying a common
Pb composition following Stacey and Kramers (1975) appropri-
ate for the age of the zircon. For LA-MC-ICP-MS, no common Pb
correction was directly applied, but 204 Pb was measured (after
background correction for 204 Hg) and data with 204 Pb significantly
above detection limit excluded from interpretations. All pooled
ages are reported at 95% confidence levels, while single data are
reported at 2 confidence level. SHRIMP data were reduced using
the Squid plug-in for Excel (Ludwig, 2001b), whilst LA-MC-ICP-MS
data were reduced using an in-house developed spreadsheet. All
data were plotted and interpreted using the Isoplot plug-in for Excel
(Ludwig, 2001a). Histograms and relative probability density dia-
grams were produced using the “Agedisplay” macro-programme in
Excel (Sircombe, 2004).
7.2. Southern Bemarivo terrane
7.2.1. Antsirabe Nord Suite
Two zircon TIMS ages were reported in the literature on units
from the Antsirabe Nord Suite (Tucker et al., 1999), indicating
emplacement ages of 754 ± 2 and 749 ± 2 Ma. We present four addi-
tional zircon U–Pb SHRIMP ages for various granitoids of the suite
further south.
Sample BT/06/36 is a diorite taken from a complex series of
hybridised rocks known as the Andratambo Diorite (see Fig. 4a).
Twenty-two analyses were conducted on 22 magmatic zircons
(Fig. 8a) and indicate low f206 values (proportion of non-radiogenic
206 Pb in total 206 Pb), U and Th in the ranges 115–993 and
134–1900 ppm respectively, with Th/U between 0.91 and 1.98,
typical for magmatic zircon. Three points, 3, 5 and 17, plot as
slightly discordant but the remaining data define a concordia age
of 755 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 0.36; Fig. 10), which is taken as the best age
estimate of crystallisation of the sample.
Sample BT/06/41 was taken from the Antsahamanara Tonalite (see
Fig. 4b). Analyses were conducted on 16 zoned zircons (Fig. 8b). One
data point (#16) plots below the concordia curve, perhaps owing to
Pb-loss (Fig. 10). The remaining points plot in a concordant cluster
but show too wide a range of isotopic ratios to allow the calcu-
lation of a concordia age. The cluster does show a coherent set
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
Fig. 12. Tera–Wasserburg plots of U–Pb zircon data from magmatic zircon of the Daraina Group (RT-06-78 and BB-06A-12) and from sample RT-06-46 from the Betsiaka
Group. All error crosses at 2 confidence.
of 206 Pb/238 U ratios, yielding a weighted mean 206 Pb/238 U age of
746 ± 4 Ma (MSWD = 1.35, Fig. 10), taken to be the most reliable
crystallisation age of the sample.
Sample RT-06-467 was collected from the Mahanara Granite
(see Fig. 4c). Twenty-seven analyses were conducted on concen-
trically zoned parts of 27 grains (Fig. 8c). Twenty-one analyses
plot on concordia and define a narrow range of 206 Pb/238 U and
207 Pb/206 Pb ratios, which result in a concordia age of 755 ± 6 Ma
(MSWD = 3.4, Fig. 10) interpreted as the crystallisation age. The low-
est Th/U ratios are recorded for analyses 20 and 24, which were
taken from homogenous medium-CL zones. These two analyses plot
close to the concordia and define a concordia age of 526 ± 28 Ma
(MSWD = 1.9) which we interpret to date a metamorphic event
affecting the orthogneiss and which is within error of metamorphic
ages reported in the literature (e.g. Jöns et al., 2006 and references
therein).
Another sample of the Mahanara Granite, sample WB73, was
analysed. Twenty-four analyses were conducted on 22-zoned zir-
cons (Fig. 8d), including two pairs of analyses on magmatically
zoned sectors of single zircon (9–10 and 14–14a). Many analyses
record high counts on 204 Pb and the use of measured 204 Pb leads
to an overcorrection of the ratios. Uncorrected data all plot above
the concordia curve, but a set of 14 data points, which recorded
low counts on 204 Pb, plot close to concordia (Fig. 10). Calculat-
ing a weighted mean 207-corrected 206 Pb/238 U age for these data
yields an age of 758 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 0.63, Fig. 10), which can be
taken as the most reliable estimate of the age of crystallisation. No
xenocrystic zircon were detected in the granitoid, either suggesting
293
a juvenile (oceanic) arc setting, or zircon saturation temperatures
too high to allow preservation of xenocrystic zircon.
7.3. Northern Bemarivo terrane
7.3.1. Milanoa Group
Detrital ages for three samples of the Milanoa Group have been
obtained. Zircon grains from quartzite sample RT-07-61 are sub-
hedral to euhedral, typically with well-developed crystal facets
with limited marginal abrasion from sedimentary transport, indi-
cating a dominant proximal source (Fig. 8e). Analyses of 80 zircon
grains largely plot on concordia, showing a slight spread in ratios
that indicate some Pb-loss (Fig. 11). Uranium concentrations for
the analyses were largely in the 100–400 ppm range with some
at 600–700 ppm or over 1000 ppm. The highest U concentration
recorded was ca.1850 ppm. Minor amounts of common-Pb were
detected in some of these analyses, which was taken into account
during interpretation of the data. The morphology and zoning char-
acteristics of the zircon, together with their narrow age-spread,
suggest derivation from a nearby volcanic source. A large propor-
tion of the analyses are concordant defining a population peak
with a Pb/U age of ca. 770 Ma. This is interpreted to reflect the
time of crystallisation of a dominant igneous component within
the sedimentary source material. The presence of near-concordant
younger analyses, the youngest of which yields a 206 Pb/238 U age
of 547 ± 13 Ma (95% concordant), are interpreted to indicate the
effects of Pb-loss on the ca. 770 Ma old material, probably during
a regional ca. 520 Ma tectonothermal event (c.f. metamorphic zir-
294 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
con and monazite ages reported in the region by Buchwaldt and
Tucker, 2001; Buchwaldt et al., 2002, 2003; Buchwaldt, 2006; Jöns
et al., 2005a,b, 2006).
Sillimanite-bearing paragneiss sample BDW357 contains euhe-
dral to subhedral zircon with poorly developed mechanical
abrasion (Fig. 8f). Although the evidence of abrasion supports a
sedimentary protolith, the presence of euhedral grains suggests
short sedimentary transport and a proximal derivation. CL imag-
ing shows zoning patterns on the majority of grains, but most also
have narrow low-CL overgrowths. The absence of zoning in these
dark overgrowths suggests a metamorphic origin. Seventy analy-
ses were conducted on 53 zircon grains, but only 26 of those plot
within 100 ± 10% concordant (Fig. 11) and included 13 analyses on
dark-CL rim domains. A large range in U concentration was evident
(150–3850 ppm) with the data exhibiting Pb-loss effects and some
minor common-Pb. The discordance in the majority of grains cannot
be explained by a single Pb-loss trend, but reflects the complicated
interplay of multiple Pb-loss trajectories resulting from high U con-
centrations, minor erratic occurrence of common-Pb and possible
mixing of core and rim domains. Taking only the concordant data,
two population peaks can be defined at ca. 720 and 520 Ma. The old-
est of 3 concordant analyses well within uncertainty of each other
has a Pb/U age of 723 ± 12 Ma (2) whilst the youngest of two con-
cordant data points, well within uncertainty of each other, has a
Pb/U age of 515 ± 8 Ma (2). The older age is interpreted to reflect
the maximum depositional age of the sample, whilst the younger
age is interpreted to be the age of metamorphism. This age is identi-
cal to the age of peak metamorphism in the Marojejy Massif further
south (Buchwaldt and Tucker, 2001; Buchwaldt et al., 2002, 2003;
Buchwaldt, 2006; Jöns et al., 2005a,b, 2006).
A quartzofeldspathic paragneiss sample BDW500 yielded sub-
hedral to euhedral zircon with prominent concentric CL zoning
patterns indicative of a magmatic origin (Fig. 8g). Their euhedral
shape suggests fairly limited sedimentary transport, while the uni-
form character and oscillatory zoning patterns indicate a proximal
magmatic source. Fifty-one analyses were conducted on 40 zircon
crystals. The data plot largely on concordia, with only six data points
plotting outside 100 ± 10% concordance (Fig. 11), with no appar-
ent common Pb. Uranium concentrations were predominantly
100–300 ppm with some grains in the range of 500–700 ppm. Three
zircon grains recorded very similar 207 Pb/206 Pb ratios, ratios with
the most concordant giving a Pb/U age of 1668 ± 26 Ma (2). This
is interpreted to indicate a minor late Palaeoproterozoic age com-
ponent in the quartzite, accounting for 6% of the total population.
Three more zircon crystals recorded a narrow range of isotopic
ratios corresponding to a Pb/U age bracket of 1050–1000 Ma, indi-
cating a minor late Mesoproterozoic age component making up 6%
of the total. The majority of zircon record concordant isotopic ratios
indicating Neoproterozoic crystallisation covering a spectrum of
ages from 900 to 740 Ma. The largest cluster, comprising 26 data
points, defines a Pb/U population age peak at ca. 740 Ma. Five other
data points are concordant at ca. 795 Ma. We interpret this to reflect
a dominant detrital component at ca. 740 Ma with other smaller less
dominant components up to ca. 900 Ma. Three imprecise analyses
define a cluster on concordia, with the most concordant data point
giving a 206 Pb/238 U age of 475 ± 8 Ma (102% concordant). We take
this cluster of younger ages to reflect a Pb-loss event around 500 Ma,
but more data are needed to refine the timing of this event.
7.3.2. Daraina Group
Four unpublished TIMS dates by R. Tucker were available
before this study, including a crystallisation age on an aplite
dyke intruding the pyroclastic rocks of the Daraina Group at
715 ± 2 Ma, and a possible volcanic bomb with an age of 752 ± 2 Ma.
During the present work, two volcanic units have been dated,
an extrusive rhyolite (RT-06-78) and a rhyolite carapace (sam-
ple BB/06A/12) to a granitoid of the Manambato Suite that
was previously dated at 716 ± 2 and 713 ± 2 Ma (R. Tucker, pers.
comm.).
Sample RT-06-78, a flow-banded rhyolite, yielded a small num-
ber of euhedral to subhedral, often broken zircon with concentric
CL zoning patterns (Fig. 8h). Twelve analyses were conducted on
12 zircon grains. Because of the very low U content of some zir-
con, very low amounts of radiogenic Pb were measured, leading
to relatively imprecise isotopic determinations, and an overestima-
tion of proportions of non-radiogenic Pb. Some data therefore plot
as slightly inversely discordant. Eleven data points define a narrow
range of 206 Pb/238 U ratios corresponding to a weighted mean age of
741 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 1.42, Fig. 12). One data point displays a signifi-
cantly lower 206 Pb/238 U ratio, corresponding to an age of 844 ± 8 Ma
(analysis 7, 91% concordant), and may reflect the age of a xenocryst.
Ignoring the extremely low-U analyses, and those with grossly inac-
curate measurements on Pb, a concordia age of 739 ± 8 Ma can be
calculated on nine points (MSWD = 10 due to some inverse discor-
dance in the set), within error of the weighted mean age. We take
the weighted mean 207 Pb/206 Pb age as the best estimate of crys-
tallisation of zircon in the sample, and thus the extrusion age of the
rhyolite.
Sample BB-06A-12 is a grey, fine grained to aphanitic flow-
banded rhyolite. Zircon grains are angular and irregular and
probably represent broken fragments of once larger zircon. Rem-
nant crystal faces on the fragments attest to an original euhedral
shape. CL images show broad sector zoning, and the zircons are
interpreted to be primary magmatic in nature (Fig. 9a). One zircon
grain shows a higher CL-response and more pronounced internal
zoning, and is interpreted as a xenocryst (analysis 17). Eighteen
analyses were conducted on 17 zircon grains, including one core-
rim pair. A Wetherill U–Pb plot shows a wide spread of mostly
(inversely) discordant data, typical of SHRIMP data for high Th and
U samples (Fig. 12). Using only the 14 analyses close to concordia, a
concordia age of 719 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 6.4) can be calculated which
we take to represent the crystallisation age of the rhyolite. One older
zircon (#17) yielded a discordant 207 Pb/206 Pb age of 2507 ± 10 Ma
(15% discordant), taken to represent the minimum crystallisation
age of this xenocryst.
7.3.3. Betsiaka Group
One quartzite sample (RT-06-46) contained rounded to sub-
rounded zircon with pocked and abraded surfaces typical of
sedimentary grains. A minority of crystals are small, prismatic in
shape, and retain well-developed crystal faces reflecting proximal
provenance from magmatic sources. The majority of grains preserve
prominent CL zoning characteristic of magmatic crystals (Fig. 9b).
Fifty-four analyses were made, including all morphological types
in the sample. Only about half of the analyses plot close to concor-
dia (100 ± 10% concordant), indicating significant Pb-loss in most
zircon (Fig. 12). Twenty-seven concordant data points indicate a
predominant age population of 2500 Ma. Three concordant zircon
indicate an older mode at 2700 Ma, while single zircon indicated
minor contributions of sources at 2950, 3100, 3140 and 3380 Ma
(Fig. 12). The youngest concordant zircon has an age of 2447 ± 17 Ma
(2 confidence), which places a maximum age of deposition on the
quartzite.
7.3.4. Manambato Suite
Four published and unpublished results were known for Man-
ambato Suite granitoids (TIMS data by Tucker et al., 1999 and pers.
comm.). These indicated a narrow age range of 717 ± 2 to 713 ± 2 Ma
for these plutons. We dated four additional samples during the
present study.
Sample BDW315A, a granodioritic orthogneiss, provided euhe-
dral to subhedral and sub-rounded zircon with parallel and
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
Fig. 13. Tera–Wasserburg plots of U–Pb zircon data from magmatic zircons of the Manambato Suite. All error crosses at 2 confidence.
oscillatory CL zoning patterns interpreted to be of magmatic origin
(Fig. 9c). Twenty-nine analyses were conducted on 20 zircon grains
and plot close to concordia, with a slight spread towards present-
day Pb-loss (Fig. 13). Seven of the analyses allow the calculation
of a concordia age of 718 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 2.2) interpreted as the
crystallisation age of the sample.
Two-mica granite sample RT-07-76 contained euhedral to sub-
hedral zircon with most grains showing well-developed crystal
faces and sharp terminations. CL imagery indicates well-developed
growth zoning in oscillatory and concentric patterns (Fig. 9d). Ten
analyses were conducted on ten different zircon crystals. Apart from
analysis 3, which has an anomalously high 238 U/206 Pb ratio, nine
analyses define a concordia age of 708 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 4.0; Fig. 13),
which is the best age estimate for crystallisation of zircon in the
granite. The anomalous data point reflects some Pb-loss after crys-
tallisation, but no time can be suggested for this event on the basis
of these data.
Biotite-hornblende metagranodiorite sample RT-07-121 yielded
CL zoned zircon interpreted to reflect magmatic crystallisation
locally with embayments and prominent fluid filled inclusions
(Fig. 9e). Fifteen analyses were conducted on 15 zircon crystals
and define a crude cluster with apparent 206 Pb/238 U ages between
661 and 752 Ma (Fig. 13). The data show some inverse discor-
dance, reflecting overcorrection for common Pb. The main cluster
of 11 data points defines a concordia age of 708 ± 5 Ma with a high
MSWD value of 9 due to the overcorrection. A weighted mean
207-corrected 206 Pb/238 U age of 711 ± 6 Ma (MSWD = 1.7) of the
eleven concordant analyses is taken as the best estimate for the
295
crystallisation age of the granodiorite. Analysis 14 defines a con-
cordant 206 Pb/238 U age of 752 ± 15 Ma (2) and may represent a
small xenocrystic component in the sample. This analysis was, how-
ever, conducted on a large euhedral zircon crystal, apparently no
different from the main population.
Sample RT-07-146, a dark-green, medium- to coarse-grained
pyroxene-bearing granite orthogneiss, contained euhedral to sub-
hedral zircon grains, with well-developed crystal facets and conical
terminations. Concentric CL zoning patterns are apparent, indi-
cating the magmatic character of the zircon (Fig. 9f). Seventeen
analyses were conducted, of which ten analyses define a concor-
dia age of 705 ± 6 Ma (Fig. 13). Six data points plot with slightly
higher 238 U/206 Pb ratios interpreted to reflect variable Pb-loss.
These points do, however, not lie on a predicted Pb-loss line associ-
ated with present-day Pb-loss, indicating the influence of an ancient
Pb-loss event. The point with the highest 238 U/206 Pb ratio defines a
concordant age of 552 ± 9 Ma, records a low Th/U ratio of 0.08, and
may record this ancient Pb-loss event, but more data are needed to
fully verify this.
There is a noteworthy absence of xenocrystic zircon in any of the
dated samples of the Manambato Suite, supporting a juvenile arc
setting, as indicated also by Nd-isotopic data reported by Tucker et
al. (1999).
8. Whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry
77 samples from the Bemarivo Belt (excluding the possibly pre-
Neoproterozoic Sahantaha and Betsiaka Groups) were analysed for
296 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300

Fig. 14. Total alkalis vs. silica diagram for all igneous/meta-igneous samples within Fig. 15. Y vs. Nb granitoid discrimination plot after Pearce et al. (1984). VAG, volcanic
the Bemarivo Belt. Fields for volcanic rocks from Gillespie and Styles (1999), after Le arc granites; syn-COLG, syn-collisional granites; WPG, within-plate granites; ORG,
Bas et al. (1986). ocean-ridge granites. Samples with SiO2 > 65% plotted.

When granitoid rocks (taken here as those with SiO2 > 65 wt%)
are plotted on a Y–Nb discrimination diagram of Pearce et al.
major, trace, and rare earth elements. As discussed above, detri-
(1984) (Fig. 15), most samples from the Antsirabe Nord and Man-
tal zircon data have illustrated that the metasedimentary rocks
ambato Suites plot in the volcanic arc/syn-collisional granite field,
of the Sahantaha and Betsiaka Groups are derived from a range
indicating the influence of subduction in their genesis. Similarly,
of Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic continental sources distal to the
when plotted on the AFM diagram of Irvine and Baragar (1971),
main Bemarivo Belt, and so their geochemistry (13 samples, data
almost all the samples from these suites fall in the calc-alkaline
not given) is not discussed further here. The majority of the analysed
field (Fig. 16). Samples from the Daraina and Milanoa Groups are
samples are of igneous rocks, including 40 and 24 samples from the
scattered across the tholeiitic and calc-alkaline fields. Virtually all
Antsirabe Nord and Manambato Suites respectively. Twelve sam-
the samples of igneous rocks from the Bemarivo Belt have molar
ples have been analysed from the Milanoa Group, and one from
A/CNK (Al2 O3 /(CaO + Na2 O + K2 O)) < 1.1 (Fig. 17), typical of I-type
the Daraina Group. The variable exposure and poor accessibility
granitoids (Chappell and White, 1992), derived from an igneous
in northern Madagascar made strategic sampling difficult, so that
rather than a sedimentary protolith. This agrees with the observed
samples are not evenly distributed across the groups. For those
lack of older xenocrystic zircons, and also with the initial ␧Nd
reasons, the geochemical data are assessed at a group or suite
values of around + 3 presented by Tucker et al. (1999). The data
level, rather than on the basis of the lithodemic units described
indicate that the magmatism of the Bemarivo Belt was largely juve-
in Tables 1–4.
nile, although some crustal contamination of the magmas cannot
Fresh rock samples selected for geochemistry were crushed and
be ruled out, especially because of the apparent lack of inter-
milled in agate at the DMG Laboratory of the Ministry of Energy and
Mines in Antananarivo. The samples were analysed at ACTLABS (by
their Code 4 Lithoresearch package). Major oxides and some trace
elements were analysed by Li-metaborate/tetraborate fusion with
an ICP analysis, and these sample solutions were further diluted
and spiked for ICP-MS analysis. The samples were run for major
oxides and selected trace elements on a combination simultane-
ous/sequential Thermo Jarrell-Ash ENVIRO II ICP or a Spectro Cirros
ICP, and for other trace elements on a PerkinElmer SCIEX ELAN
6000 or 6100 ICP-MS. The data, and details of repeat analyses on
standards, are given in Appendix 2.
Samples from the Antsirabe Nord and Manambato Suites have
largely similar, but very varied, major element chemistries. In both
suites, SiO2 contents vary from 46 to 77 wt% (Fig. 14), and MgO
is generally between 0 and 12 wt%. It is notable that samples of
intermediate composition are less abundant than mafic and felsic
types. Samples of meta-igneous rocks from the Milanoa and Daraina
groups show a striking bimodality, with one group of samples hav-
ing SiO2 < 52 wt%, and a second group with SiO2 62–66 wt% (Fig. 14).
Although this may be attributed in part to the sampling procedures,
it seems clear that intermediate rocks are under-represented in
igneous rocks of the Bemarivo Belt, in contrast to what might be
expected in a juvenile oceanic arc setting, where intermediate rocks
are generally dominant. Felsic rocks are more likely to dominate in a
continental arc setting (Baker, 1982); but this appears to be at odds Fig. 16. AFM (Al2 O3 –FeO–MgO) diagram after Irvine and Baragar (1971). Symbols
with the evidence from zircon data discussed above. as in Fig. 14.
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
Fig. 17. SiO2 vs. Molar Al2 O3 /(CaO + Na2 O + K2 O) (A/CNK) for all igneous/meta-
igneous samples from the Bemarivo Belt. A/CNK > 1.1 is one of the criteria in defining
S-type granites (Chappell and White, 1992); A/CNK < 1.1 is typical of I-type granites.
mediate magmas. Three ultramafic (pyroxenite and serpentinite)
samples attributed to the Manambato Suite also have very low
A/CNK (Figs. 16 and 17) and it is possible that these rocks may not
form part of the Manambato Suite.
Primitive mantle-normalised trace element patterns for rep-
resentative samples from the main igneous suites are plotted in
Fig. 18. Most of the analysed samples have overlapping patterns,
though with a degree of scatter that may, in part, derive from later
alteration. These patterns show many of the geochemical features
associated with arc volcanics (Pearce, 1982), including relatively
high contents of the alkali elements (Rb, Ba, Th, K), distinct nega-
tive Nb–Ta anomalies, and negative Ti anomalies. One sample of the
pyroxenite (BDW-355A, Fig. 18) mapped as belonging to the Man-
ambato Suite is plotted for comparison, and this clearly lacks the
alkali-element enrichment.
Similarly, on a chondrite-normalised REE element plot (Fig. 19),
most of the plotted samples show strong enrichment in the LREE
over the HREE, with a prominent negative Eu anomaly indicative of
plagioclase fractionation. These patterns are typical of calc-alkaline
arc volcanics (Pearce et al., 1995). One sample from the Milanoa
Fig. 18. Primitive mantle-normalised trace element patterns for representative sam-
ples from the Manambato Suite (white) the Antsirabe Nord Suite (black) and the
Daraina and Milanoa groups (grey). Normalising factors from McDonough and Sun
(1995).
297
Fig. 19. Chondrite-normalised REE patterns for representative samples from the
Manambato Suite (white) the Antsirabe Nord Suite (black) and the Daraina and
Milanoa groups (grey). Normalising factors from McDonough and Sun (1995).
Group, WB1489, has a rather flatter pattern with only very weak
LREE enrichment, as does the Manambato Suite pyroxenite sample
(BDW-355A). Flatter REE patterns are associated with less frac-
tionated magmas in any magmatic series, but also characterise
tholeiitic arc magmas (Pearce et al., 1995). Sample WB1489 has
relatively high contents of incompatible elements such as Zr and
Y (Fig. 18), suggesting that the magma has experienced signifi-
cant fractional crystallisation and this raises the possibility that
some magmatism associated with the Milanoa Group may have
been derived from a different, potentially tholeiitic, source. How-
ever, the limited number of samples available makes this difficult
to confirm.
9. Evolution of the Bemarivo Belt
As a result of the current study, a model for crustal evolution
of the Bemarivo Belt can be outlined, and summarised in Fig. 20.
The oldest components of the belt are two sequences of high-grade
paragneisses of the Betsiaka and Sahantaha Groups. These metased-
imentary rocks were deposited on or near shelf margins, possibly in
Palaeoproterozoic times and, based on preliminary detrital zircon
studies, were derived from a range of continental sources distal to
the main Bemarivo Belt (Cox et al., 2003; BGS-USGS-GLW, 2008;
De Waele et al., 2008a). The Betsiaka Group forms a narrow strip
running along the NW margin of the Bemarivo Belt and possibly
represents an old, allochthonous sliver of crust that was juxtaposed
against the Bemarivo Belt during Pan-African terrane assembly of
the East African Orogeny. As proximal quartzites in the Sahan-
taha Group contain abundant ∼1750 Ma detrital zircons, but little
Archaean detritus, they must have been deposited adjacent to a
Palaeoproterozoic crustal fragment not seen in present-day Mada-
gascar (Cox et al., 2003; De Waele et al., 2008a). Some authors have
suggested that north Madagascar and the Seychelles were formed
adjacent to the Neoarchean Indian craton (e.g. Li et al., 2008) but
the absence of Archaean ages in the detrital zircon data presented
here indicates that this reconstruction is unlikely. Cox et al. (2003)
suggested that the required Palaeoproterozoic crust may have been
in a passive margin adjacent to the Tanzania Craton of East Africa
along the western side of the Mozambique Ocean. This may also
help constrain the position of the early Bemarivo arc as the Sahan-
taha Group is intruded by the Antsirabe Nord Suite, indicating that
subduction was taking place beneath the Sahantaha Group at ca.
750 Ma.
298 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300

Fig. 20. Three-stage plate-tectonic model for the development of the Bemarivo Belt.

The main Neoproterozoic components of the Bemarivo Belt
are made up of a voluminous assemblage of plutonic, volcanic-
volcaniclastic, and metasedimentary rocks. The plutonic rocks com-
prise calc-alkaline, gabbro–diorite–tonalite–granodiorite–granite
plutons of the Antsirabe Nord and Manambato suites, which have
the chemical characteristics of arc-related magmatism. The domi-
nance of felsic rocks over intermediate rocks in these suites might
suggest that they formed in a continental margin, ‘Andean-type’
arc, rather than in an intra-oceanic arc. However, the positive ␧Nd
(Tucker et al., 1999) and lack of older xenocrystic zircon show that
the magmas were largely uncontaminated by continental crust.
This also allows us to rule out the possibility that the magmas
could be produced by contamination of plume-related magmas
with significant amounts of crustal material (c.f. Li et al., 2008).
We thus conclude that the magmas were sourced above a sub-
duction zone, and that they were largely juvenile. It would appear
that the bimodal chemistry is not due to crustal contamination, but
may point to the presence of relatively long-lived magma cham-
bers in which parental magmas underwent significant fractional
crystallisation, possibly accompanied by minor amounts of crustal
contamination.
U–Pb zircon studies have revealed a bimodal age-distribution of
the plutonic rocks; the oldest occur south of the major Antsaba
shear zone (Antsirabe Nord Suite - tightly constrained to ca.
750 Ma), with the younger Manambato Suite (ca. 718–705 Ma)
restricted to the north.
Neoproterozoic supracrustal rocks north of the Antsaba shear
zone comprise the high-grade Milanoa Group, with a maximum
depositional age of ca. 770–720 Ma (detrital zircon analyses) and
the structurally higher, low-grade Daraina Group, two rhyolites
from which gave extrusive ages of ca. 740 and 720 Ma. Metavolcanic
rocks from these groups also show the geochemical characteristics
of subduction-related magmatism, and are mostly calc-alkaline,
although some tholeiitic units have been recognised. The bimodal-
 R.J. Thomas et al. / Precambrian Research 172 (2009) 279–300
ity of the age data in the plutonic rocks indicates that the Bemarivo
Belt can be broadly divided into two crustal age-domains, termed
here the “northern” and “southern” Bemarivo terranes, separated
by the Antsaba shear zone. It is suggested that the older plutons in
the Antsirabe Nord Suite were generated above a subduction zone
which developed in the “Mozambique Ocean” outboard of cratonic
Madagascar (Fig. 20). Intrusion of the Sahantaha Group by juve-
nile ca. 750 Ma plutons (Antsirabe Nord Suite) indicates that the
active Bemarivo arc was in proximity with the Sahantaha Group at
this time (Fig. 20). However, this was not proximal to the Archaean
crust of present-day Madagascar, but rather an unknown segment
of Palaeoproterozoic crust which may have been related to East
Africa (Cox et al., 2003).
The absence of plutonic rocks dated between 750 and 718 Ma
suggests that granitoid generation may have lapsed during this
interval. However, evidence from zircon in the Daraina and Milanoa
groups indicates that volcanism continued sporadically from 770 to
720 Ma in this area. Some of these older volcanic units are tholeiitic
in character and possibly formed in a back-arc setting. The volumi-
nous calc-alkaline plutonic rocks of the Manambato Suite, which
were generated between ca. 718 and 708 Ma, indicate a change in
magma chemistry as the arc matured.
The dearth of igneous rocks dated between ca. 705 and 550 Ma
suggests that subduction arc-like magmatism had ceased in the
Bemarivo Belt by 700 Ma. Subsequent to its growth within the
Mozambique Ocean, the juvenile Bemarivo arc edifice was accreted
to the northern margin of cratonic Madagascar. We interpret the
oldest preserved ductile structures (D1 ) in the Bemarivo Belt to
record that southward collision (Fig. 7). The structural evidence
for this accretion event consists of the south-vergent thrust imbri-
cate fan and recumbent folds, a basal décollement, variable-grade
metamorphic assemblages, and D1 fabrics consisting of penetrative
planar fabrics (S1 ), folds (F1 ) and mineral lineations (L1 ). D1 is thus
interpreted to record docking of the Bemarivo arc onto a compos-
ite orogenic foreland comprising the amalgamated Antongil and
Antananarivo cratons (possibly including the Neoproterozoic Ana-
boriana Belt) and the locally unconformably parautochthonously
overlying sedimentary Andrarona Group.
The second phase of deformation (D2 ), which probably records a
structural continuum, was dominated by the formation of open F2
folds and strike-slip movement along the shear zones bounding the
Bemarivo Belt. Although the relationships between structural ele-
ments are complex, the orogen-parallel, axial orientation of domal
F2 antiforms in the east of the region, suggest the possibility that F2
initially may have formed in response to approximately WNW-ESE
shortening. The shapes of some of these structures, particularly in
the northern terrane, may have been influenced by the distribution
of granite plutons. Within this stress field it is possible to infer a
sinistral kinematic sense for the NW-SE segment of the Sandrakota
shear zone, immediately bounding the SW margin of the Bemarivo
Belt where it is effectively pinned against a promontory occupied
by the Anaboriana Belt (Fig. 7). The southern SSW-NNE-trending
segment of the belt was acting as a buttress, undergoing orthogo-
nal shortening in an overall transpressional regime. Reorientation
of first order F2 structures in the western part of the terrane may
reflect development of a broad zone of high shear strain developed
on the flank of this promontory. The relative original positions of
the two Bemarivo terranes cannot be clearly established from these
data alone. Both terranes show similar styles of deformation, sug-
gesting that they may have accreted as a single entity. However, the
record of post-D1–2 movement on the Antsaba shear zone suggests
that they were not assembled into their final positions until late in
the tectonic history (Fig. 20).
The timing of terrane docking of the Bemarivo arc and its sub-
sequent deformation and metamorphism cannot be directly or
precisely constrained. It must post-date intrusion of the youngest
299
plutonic rocks of the belt at ca. 705 Ma. More precise clues are given
by the age of the Maevarano Suite, which was intruded into all
the terranes of northern Madagascar, except the Antongil Craton,
between ca. 535 and 522 Ma (Thomas et al., 2008). The youngest
phases are almost undeformed post-tectonic porphyritic granites
and charnockites which were emplaced after the cessation of the
major orogenic activity. The older phases are represented by syn-
tectonic, strongly deformed granodioritic orthogneisses. Thus the
Maevarano Suite can probably be viewed as spanning the period
of accretion of the Bemarivo Belt onto cratonic Madagascar and
subsequent post-orogenic relaxation. This timing is supported by
geochronological and metamorphic studies (Buchwaldt and Tucker,
2001; Buchwaldt et al., 2002, 2003; Buchwaldt, 2006; Jöns et al.,
2005a,b, 2006) and by the sparse metamorphic zircon rim data
presented in this study.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the many BGS, USGS and Malagasy
colleagues who were members of the field mapping and sampling
teams during the field seasons in 2005, 6 and 7. BGS authors thank
the Executive Director of BGS (NERC) for permission to publish.
The Perth Consortium SHRIMP facilities at the John de Laeter Cen-
ter for Mass Spectrometry (Curtin University of Technology) are
funded by the Australian Research Council. The authors are grate-
ful to Paul Macey and an anonymous referee for thorough reviews
which materially improved this paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2009.04.008.
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