Introduction

The success of managers in Asian countries like Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan

over the years has been rapid. Recently a great deal of interest existed among managers around

the world to find out the Japanese way of managing business, because of the tremendous success

of the Japanese corporations throughout the world. The fact that the Japanese manage their

enterprises very well without the excessive use of scientific and advanced management

instruments has shaken the confidence of the Americans in their approach. The latter appears to

be more inclined to import the Japanese art of management, while their self-acclaimed monopoly

in scientific management has already been eroded by the worldwide presence of professional

managers (Tasie, 2009).

Before we discuss further, we need to define management and gain knowledge on comparative

management, Management is define in several ways, but base on this work, Management is

define as the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling organizational resources

for the purpose of achieving the organisational goals and objective efficiently and effectively.

Globally, management is a common practice among the countries of the world, this lead to the

comparative management study, the field of comparative management studies includes research

activities undertaken to identify and explain similarities and differences among business

organizations, strategies, management styles and systems, and social behavior in different work

contexts (for example, geographic areas, cultures or industries). Pugh et al. explained the focus

of cross-cultural organizational research as two basic questions: (1) what are the similarities or

differences between organizations located in different countries? And (2) why are they similar or

different? In order to answer those questions, Child suggested that, following three stages: (1)

the identification of similarities and differences between organizations located in different

1
countries, (2) the isolation of those cultural attributes which account for the observed likenesses

and variations, (3) where cross-cultural differences are discovered offer an explanation for the

transfer of national cultural to organizations so that they become 'infused with national

distinctiveness (Child, 1981).

Comparative management studies is one of several research approaches that have been used to

learn more about cross-cultural management practices and researchers in this field are

particularly interested in identifying elements of organizational design theory and practice that

are universal, and thus can be found in all cultural contexts and elements that will necessarily be

different due to the impact of culture and other environmental conditions. Practitioners of

comparative management studies must be neutral in their preferences between different countries

and cultures and avoid assuming that a particular cultural orientation or management style is

better than any other for handling a specific situation and their goal is to conduct an objective

and comprehensive comparison of two or more distinguishable management styles and identify

characteristics and patterns that can inform and educate every manager

Western management principles have been borrowed by African countries, and African

managers practice them irrespective of whether or not their culture permits them. On the other

hand, Japan also started its economic development in the thirties; it was rebuilt from a devastated

state. The Japanese have been extremely effective in borrowing from the West, in the areas the

West excelled, but, in the process, they did not become Americanized or Europeanized. Instead,

they took the best the West had to offer which could be transplanted in the East and use it. This

is because, throughout history, various management styles have succeeded one another in

attracting the attention of the world’s management scholars to investigate and recommend for

practice by fellow managers. In addition, the Japanese have developed their own skills of

2
management, which stem directly from their cultural and social values and beliefs. This blending

has led Japan to emerge as a great economic power.

The essence of this paper is to make a comparative study with the Japanese management style

and that of Nigeria using managerial functions and other key Variables/factors. The functions

are planning, organizing, directing and controlling; though the comparative management has

managerial approaches such as;Economic development, Environmental, Behavioural and Open

system approaches.

Comparison of the management functions of Japan and that of Nigeria is shown below:

Table 1: Table Showing the Comparison of Japanese Management Functions with that of
Nigeria
Japan
Planning
 Time: long-term
 Involvement : collectivism
Organizing
 Responsibility and accountability:
collectivism
 Organization structure: Informal
 Organization culture: identification
with profession rather than with
company
Staffing
 Appraisal of long-term performance
 Training and development considered a
long-term investment
 Lifetime employment common in large
companies
 Loyalty to the company
Leading
 Leader acting as social facilitator and
group member
 Paternalistic style
 Avoidance of confrontation, sometimes
leading to ambiguities; emphasis on
harmony
 Bottom-up communication
Nigeria
Planning
 Time: short-term
 Involvement: Individualism
Organizing
 Responsibility and accountability:
Individualism
 Organization structure: Formal
bureaucratic
 Organization culture: competitive spirit
toward other enterprises
Staffing
 Appraisal of short-term results
 Training and development undertaken
with hesitation
 Job insecurity prevails
 Loyalty to the profession
Leading
 Leader acts as decision-maker and head
of group
 Directive style
 Face-to-face confrontation common;
emphasis on clarity
 Communication primarily top-down

3
 Controlling Controlling
 Control by peers  Control by superior
 Control focus on group performance  Control focus on individual
 Extensive use of quality control circles performance
 Limited use of quality control circles

The study of Ho(1993) has attempted to identify some of the key factors responsible for Japanese

enterprise success. They are discussed below:

1 Corporate Identification (CI)

This is the process of establishing a clear and positive corporate image to the public by

advertising the unique character and culture of the corporation using various kinds of slogans and

sign.

2 Corporate Motto (CM)

The corporate motto is mainly used to build employee loyalty. It is seen as the commandant of

the company. The companies offer life-long employments. The mottos cover not only the

corporate objectives but also objectives for personal development. Nippon Denso has the CM of

‘Four Better’ mind, better quantity, better cost, and better thinking Hino Motors’ CM is ‘to

produce excellence in people before excellence in products’.

3 Cost Reduction Management

It is the desire of Japanese managers to produce a product that is cheap and works well in order

to satisfy the consumer demand. Of course to be competitive locally and internationally costs

must be contained. Recent literatures abound with strategies for containing cost – downsizing,

outsourcing, employee leasing and productivity enhancement.

4
4 Factory Automation (FA)

Factory automation has been the ‘in thing’ in Japan since the 1980s. the core of FA is consists of

robots and computer numerical control tools, supplemented by automated warehouse and

unmanned vehicles.

5 Full Proofing

This emphasises the fact that ‘a careful design of work place, work system and products can

minimize mistakes arising from carelessness or depression of the employees’. In brief, it refers

to proper working procedures and working methods.

6 Just-in-Time (JIT)

In the JIT system, all capital, manpower and production facilities are carefully planned and

effectively used in order to ‘eliminate wastage totally’. This has been the requirement of Toyota

for over four decades ago. Goods from suppliers must arrive in time.

7 Loyalty to Employees

Japanese industrial mangers are loyal to their employees as demonstrated by their life-long

employment and the spirit of teamwork’. There is goal congruency even retired employees

receive consultant posts from the company. Since employees’ needs are met, there is no

compelling need for them to change jobs frequency.

8 Office Automation (OA)

The companies automate the offices by the ‘dynamic use of office and personal computers

together with word processor, intelligent facsimiles, photocopier and other communication

equipment’. The use of office equipment frees the manpower for more creative work and thus

increasing productivity.

5
9 People Centre Management (PCM)

The real purpose of PCM is to encourage participative management. Typically in the work unit,

the supervisors meet for cooperative activities. The objectives identified are disseminatd to the

grassroots level for refinement and action. The attention is on people – the Hawthorne

Experiment.

10 Quality Control Cycle (QCC)

QCC organizes the grassroots level employees in groups. The middle management will give

them training and guidance so that the circle can have regular meeting to discover, analyse and

solve daily problems in their work. The objective is to improve quality, reduce defects, reduce

costs, improve working environment and safety and improve productivity.

11 Research and Development (R&D)

R&D is a must in all big organisations in Japan. This is because companies believe in growth

and development in the long-run. Some companies spend over 20% of sales revenue on R&D

while many others spend over 50 – 65% of pre-tax profit on R&D.

12 Rationalisation

This deals with logical design of activities in order to be effective. This could mean application

of industrial techniques, procedure simplification of better material handling, storage plant layout

or man-machine co-ordination.

13 Total Quality Management (TQM)

Many Japanese companies work hard to achieve good quality goods and services and use them

as competitive advantages in business. There are two aspects of the issue on quality.

6
a. Total Quality Management

A set of principles and practices whose core ideas include understanding customer needs, doing

things right the first time, and striving for continuous improvement.

b. International Quality Management

Standard and reduce the multiple assessments when parts are imported. The creation of the

European market has attracted tremendous attention form export –oriented countries in Asia.

14 TSS This Means ‘If a Problem Arises, Solve It Immediately’

In japan, TSS means TometeSuguShouti. This makes it necessary that whenever an assemble

worker finds a problems he should call the supervisor. If the problem cannot be solved, a red

light will go on, stopping the whole assemble line.

15 Visual Management (VM)

The principle behind the VM is attracts people’s attention fast. It makes communication simple

and attractive; it costs less and has useful psychological effect.

16 Values Analysis (VA)

This is a simple but useful way of establishing the relationship between the cost producing a

product and the function, VA = Functions/Cost.

One would not be surprised that these terms are used in everyday conversation in the Japanese

industrial world. They are internalized and effectively applied to improve productivity,

employee commitment and enterprise efficiency and consequently economic progress.

The overall success of the Japanese management practices cannot be exhaustively discussed

without mentioning the favorability of both the internal and external environment.

7
i. Political Environment

The Japanese government makes law that support the industries in achieving quality. It makes

such laws like tax laws, incentives, provision of subsidies, giving of tax holidays, provisions of

funds that will assist ailing companies to live up to expectation in order to achieve quality.

Whereas, in Nigeria, the government puts so much tax burdens that discourage investment; there

is little or no subsidies, incentives, tax holidays and these have affected the production of quality

goods and services and to make matter worse, companies are trooping to other countries where

there are favourable business climate.

ii. Technological Environment

This is one of the breakthroughs in Japan. The use of robotics, internets, general use of personal

computers, artificial intelligent, to mention but a few have contributed to the successes of Japan,

this is evident in office automation, factory automation; whereas, in Nigeria, little or no attention

is given to the use of technologies as listed above even if they have, they lack maintenance

culture which invariably makes it to short live.

iii. Socio-Cultural Factors

The socio-cultural factors of the Japanese is one of the factors that has made the Japanese to

occupy the position they are today. There controlled behaviours, attitudes, norms and practices

such as groupism, familyism, paternalism, collectivism to sum it all as well as the ringi helped

them to achieve this global quality status; whereas, in Nigeria, there is no upholding of quality

culture, they believe in the production of substandard products, over-dependence on importation,

belief in individualism, inflation of contract, fraudulent practices and so on.

8
iv. Economic Factors

The Japanese monetary and fiscal policies have been planned to favour the productive sector of

the country. in this line, the government makes funds available and accessible through the banks

and financial institutions and makes the interest low, low cost of capital, creation of big market

for their products. They also restrict the entry of other goods and services into their country

through quotas and tariffs to do away with issues that might lead to dumping; these have

encourage steady growth in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the Japanese. Whereas, in

Nigeria, even though there are banks and financial institutions, cost of interest on loans is high,

cost of capital of investment is high, relative low market if at all there are, the labour cost is high

and these lead to high prices of commodity which is above the per capital income of the citizenry

which lead to high cost of living and patronage of low quality products. More so, in Nigeria,

there is free entry of goods and services, even those with poor qualities and defect, thereby

making the country a dumping ground. It is only in recent times that the present administration

has placed embargoes on importation to encourage indigenous production of quality goods and

services.

The internal environmental factors which were controlled by individual firms also contributed to

the overall successes of Japan. Some of these factors include;

 Staff policies

 Compensation system (seniority wage system)

 Training and development of staff

 Leadership styles (participatory)

 Employment policies and practices (lifetime employment)

9
However, in Nigeria, staff policies, compensation, training and development, leadership style,

employment policies are all on the contrary. for instance, the leadership style is autocratic even

though we are in democratic settings, there is regular pressure between labour and employers of

labour on the issues of compensation, training and development is seen as a waste of time and

resources and all these have contributed to the retrogression of the country.

Conclusion

In conclusion, management as the process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling

organization’s resources towards the achievement of organizational goals, Even though the

functions are globalised, some countries seems to apply them more effectively and efficiently

than others such as Japan,hence the need for comparativeness of management.

The distinctiveness of Japan as has been elucidated above coupled with the effective and

efficient application of the management function, 16 key success factors and continuous

interface with the prevailing external environment(political, social-cultural, economic and

technological) has made Japan industrial sector worthy of emulation. The management

tactics/techniques of the Japan is highly commendable. Nigerian managers should do well to

benchmarking Japans management dexterity in order to remain relevant in the competitive

world.

10
 REFERENCES

Child, L. (1981). Culture, contingency and capitalism in the cross-national study of

organizations” in Cummings, L. &Staw, B. (eds.).Research in organizational behaviour.
UK: Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 305.

Ho, S. (1993). Translating Japanese management techniques.Long Range Planning, 26(4), 81 –

89.

Nwanchukwu, C. C. (2002). Comparative management: An introduction. Port Harcourt:

Davidstones Publishers Ltd.

Pugh, D.Clark, T. & Mallory, G. (1996).Organization structure and structural change in

European manufacturing organizations”, VerhandelingenLetterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks,
168 (1996), 225-238, 225.

Tasie, G. O. (2009). Can Japanese management styles be applied to Africa? African Journal of
Business Management, 3(4), 233 – 240.

Weihrich, H..(n.d.). Management practices in the United States, Japan, and the Peoples Republic
of China

11