WEATHERING, EROSION AND

DEPOSITION
WEATHERING
• Does the Earth look exactly the same as it did 1,000 years ago? How
about 100 years ago? Does it even look exactly the same as it did
yesterday? The answer is no. Geological processes like weathering,
erosion, and plate tectonics shape the Earth’s landscape by constantly
building the surface up or breaking it down.
• Most geologists believe the same geological processes that operate
today also operated in the past. This principle is
called uniformitarianism. If scientists can understand a geological
process now and find evidence of that same process in the past, then
scientists can assume that the process operated the same way in the
past. Scientists use the principle of uniformitarianism to learn more
about how rocks are weathered.
• James Hutton came up with the idea of uniformitarianism in the late 1700s.
• The world’s landscapes are affected by weathering. Weathering is the
breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the Earth’s surface.
Using the principle of uniformitarianism, geologists can study rocks that are
weathered today to compare them to landforms created long ago, like the
Himalayan Mountains and Appalachian Mountains. All rocks, including the
rocks in the Himalayan and Appalachian Mountains, break down over time.
The weathering that breaks down rocks can be a mechanical or a chemical
process, or a combination of the two. Mechanical weathering usually
causes rocks to crumble and break. Chemical weathering changes the
materials that make up the rocks, which can also make rocks weaker and
more likely to break.
• The principle of uniformitarianism states that geologic processes that
operate today also operated in the past. This means geologists can
use what is happening in the present to determine what happened
long ago because geological process have not changed from the past
to the present. The Earth is constantly being built and destroyed by
these processes, causing the Earth’s surface to constantly change.
• Weathering is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals
on the Earth’s surface over a period of time. This process either
changes the rock’s physical or chemical properties, or a combination
of the two, causing the rock to become weak and crumble.
• Mechanical weathering, sometimes called physical weathering, is the
process of a rock being physically broken into smaller pieces. During
mechanical weathering, rocks get smaller and smaller, but the
composition of the rock never changes.
• There are many agents that cause mechanical weathering:
temperature changes ,pressure changes, plant actions, animal actions,
water, wind, gravity
• Mechanical weathering is the process of a rock being physically
broken into smaller pieces while maintaining its chemical composition.
• Mechanical weathering is the process of a rock being physically
broken into smaller pieces. During mechanical weathering, rocks get
smaller and smaller, but the composition of the rock never changes.
• There are many agents that cause mechanical weathering. For
example, abrasion is the wearing away of rock by other rock particles
that are carried by water, ice, wind, or gravity. Abrasion from water
causes rocks to become round and smooth from the moving water
and rocks rubbing against each other. During wind abrasion, the wind
blows against a rock, and small particles in the wind slowly break
away at the rock’s surface over time. Abrasion from gravity happens
when rocks fall. Larger rocks can hit other rocks and break them apart.
This type of abrasion can happen during a landslide.
• Another mechanical weathering agent is temperature change. Frost
wedging occurs when water seeps into rocks and freezes, causing the
expansion of ice to widen and deepen the cracks in the rock.
Eventually, frost wedging can cause the rock to break.
• In addition to abrasion and changes in temperature, pressure is
another mechanical weathering agent. Rocks are formed under
pressure deep within the Earth. As a rock becomes exposed, the
pressure decreases, causing the rocks to expand and the outmost
layers of the rock to separate. Evidence of this type of weathering can
be seen when there are sheets of rock that have broken away parallel
to the surface.
• Living things, like animals, plants, or humans can also be agents of
weathering. For example, animals that burrow are likely to expose
rocks to Earth’s surface, where rocks are more likely to be weathered.
Also, plant roots can be responsible for first making small cracks in
rock, and over time breaking rocks apart completely. Lastly, human
activities, like digging or blasting into rock to build homes, roads,
subways, or to quarry stone, can cause rocks to break and become
exposed.
• Abrasion from gravity can create a pile of rocks on the ground at the
bottom of a mountain.
• Animal weathering can cause rocks to be uplifted from the soil near a
burrow
• .Plant weathering can cause roots to grow through a tree causing the tree
to break or split
• Pressure changes can cause sheets of rock to break off parallel to the
surface
• Weathering from temperature can cause a crack in a rock to form or a rock
to be broken into pieces.
• Temperature changes can cause cracks in rocks from frost wedging.
• Abrasion is the wearing away of rock by rock particles carried by
water, ice, wind, or gravity. Each type of mechanical weathering has a
different affect on the rock but does not change the rock’s chemical
composition
• Chemical weathering is the process of a rock being broken down by
chemical changes. For example, granite is partially made of feldspar.
When feldspar is exposed to air and water over a long period of time,
the feldspar minerals change their chemical composition and turn to
clay. This change causes the rock to break down more easily.
• There are many agents in the natural environment that cause
chemical weathering:
• water
• oxygen
• carbon dioxide
• living organisms
• acid rain
• Chemical weathering is the process of a rock being broken down
through chemical changes. This means that a rock’s chemical
composition changes. When this occurs, a rock’s physical properties,
like its shape and color, can also change.
• Oxidation can cause rocks to weaken. Oxidation causes the metals in
rocks to undergo chemical changes. The changed metals can be
broken down more easily than the metals that were there before.
If water is present, it makes oxidation occur faster.
• Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which metals combine with oxygen
to form a new material. Rocks that contain iron that undergo
oxidation typically change to a rusty color like orange or red.
• Some rocks weather easily because they are permeable. If a rock
is permeable it means it allows liquids or gases to pass through it. When
liquids pass through a rock, it creates spaces, which increase the surface
area of a rock. The increased surface area allows chemicals to seep through
and break the rock down more quickly. The more permeable a rock is, the
more quickly it will undergo chemical weathering
• In addition to the type of rock and a rock’s permeability, the climate affects
the rate of weathering. Climate is the average weather conditions in an
area. Both mechanical and chemical weathering occurs faster in wet
climates. Chemical reactions can also occur faster at higher temperatures.
This means that rocks that are in climates that are both warm and wet can
undergo chemical weathering more quickly than rocks in cold and dry
climates.
• Climate is a factor that affects the rate of weathering. Both
mechanical and chemical weathering occurs faster in wet climates.
Chemical reactions also occur faster at higher temperatures. This
means that rocks that are in climates that are both warm and wet,
like Orlando, undergo chemical weathering more quickly.
• Chemical weathering causes rocks to break down into irregular
shapes.
• Uniformitarianism is the principle that the same geologic processes
that operate today also operated in the past.
• Weathering is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals
on the Earth’s surface.
• Mechanical weathering is the process of a rock being physically
broken into smaller pieces.
• Chemical weathering is the process of a rock being broken down by
chemical changes.
• Abrasion is the wearing away of rock by other rock particles that are
carried by water, ice, wind, or gravity.
• Frost wedging is when water seeps into rocks and freezes, causing the
expansion of ice to widen and deepen the cracks
• Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which a material combines with
oxygen to form a new material.
• The definition of permeable is allowing liquids or gases to pass
through.
EROSION, DEPOSITION AND MASS
MOVEMENT
• The Earth’s surface is slowly and constantly changing. Processes are at work
breaking down and building up the materials that make up Earth’s surface. Wind,
water, and ice are some of the agents involved in these processes. Together with
gravity, these agents shape the surface of the Earth.
Changes to Earth’s surface begin with the process of weathering. Weathering is
the breakdown of rock into small pieces by agents such as gravity, wind, and
water. These small pieces of rock make up part of sediment. Sediment includes
particles such as small rocks, soil, sand, shells, and dead plants and animals. After
weathering loosens and breaks away pieces of rock, sediment is moved during
the process of erosion.

• Erosion is the process by which natural forces move sediment from one place to
another. In a river, flowing water picks up sediment from the riverbed and moves
it during the process of erosion. The water continues to flow, now carrying the
sediment.
• After the sediment is broken down by weathering and carried away
by erosion, it is eventually deposited. Deposition is the process by
which materials that have been eroded are deposited. Deposition
occurs when the pull of gravity is greater than the pull of the erosion
agent. In the case of a flowing river, deposition occurs when the pull
of gravity on the sediment is greater than the pull of the flowing
water. Deposition commonly occurs in areas with slow-moving or
calm water, such as riverbanks, riverbeds, or the mouths of rivers.
• Together, weathering, erosion, and deposition change Earth’s surface
by breaking it down in some areas and building it up in others. This is
a continuous process. The mountain above is constantly changing as it
weathers and erodes, as shown by the grooves in the mountain itself.
The eroded rock is then deposited in nearby valleys. Over a long
period of time, the sediment builds up, decreasing the depth of the
valley and creating a flatter landscape.
• Weathering, erosion, and deposition work together to change Earth’s
surface. Weathering breaks down a landform, erosion carries the
sediment away, and deposition deposits the sediment in a new
location.
• Deposition is the process by which materials that have been eroded
are deposited. The rainwater from the storm was the erosional agent
that carried the soil away. The soil was deposited and built up near
the base of the hill in the process of deposition.
• Weathering and erosional agents, such as water, cause the
breakdown and movement of sediment. Erosion is the process in
which natural forces move sediment, such as soil. Over a long period
of time, water may have caused the erosion of the soil that makes up
the hill.
• Gravity plays an important role in the changes brought about over time by
erosion and deposition. Gravity is also at work during processes that
change Earth’s surface through a downhill movement called a mass
movement.
Mass movement is a natural process during which gravity pulls surface
material downhill. The initial downhill movement of surface material
during a mass movement is caused by gravity, but other factors, like friction,
are also at work. These other factors can alter the power and speed of the
mass movement.
•
There are several types of mass movements, categorized by their speed as
rapid mass movements and slow mass movements. Click on the buttons to
learn more about some of the different types of rapid mass movements.
• Rapid mass movements are easily observed. They occur quickly and
often cause destruction. Slow mass movements, however, often go
unnoticed. At any given time, rocks and soil that are located on a
slope, such as a hill or mountain, are moving. The slow, downward
movement of rocks and soil is called creep. First, soil and rocks are
loosened by the freezing and thawing of water or by animals. Then,
gravity causes the rock and soil to flow down the slope. While creep is
far less noticeable than a rapid mass movement like a landslide, the
angle of objects located on the slope, such as trees and telephone
poles, shows the effect of creep.
• Mass movement is a natural process during which gravity pulls
surface material downhill. During some mass movements, such as a
mudflow, the addition of water reduces the friction between
sediment and the landform from which it derived. This increases the
speed and force of the mass movement.
• All mass movements are observable, though rapid mass movements
are often more visible because the changes they cause happen
immediately instead of over a long period of time.
• Gravity is the force responsible for the downward movement of rock,
water, and debris during these two events.
Gravity is the force that pulls matter down a slope during a mass
movement. In this case, the earthquake caused rock and soil to
loosen from the slope. Then, the force of gravity caused the rock and
soil to move downward.
• Mudflows occur in areas with steep slopes and moist soil. Mudflows
occur rapidly after heavy rain.
• The steeper, moister slope will most likely experience the most rapid
mast movement. This is because water decreases the friction
between the soil and the mountain.
• Erosion is the process by which natural forces move weathered rock from
one place to another.
• Deposition is the process by which materials that have been eroded are
deposited.
• Sediment is made up of particles such as small rocks, soil, sand, shells, and
dead plants and animals.
• Mass movement is a natural process by which gravity pulls surface material
downhill.
• Rockfall, landslide, and slump are examples of rapid mass movement. This
means the movement of rock may occur quickly. Creep is a slow mass
movement that occurs over a long period of time.
• Deflation is the main process by which wind erosion
occurs. Deflation is the process by which wind removes sediment
from Earth’s surface. During the process of deflation, wind blows over
the land and moves lighter particles of sediment farther than heavier
particles. Slightly heavier particles, like sand, can bounce a short
distance, whereas even heavier particles roll over the ground.
• Pieces of sediment that are too large, such as rock fragments, are left
behind by the wind. When this happens, desert pavement is formed.
These areas have little vegetation. Deflation is less likely to occur in
areas where there are more plants because their roots hold sediment
and soil in place. This is why deflation often occurs in desert areas
with little vegetation.
• Wind erosion can occur anywhere that sediment and soil are exposed
to wind. Wind erosion occurs when wind moves sediment. Deflation
moves lighter particles farther than heavier particles. When heavier
particles that cannot be moved are left behind, desert pavement is
formed.
• Deflation moves lighter particles farther than heavier particles.
Lighter particles move easily through the air, whereas heavier
particles only roll or bounce off the surface.
• Wind also causes weathering by abrasion. Abrasion is the grinding and
wearing away of rock surfaces by other rock or sand particles. When wind
blows sand and other particles against a surface, the surface is worn down,
sometimes even looking like it was polished. This process causes little
erosion. Abrasion happens in areas with strong winds, loose sand, and soft
rocks.
• Loess is wind-deposited sediment primarily made of silt and sand, with a
small amount of clay. Loess deposits are valuable to farmland because they
make good soil for growing crops. A sand dune is a mound of wind-
deposited sand. Sand dunes are found in deserts and beaches. Both loess
deposits and sand dunes are formed by deposition when particles of
sediment are dropped off after being carried by wind.
• Moving water plays a large role in shaping the Earth’s surface. It is the
major agent of erosion that has shaped the Earth’s landscape. Water
carries particles with it as it moves across the land. Runoff is moving
water that flows uncontrolled over the surface of the ground rather
than soaking into the ground.
• Runoff can carry large amounts of materials, such as soil and rock,
with it as it moves. When it flows in a thin layer over land, it may
cause sheet erosion. Sheet erosion is the removal of soil in thin layers
by raindrop impact and overland flow. More runoff generally means
more erosion. Desert regions tend to have high runoff, whereas area
with many plants hav
• A tributary is a river or stream that feeds into a larger river. Since the
Missouri River and Ohio River flow into the Mississippi River, which is much
larger, they are tributaries.
• Streams are able to weather and erode fine sediment and large rocks.
Three main factors control how much material a stream can weather and
erode: gradient, load, and discharge.Gradient is the steepness of a slope, or
the measure of the change in elevation over a certain distance. Water in a
stream with a high gradient moves very rapidly as the elevation quickly
changes because of the downward pull of gravity. This rapidly moving
stream would have a lot of energy to erode rock and erode soil because of
the speed that the water is flowing. On the other hand, water in a stream
that has a low gradient has less energy and therefore causes less erosion.
• Load is the solid material carried by a stream. The stream’s speed
affects the size of the particles in a stream’s load. Large and small
particles can be carried by fast-moving streams. These particles
bounce and scrape the sides of streambeds and have a high erosion
rate. Slow-moving streams have a low erosion rate and carry smaller
particles.
• Discharge is the amount of water a stream carries in a specific
amount of time. As a stream’s discharge increases, its erosive energy,
speed, and load also increase. When major storms occur or warm
weather quickly melts snow, stream discharge increases as there is
more water moving down the stream.
• Flowing water can cut through rock forming steep canyons and valleys.
When a river meets an area of hard rock that weathers slowly,
waterfalls may occur. A floodplain is a flat, wide area of land along a
stream or river that is subject to flooding. A meander is formed when
a river flows through easily eroded rock or sediment. An oxbow lake is
a meander that is cut off when the river joins two meanders, creating
a lake.
• A floodplain is a flat, wide area of land along a stream or river that is
subject to flooding. This is formed when a stream floods, and many
layers of deposited sediment form a flat area.
• Rivers can also form landforms by water deposition. When moving
water slows down, it deposits some of the sediment it is carrying. This
can lead to soil being added to a river’s floodplain. A floodplain is
formed when a stream floods, and many layers of sediment are
deposited over the flooded land. This also makes for very fertile land.
• Large stones stop rolling and sliding as water slows down, and fine
particles fall to the river’s bed. Streams and rivers can also deposit
their loads when they empty into a still body of water, such as a lake
or ocean. The load drops to the bottom as the water from the river or
stream slows down. Sediments deposited where the water slows and
flows into an ocean or lake form a delta. A delta is a landform created
by sediment that is deposited where a river flows into a lake or ocean.
• A stream becomes wider and shallower where it flows out of a steep,
narrow mountain valley. As the stream slows down, it deposits
sediments in an alluvial fan. An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped mass of
sediment deposited by a river when its flow is suddenly slowed. An
alluvial fan is a fan-shaped mass of sediment deposited by a river
when its flow is slowed. A delta is a landform created by sediment
that is deposited where a river enters a lake or ocean. Alluvial fans
and deltas are both formed by deposition where a river slows.
• A delta is formed by sediment that is deposited where a river flows
into a lake or ocean. The currents from the Pacific Ocean flow in a
direction that moves sediment away, which prevents the formation of
a delta.
• Water moving underground can also weather and erode rock. This
underground water is a result of surface water soaking into the ground
rather than evaporating or becoming runoff. Groundwater is water held in
the cracks in underground soil and rock layers. Slightly acidic groundwater
can chemically weather rocks by changing the chemical composition of the
rock and then dissolving the particles in the water. Acidic water dissolves
limestone more easily than normal water. This acidic groundwater flows
into cracks in limestone, and some of the limestone is dissolved and carried
away in water. The acidic water solution gradually hollows out pockets in
the rock that eventually develop into caves. Click the buttons to learn more
about caves and cave formations.
•
• Groundwater erosion can greatly affect the landscape. Karst topography is
a landscape in which a layer of limestone close to the surface is weathered
and eroded, creating deep valleys, caves, and sinkholes. It is named after a
region in Eastern Europe.
• Stalactites and stalagmites are calcite deposits left behind from drops of
water that are carrying minerals. When the water moves over the
stalactites or stalagmites, the minerals are deposited, further building up
the landforms.
• A sinkhole, or circular depression, can occur when the roof of a cave
collapses after an underlying layer of limestone is weathered away. This
process is a similar process that creates caves and Karst topography.
• Karst topography is a landscape in which a layer of limestone close to
the surface is weathered, leaving deep valleys, caves, and sinkholes.
• Nebraska does not have karst topography. Karst topography includes
deep valleys, caves, and sinkholes created by a layer of limestone
close to the surface.
• Cave formations show signs of deposition. Acidic groundwater
solution drips from cracks in a cave and leaves behind calcite deposits,
which form stalactites and stalagmites.
• Deflation is the process by which wind removes sediment from
Earth’s surface
• Abrasion is the grinding and wearing away of rock surfaces by other
rock or sand particles.
• A sand dune is a mound of wind-deposited sand.
• Loess deposit is wind-deposited sediment primarily made of silt and
sand, with a small amount of clay.
• Runoff is moving water that flows over the ground surface rather
than soaking into the ground.
• A rill is a tiny groove in soil created by flowing water.
• A gully is a large channel in soil that carries runoff after heavy rains.
• A tributary is a river or stream that feeds into a larger river.
• A floodplain is a flat, wide area of land along a stream or river that is
subject to flooding.
• A meander is a winding curve or bend in the course of a river.
• An oxbow lake is a meander that is cut off by a river, forming a lake.
• A delta is a landform created by sediment that is deposited where a
river flows into a lake or ocean.
• An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped mass of sediment deposited by a river
when its flow is suddenly slowed.
• Groundwater is water held in the cracks in underground soil and rock
layers.
• A stalactite is an icicle-like structure formed of calcium salts
deposited from dripping water that hang from the ceiling of a cave.
• A stalagmite is a column-like structure formed of calcium salts
deposited by dripping water that grows upward from the floor of a
cave.
• Karst topography is a landscape in which a layer of limestone close to
the surface are weathered and eroded, creating deep valleys, caves,
and sinkholes.
• Waves shape shorelines through weathering and erosion by breaking
down rock and moving sand and other sediment. Waves can weather
Earth’s surface through impact. Rocks can break apart as a result of
waves’ strong energy. Waves can increase the size of small cracks in
rocks, and eventually the waves can cause pieces of rock to break off.
• A wave picks up and moves sediment towards the shoreline. Waves
gradually change direction as they come to shore. When a wave hits
the rock on the shore, the sediment scrapes and wears away the rock
through abrasion.
• A headland is a narrow part of the shore that extends out into the
ocean. As waves hit the shore, their energy is concentrated on
headlands. Land is eroded when large amounts of energy from waves
is released and crashes into headlands. Headlands are often made of
harder rock that takes longer to weather. Eventually, the waves
weather away headlands and even out the shoreline.
• Softer rock is weathered faster than harder rock. The differences in
rock hardness affect the features of shorelines.
• A sea cliff that forms as waves weather and undercut rock can
eventually become a sea stack over time due to continued weathering
and erosion of sediment by the waves.
• As waves slow down, water deposits its sediment, such as sand, rock,
dead coral, and shells. Sediment deposited by waves shapes the coast
and forms coastal features such as beaches, sandbars, barrier islands,
and spits. Some materials found on beaches are deposited by rivers
and then moved down the shoreline by currents.
• A beach is an area of wave-washed sediment along a coast. The size
and shape of beach material depends on the type of material, how far
it traveled from its source, and how it was weathered. Most sand that
makes up beaches comes from rivers that carried eroded particles of
rock to the ocean. Beaches can also be made of pebbles and even
coral or seashells.
• Longshore drift is the movement of water and sediment down a
beach caused by waves that approach the shore at an angle.
• Sediment deposited by waves shapes the coast and forms coastal
features such as beaches, sandbars, barrier islands, and spits.
• Most sand that makes up beaches comes from rivers that carried
weathered particles of rock to the ocean. Beaches can also be made
of pebbles and even coral or seashells.
• Longshore drift is the movement of water and sediment down a
beach caused by waves that approach the shore at an angle. This
movement deposits materials offshore, and can form sandbars and
barrier islands.
• A barrier island is a long, broad sandy island that lies parallel to a shore.
They are found in many places along the Atlantic coast of the United States.
• Storm waves can wash away the sand on a barrier island. They can also
wash away homes. For this reason, communities must be prepared for the
damage a hurricane might bring.
• Glaciers are found in very cold regions that are cold enough for snow and
ice to stay frozen year round.
• A glacier is a large mass of ice moving slowly over land. Glaciers form only
in areas that are cold enough for ice to stay frozen year round. Gravity
constantly pulls glaciers downhill and causes them to move, though the
direction in which they flow depends on the type of glacier. Two types of
glaciers are found on Earth.
• A continental glacier is a glacier covering much of a continent or large
island. A valley glacier is a glacier that forms when snow and ice build up in
a mountain valley.
• An ice age occurs when continental glaciers cover larger parts of Earth’s
surface.
• As glaciers move across the land, they weather and erode the surface
underneath the glacier. Glaciers weather and erode land through two
processes: plucking and abrasion. Plucking is the process by which a glacier
picks up rock as it flows over land. When glaciers move, they pick up
materials, such as rocks, that break apart under the ice and become
embedded in it. Plucking can even break apart and move huge boulders.
• As the materials are dragged across the land, they scratch and wear
away the surface, which is a form of abrasion. This causes weathering
and erosion of the land. Continental glaciers and valley glaciers do not
form the same types of features. Continental glaciers flatten and
smooth the land, forming smooth and round exposed rock surfaces.
• Valley glaciers form sharp and rugged features. These features include
horns, cirques, and arêtes. As they move downhill, valley glaciers can
carve bowl-shaped depressions called cirques. An arête is a sharp
ridge that forms between two cirques next to each other. When
several arêtes join at the top of a mountain, they form a sharp peak
called a horn.
• Continental glaciers and valley glaciers do not form the same types of
features. Continental glaciers flatten and smooth the land, forming
smooth and round exposed rock surfaces
• Plucking is the process by which a glacier picks up rock as it flows over
land. When glaciers move, they pick up materials, such as rocks, that
break apart under the ice and become embedded in it.