Exploration Handbook

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Editors
Rebecca Head Welcome
Mike Simmons
Artwork
EXPLORATION HANDBOOK
Alessia Nawell
Helen Ding
Rachel Hopper There is no simple, proven recipe for successful hydrocarbon exploration.
Predicting the subsurface is evidently not easy, although advances in technology
and geological understanding enable ever greater accuracy. Moreover, there is a
Design
wide variety of techniques that the exploration geologist can employ to evaluate
Rachel Hopper
the subsurface, ranging from the well-known to the relatively specialist. To help
Stefanie Clayton
the early-career geologist familiarise themselves with many of these techniques,
Halliburton’s Exploration Insights magazine has included a regular feature in which
the principles and value of specific techniques have been outlined. We collate all
those articles here to provide an Exploration Handbook, the first compilation of its
type that is widely available.
A subject matter expert associated with Halliburton has written each article,
capturing a short history of the technique being discussed, the principles by which
it works, and highlighting situations were employment of the technique could be
valuable. By doing so, we hope that the reader will know more about the modern
exploration toolkit available to them, and know when to reach out for specialist
First published 2021 advice. Our coverage is not exhaustive, and we focus on frontier exploration as
Halliburton opposed to near-field exploration and production geology. Nonetheless, many
97 Jubilee Avenue of the techniques described have value throughout the full exploration and
Milton Park production lifecycle.
Abingdon
OX14 4RW
United Kingdom The practice of exploration geology is changing rapidly as the hydrocarbon
industry embraces the digital revolution and the creation of a digital twin of the
www.landmark.solutions/Neftex subsurface. With that in mind, we include a look-ahead to how certain techniques
will benefit from advances in computing power, data science, machine learning and
Copyright © Halliburton automation. These approaches will change how we practice certain techniques, but
the principles being applied are mostly unchanged.
ISBN 978-1-9160054-2-6 (e-book)
We hope you find this compilation of value and please don’t hesitate to contact us
if you have any comments or questions.
Disclaimer
This book is a compilation of articles written for and previously published in Neftex® Exploration Insights magazine between February 2019 and November
2020. This compilation was made in January 2021. Each chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge created
within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will
Rebecca Head Mike Simmons
have been obtained and is acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder and is acknowledged. The EDITOR, HALLIBURTON TECHNOLOGY
opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not SUBSURFACE INSIGHTS FELLOW FOR GEOSCIENCES
limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
plorationFrontier
and theexploration
focus of this
and
handbook
the focus of this handbook
Basin BasinPlay Play

Prospect Prospect
Exploratory Exploratory
Appraisal & Appraisal
Development
& Development
g
Global Screening
Analysis Analysis
Screening Screening
Generation Generation
Well Well
Planning Planning
& Production & Production
Structural Modeling in Exploration — Reducing

PRESENT DAY EROSION
MULTI MARLS
e &Where
what totoexplore
explorefor
& what
(the “play”
to explore
= reservoir,
for (the “play” = reservoir,
Identifying and ranking
Identifying
structures
and (“prospects”)
ranking structures
to drill(“prospects”)
and developto into
drill
fields
and develop into fields
CONTENTS 100
Prospect Exploratory Appraisal & Development
p type)
source, seal, trap type)
Uncertainty in Subsurface Models
DATUM-2
ng Exploratory Generation Appraisal & Well Development

Requires a focus onRequires
Planning the detailed
a focus
architecture
on the detailed
& Production of the reservoir
architecture
to understand
of the reservoir
potential
to understand potential
Well Planning & Production
hydrocarbon volumes hydrocarbon
and how these
volumes
mayand
flowhow these may flow
r, Identifying and ranking structures (“prospects”) to drill and develop into fields By Jean-Christophe Wrobel-Daveau and Catalina Luneburg
anking structures (“prospects”) to drill and develop into fields
Requires a focus on the detailed architecture of the reservoir to understand potential
s on the detailed architecture
hydrocarbon ofvolumes
the reservoir to understand
and how these maypotential
flow DATUM-2
Introduction
umes and how these may flow Seismic
Introduction: The Role of Geology in Frontier
Plate Tectonic Models in Exploration
Conceptual model (2D/3D) Accommodation
6 Hydrocarbon Exploration
By Craig Lang, Jean-Christophe Wrobel-Daveau,
Outcrop andWells
Graeme Nicoll o f c o n c e
112 Sediment flux
n Sediment transport
By Mike Simmons p io tu
ct al
ru
Data (1D/2D/3D) Processes
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Exploration Geology and the Digital Twin of the
ns
od
Paleoclimate Models in Exploration
18 120
Co
Subsurface
el
Approaches
By Andrew Davies
By Frans van Buchem
Subsurface iterative interpretation workflow

West
Stratigraphy in Exploration
South-east
Earth System Science: Source-to-Sink
CAL SURFACE GEOLOGY Oligocene Pleistocene
28 126
Methodology
ALE
BB_474316 TECTONIC ELEMENTS By Pollyanna Maksymiw By Graeme Nicoll, Benjamin Gréselle, Joss Smith, and Paul Helps
WELL CONTROL Well A Well B Well C Well D Well E Well F
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Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in Forward Stratigraphic Modeling — Closing the
K3 SB
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Exploration Interpretation Loop 134

K1 MFS Zone N By Owen Sutcliffe By Frans van Buchem
Impedance
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Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Subsurface Mapping: Understanding the
Seismic reflection modelSubsurface
(3D) Facies and architecture (3D)
42 Exploration Structural Disposition 142

© 2019 Halliburton
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By Owen Sutcliffe By Georgina Wright

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+ Diagenetic overprint (3D)

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Outcrop Geology Petroleum Systems and Basin Modeling

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Zone K 52 By Mike Simmons By Duncan Macgregor

148
© 2019 Halliburton
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Reservoir Properties and Petrophysics in Exploration:

J2 SB
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Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration
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60 By Andrew Davies
From New Ventures to Prospect Analysis 154
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By Lawrie Cowliff and Jose Montero
Well A Well B Well C Well D Well E Well F

CH
Biostratigraphy in Exploration Play Cross Sections — Visualizing Play Concepts

68 162
C?
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By Mike Simmons
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C? By Emily Firth
LY R
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Methodology
K1 MFS Zone N
Non-biostratigraphic Techniques in Exploration Unconventional Plays and Exploration Concepts

74 Realizing Potential 172
K1 SB
Shallow-water carbonates R Reservoir
J5 MFS
Deep-water carbonates R? By David Ray, Benjamin Gréselle, and Graeme Nicoll
Speculative reservoir By Alex Bromhead
Salina/saltern evaporites C Seal
C Organic-rich sediments C? Speculative seal

Zone M
With grainstones S Source
J5 SB
C? Clay-rich Colour indicates lithology
C?
C? Chronostratigraphic Charts — Working in Time Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow
82 182
J4 MFS
R R?
J4 SB
E
By Sarah Laird
J3 MFS
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By Mike Simmons
J2 MFS S
Zone K
© 2019 Halliburton
R The Application of Organic Geochemistry in

Assessing Yet-to-Find
Zone J
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J1 MFS S
90 Petroleum Exploration
By Mike Simmons, Thomas Jewell, Owen Sutcliffe, and Karen Heyburn
196
Zone I
By Qusay Abeed
J1 SB
Where to explore &Where
what totoexplore
explorefor
& what
(the “play”
to explore
= reservoir,
for (the “play” = res
Basin Play
source, seal, trap type) Prospect
source, seal, trap type) Exploratory
Global Screening Play Analysis
Basin Prospect
Screening Exploratory
Generation Appraisal & Dev
6 | Halliburton Landmark Global Screening Exploration Handbook | 7Well
Analysis Screening Generation Well Planning &P
Where to explore & what to explore for (the “play” = reservoir, Identifying and ranking structures (“pros
Where to explore & what to explore for (theseal,
source, “play” = reservoir,
trap type) Identifying and ranking structures (“prospects”) to drill and develop into fie
source, seal, trap type) Requires a focus on the detailed archite
Introduction: The Role of Geology in as described in this handbook. There are a number
Requires of excellent
a focus on the detailed architecture
hydrocarbon ofvolumes
the reservoir to understan
and how these m
Exploration
hydrocarbon
textbooks on petroleum geology (e.g. Magoon andvolumes and how these may flow
Dow, 1994a;
Frontier Hydrocarbon Exploration

Gluyas and Swarbrick, 2004; Jahn et al., 2008; Allen and Allen,
2013; Selly and Sonnenberg, 2015; Orajaka et al., 2015; Biteau
and Baudin, 2019), and many industry geologists have master’s
Introduction
Introduction
By Mike Simmons level training in petroleum geology and/or will receive training
from in-house courses or from specialist training providers during
their career.
THE EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION LIFECYCLE Even so, it is not always easy in the early part of an industry
Geologists are involved at all stages of the exploration and production (E&P) lifecycle (Figure 1), from career for a geologist to know about all the techniques and
disciplines that can be helpful, and how and when to apply them.
Handbook
initial screening for prospective regions and basins, to guiding enhanced recovery in the late stages of
the life of an oilfield. Herein, we concentrate on frontier exploration, determining areas of the world, In this handbook, we seek to address this need by providing
or of a basin, that may have hydrocarbon potential, and identifying the geological concepts (“plays”) to discussion of the “exploration toolkit,” outlining the principles
be explored. Successful frontier exploration requires a creative mindset and the application of a set of and value of specific geological techniques and sub-disciplines,
specialized geological “tools” and techniques in a particular way. Such tools and techniques, described so that the early career geologist knows when they should be
within this handbook, also have uses further down the E&P lifecycle. applied, and when specialist advice should be sought.
The practice of exploration geology is changing rapidly as the
Although we live in a time of energy transition, oil and gas are likely to continue to form a significant
hydrocarbon industry embraces the digital revolution and the
part of the energy mix for the next few decades (EIA, 2019). Analysis of data in the respected BP
creation of a digital twin of the subsurface — i.e. a scalable,
Energy Outlook 2020 suggests that even in a rapid energy transition scenario in line with the Paris
evergreen, real-time representation of the subsurface, including
Agreement on climate change action, >900 billion barrels of oil and >4,700 TCF of gas will be needed
stratigraphic architectures, and facies and rock property variations.
to contribute the energy mix between now and 2050. A significant proportion of this will be supplied
Perhaps most importantly, the digital revolution will enable the
by new discoveries. Thus effective hydrocarbon exploration that targets resources with low carbon
exploration to production lifecycle to be seamless. Historically,
intensity in finding and producing is required to meet growing energy demand worldwide. This will need “Although we live in a time
different parts of the exploration and production process, and the
to be supported by a substantial program of carbon capture and storage. of energy transition, oil and
specialized techniques used to inform that process, have been
gas are likely to continue to
Achieving success in exploration requires a thorough understanding of geological risk. Although carried out in isolation. The digital transformation can break down
form a significant part of the
developments in geoscience and technology have increased accuracy in subsurface predictions, such existing silos if geoscientists all work on the same digital model of
energy mix for the next few
predictions always carry an element of risk, especially in relatively unexplored, frontier basins. These the subsurface. This has incredible potential to drive efficiency
decades.”
risks relate to limited data availability, or uncertainties in the models we use to make predictions. Good and create revolutionary insights as information is shared and
explorers work hard to assess geological risk, which requires the use of a variety of geological tools, iterative loops are created within the workflow.
Figure 1 > Stages of the exploration and production lifecycle. All images courtesy of Halliburton except sesimic: By Geophysicus - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=93117477
8 | Halliburton Landmark Exploration Handbook | 9
and by the presence of hydrocarbon seepage. It was, thus, “The age of “easy”
Exploration
relatively simple to recognize a three-dimensional geological exploration has long since

structure (a “prospect”) on which it was worth placing an passed. Future exploration
exploration well. is likely to focus on more
subtle concepts, such as
Introduction
Introduction
“A prospect is a three-dimensional stratigraphic traps.”
subsurface structure with a reasonable
probability of containing all the elements
to form a hydrocarbon accumulation,
namely a reservoir, seal, charge from a
source rock, and a trapping mechanism.
Handbook
Prospects are typically identified from

seismic data, where potential structures
are termed “leads” until more is
understood about the relevant geology.”
With the increasing availability of seismic data from the 1920s

onwards, exploration continued to be prospect driven —
recognition of an attractive structure on seismic (a “lead”) in
a petroliferous basin. This led to a number of important new
discoveries, but also a great many failures. Likewise, more
recent advances in developing direct hydrocarbon indicators
(DHIs) from seismic data to generate prospects have met with
mixed success (e.g. Simm, 2020).
By the time the North Sea and offshore Gulf of Mexico,

with their complex geologies, opened up for exploration
in the middle of the 20th century, it was clear that a more
geology‑based approach to exploration was needed. This
led to the concept of defining petroleum systems and plays,
mapping play fairways, and then defining prospects within the
Figure 2 > Anticline in the Zagros Mountains of the Middle East. Such obvious geological structures were the target of early
exploration efforts. Image courtesy of NASA - NASA, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=567279 — lowest risk part of the fairway (a term borrowed from golf) (e.g.
The Zagros Mountains from space, September 1992. Magoon and Dow, 1994b; Grant et al., 1996; Fugelli and Olsen,
2005; Longley and Brown, 2016; Lottaroli et al., 2018).
The age of “easy” exploration has long since passed. Future exploration is likely to focus on more
subtle concepts, such as stratigraphic traps. These can be difficult to recognize in seismic volumes,
and require not only high-quality data, but also an integration of geophysics with machine learning, “A play is a collective term for all
petrophysics, and all-important geological context. The digital revolution will do much to foster the the geological factors that create a
integration of the various techniques that will enable more accurate predictions of the subsurface, hydrocarbon accumulation by working in
leading to new exploration concepts and more efficient recovery of hydrocarbons once they have been combination.”
discovered. This in turn helps reduce the carbon footprint of the industry by eliminating unnecessary
drilling. At the same time, better models of the subsurface are a prerequisite to other low carbon
Prospect-based exploration still has a role to play in the
initiatives, such as CO2 storage, and geothermal energy solutions.
industry, especially within mature or super-mature basins
PLAY-BASED VERSUS PROSPECT-BASED EXPLORATION where the petroleum system is well established. In such
basins, the focus is on the trap, relying on improvements in
Although hydrocarbons have been sought and utilized by mankind for many centuries, the oil industry
subsurface imaging that can recognize structures that could
proper can be said to have begun when, in 1848, Count Mikhail Semyonovich, Russian governor-
otherwise be overlooked. Improvements in seismic data
general of the Caucasus, wrote a memo to his staff stating, “I hereby authorize oil extraction in the
gathering and processing are key.
Bibi-Eybat Sector, Baku District, Caspian Sea by means of earth drills and allocate 1,000 Rubles for this
purpose”. A successful oil well was drilled in the same year (Mau and Edmundson, 2015). By contrast, play-based exploration places less initial emphasis
on the trapping mechanism. It focuses on the presence and
The 19th and early 20th century exploration efforts in the Appalachians, Azerbaijan, Borneo, Canada, and
effectiveness of the reservoir, source rock, and seal to develop
the Zagros were guided by surface geological mapping (to recognize anticlines for example, Figure 2),
play concepts and high-grade areas of interest. This is because prospect-based exploration is inherently
Exploration
riskier in frontier basins where data are sparse. The risk of failure is high in such settings, unless the
geological history of the basin, and hence the nature of the rocks deposited, is well understood.
A working play will include the following petroleum system elements (Figure 3):
Introduction
Introduction
1. Source rock — a rock rich in organic matter from which the oil or gas was originally
generated
2. Reservoir rock — a rock within which the oil or gas has been captured due to its porosity
and permeability
3. Seal rock — the rock that ‘caps’ the system and prevents the oil or gas from escaping to
Handbook
higher stratigraphy or surface due to its lack of permeability

4. Maturation — the process by which kerogen within the source rock has transformed into oil
or gas
5. Migration — the process of the oil or gas traveling from the source rock into the reservoir
rock
6. Trap — a three-dimensional geometric arrangement of rocks within which the oil or gas is
captured
7. Timing — the petroleum system elements listed above need to have been deposited/
occurred in the correct order, e.g. trap formed before migration begins
8. Preservation — the accumulation must have been protected from breaching, flushing, and Figure 3 > Key petroleum systems elements.
degradation (e.g. by bacteria) until exploitation
Although without a mature source rock no play can exist, plays are typically named after the reservoir Play Fairway Mapping
element of the play. For example, the “Forties Sandstone Play”, or the “Eocene Turbidite Play”.
Plays are normally mapped out using an approach known as
Play-based exploration maps out where the elements of a play exist and where they are effective — in common risk segment (CRS) mapping. Traffic-light style maps
other words, where source rocks, reservoirs, and seals are proven or likely to be present, and where are generated with red, green, and yellow colors to denote “Before a play is mapped
source rocks are or have been mature, reservoir quality is retained, and seal integrity is preserved the perceived risk (and, therefore, chance) of a particular play out, a play concept must
(Figure 4). Such an approach demands prediction away from data control and, thus, requires a detailed element being present and effective (Figure 4). A composite be devised. This is where
understanding of the geological history of the basin under consideration. A variety of data and insights map can sum-up the overall risk segments of the play by the creative abilities of the
must be integrated from local geological phenomena, such as depositional history, subsidence, and carrying through the highest risk for each play element. frontier exploration geologist
uplift, to global geological phenomena, such as sea-level change (eustasy) and paleoclimate. are called upon.”
It is important to recognize that both presence of petroleum system elements, and the processes that
have affected them, govern the success of a play (Magoon and Dow, 1994b). Source rock presence
alone is not enough; these same rocks need to have been hydrocarbon mature over a sufficiently
large area to have provided a charge. Likewise, reservoir presence needs to be matched by a lack
of occlusion of porosity and permeability by diagenesis. The seal must not have been degraded by
tectonic fracturing.
Before a play is mapped out, a play concept must be devised. This is where the creative abilities of the
frontier exploration geologist are called upon. With a knowledge of the geological history of a basin or
region being evaluated, questions to ask include: What reservoir, source rock, and seal concepts can be
envisaged? How might they create a viable petroleum system? Are these concepts supported by any
available data?
To help derive play concepts, the use of analogues is vital. Are there basins that have a similar
geological history to that being studied, and if so, what play concepts work in those basins? Typically,
several analogue play concepts will be considered in the initial stages of exploration. These will be
reduced in number as the geological history of the basin is better understood and more data are
Figure 4 > The key elements of common risk segment mapping. Risk pertaining
gathered. Frontier exploration relies on a positive attitude to considering the upside — if play A fails, to reservoir (presence and effectiveness), charge (source rock presence and
maturity), and seal (presence and effectiveness) are combined into a composite
perhaps play B will work, or better still, there may be many working plays in a given basin. This common risk segment map, with red being the highest risk and green being the
encourages acquisition of acreage. lowest risk.
The typical result will identify a relatively limited area of a basin as being prospective for a particular
Exploration
play, although the moderately risked regions may also be of interest, especially in mature basins, where
the high-graded fairway may already have been exploited. Since such maps are a summary of risk, or
chance of success, they will be subject to updating as new data are collected. For example, parts of a
moderate risk area may be redefined as high or low risk based on the results of a new depth model for
Introduction
Introduction
the basin, in turn derived from newly available well or seismic data, or even a revised depth conversion
of existing seismic data.
Further work can be undertaken to identify prospects within the high-graded play fairway, and the
number, size, and volume of the prospects, which give a sense of the “yet-to-find” (YTF) number of
barrels of oil equivalent associated with a play in a basin (Lottaroli et al., 2018). This helps an exploration
Handbook
team rank the potential of basins, although the potential will need to be risked, both for the play risk
(presence and effectiveness of any play element are seldom certain), and the prospect risk (risk specific
to each prospect, such as seal integrity and structural closure). Non-geological risks, including social,
political, and economic risks, will also be assessed. Alternatively, the potential value of a basin may be
determined by its capacity to generate hydrocarbons based on a source potential index, an assessment
of the productivity of a source rock(s), expressed in Mt/km2 (Biteau and Baudin, 2019).
The concepts described above stem from the process used in conventional exploration, in which oil
and gas are held in traps where the reservoir is distinct from the source rock. Nevertheless, the same
concepts also apply, in a modified manner, to unconventional exploration, where the hydrocarbons are Figure 5 > An understanding of risk and uncertainty is key to determining the
located within the source rock, or rocks closely associated with the source rock (resource plays). Such value of a basin and ensuring exploration efficiency.
plays can also be mapped out, areas for most prospective exploration defined, and likely volumes of
recoverable hydrocarbons determined. Furthermore, as carbon capture and storage grow in importance, FAILURE AND SUCCESS
basins and stratigraphy suitable for subsurface carbon dioxide (CO2) storage can be located by aspects
There are few certainties in frontier exploration. Despite
of this screening process.
the best efforts of geoscientists, wells will be drilled that
either encounter no hydrocarbons (“dry holes”), or contain “Calculating risk in frontier
EVALUATION OF RISK AND UNCERTAINTY only uncommercial quantities. Although disappointing (and exploration is not easy, and
An understanding of geological risk and geological uncertainty is at the heart of frontier exploration expensive), such failures provide insight into the viability of a inevitably involves a certain
(Figure 5), as its very nature implies that there are significant uncertainties (Rose, 2001). Data are likely play in the region (Milkov and Samis, 2020). Did the well fail degree of intuition.”
to be sparse and of variable quality. However, while there are a significant number of unknowns, these because a play element was absent (e.g. absence of source
can be mitigated by focusing on the relevant data, and by using regional context and analogues. rock), or because a prospect-specific element was lacking
(e.g. well located outside of the migration pathway from the
Some uncertainties have a major impact on assessing risk. Play risk comprises two components: 1) kitchen)? Such knowledge allows the play concept, the play
model risk, and 2) conditional risk. fairway, and the CRS mapping to be reassessed (Longley and
Brown, 2016).
» Model risk — is the risk on a geological element of the play being present. For example,
what is the risk that a geobody identified on seismic as being a carbonate atoll is in fact a Success begins the process of appraisal and production.
volcanic edifice? Or, what is the risk that a source rock predicted to be associated with an Although it is outside of the scope of this handbook to discuss
ocean anoxic event is in fact not present? In frontier areas, such risks can be high, and can that process in detail, it is worth noting how knowledge
only be assessed using regional context. gained in determining the play and prospect can be used in
subsequent aspects of appraisal and production. Information
» Conditional risk — is the risk on a geological element of a play actually working, assuming
from the discovery well (e.g. logs and core samples) can be
that it is present. For example, what is the likelihood that a given source rock is rich enough
used to refine the recoverable reserves estimation. Focus now
or mature enough? What is the likelihood that a given reservoir has sufficient porosity,
tightens on the reservoir, and a precise understanding of its
permeability, and thickness?
depositional setting, including regional context, can be used
Calculating risk in frontier exploration is not easy, and inevitably involves a certain degree of intuition. to determine the optimum selection of analogues from which
However, any data, especially from dry wells, can be useful as can, once again, context and analogues. to build a reservoir model. This in turn provides information on
It is easy to overestimate risk in frontier areas (Rudolph and Goulding, 2017), and sometimes risk can be recoverable volumes in place (e.g. from a better understanding
double-counted at the play and prospect level. Even so, many wells fail because the model risk on the of heterogeneity) and production well strategy (e.g. horizontal
play is underestimated. Risk versus reward is an important consideration, and just a small change in risk versus vertical wells, their likely number, and appropriate
can alter the net present value (NPV) of an undrilled asset. completion technology).
6. Analogues are vital. Have a library of these in your “As the digital revolution
Exploration
mind or at your fingertips. progresses, we can expect

to see a move towards a
7. Be aware of your biases. Our interpretations are “stratigraphic workspace”
created through the lens of experience. Entertain ... in which the geoscientist
Introduction
several hypotheses. can seamlessly navigate
Introduction
between data types and
8. Software will help you make models of the interpretations, all integrated
subsurface. Understand what these models mean in within the framework
terms of geology, and revise them, if necessary. provided by geological age/
Figure 6 > The “stratigraphic workspace” concept. Exploration data and interpretations are co-visualized in 3D and 2D space, using
sequence stratigraphy.”
Handbook
the key knowledge that integrates them, geological age. All images courtesy of Halliburton except sesimic: By Geophysicus - Own
9. Avoid silos. Multi-disciplinary approaches work best.
work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=93117477 Understand the overall workflow, not just your place
in it.
SUMMARY 10. Geological age (or a proxy for it) is the key to
integrating subsurface data.
Despite many advances in subsurface imaging from seismic data, direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHIs)
are still far from a guarantee of exploration success, especially outside mature basins where a play
11. Dry wells are a key source of information. Analyze the
fairway is well understood (e.g. Rudolph and Goulding, 2017; Simm, 2020). In many ways, searching for
reasons for failure — what does it tell you about risk?
DHIs is no different from old-fashioned, prospect-based exploration.
Does it lead to new opportunities? The subsurface is
Successful frontier exploration requires the integration of many geological disciplines and tools. Prior inherently uncertain, but we can always learn from the
to prospect definition, these are best integrated through a procedure that identifies plays, and places surprises.
geographically constrained risk on these, through mapping the combined presence and effectiveness of
key petroleum system elements. Such risk-based mapping high-grades the fairway in which exploration 12. Challenge dogma. Established ideas can be disrupted
for a play concept is more likely to meet with success. Reference to geological context and to suitable by new data and better models.
analogues is a key consideration for ultimate success.
13. “The best geologist is the one who has seen the
Software tools now exist through which this process can be semi-automated (e.g. our DecisionSpace® most rocks” (famous quote of H.H. Read). Never miss
365 FairwayFinder application), although a prerequisite remains a sound knowledge of the depositional an opportunity to be exposed to more geology — that
history of a basin or region. To achieve this, the user needs to integrate regional geological data can even be at your desk.
and knowledge using geodynamics, Earth system science, and sequence stratigraphy. This places
emphasis on geological age (as expressed by its sequence stratigraphy proxy), since it forms the basis 14. Stay connected to the rocks. Going out in the field
for integrating data. As the digital revolution progresses, we can expect to see a move towards a will make you a better geologist and lead to better
“stratigraphic workspace” (Figure 6), in which the geoscientist can seamlessly navigate between data predictions.
types and interpretations, all integrated within the framework provided by geological age/sequence
We very much hope that this handbook will help you in
stratigraphy.
your quest to be a successful explorationist and subsurface
geoscientist.
LESSONS LEARNED
The author has been involved in hydrocarbon exploration for all of his long career. During that time, he ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
has learned a few key lessons that are worth considering:
This introduction to the role of geology in frontier exploration
1. “…oil is first found in the human mind” (famous quote of Wallace Pratt). Software provides has drawn upon many conversations over many years
the tools to support or deny your ideas. with colleagues past and present. I would like to highlight
contributions made by my former Neftex co-directors Peter
2. Exploration requires creative minds — always ask, “What if?” Sharland, Dave Casey, and Roger Davies, and by our long-term
consultant Duncan Macgregor. Conversations with Gabor Tari
3. Subsurface geology is all about prediction from limited data. If you are uncomfortable with (OMV) on the philosophy of exploration have always proved
that, exploration may not be for you! enlightening. More recent conversations with Owen Sutcliffe,
Thomas Jewell, Gareth Williams, Frans van Buchem, Andy
4. To make accurate predictions, geological context is vital. Look at the big picture.
Davies, Karen Heyburn, Helen Smyth, and Mike Treloar have also
5. Be aware of scale. What does a core plug really tell you about a reservoir, or a well log tell shaped some of the thinking here.
you about a basin? Again, context is key.
REFERENCES
Exploration
Allen, P.A. and Allen, J.R. 2013. Basin Analysis: Principles and Application to Petroleum Play Assessment. Wiley-Blackwell, 619pp.
(XURBB_635980).
Biteau, J.-J. and Baudin, F. 2019. Petroleum Geology: History, Genesis, Exploration, Resources. EAGE, 335pp. (XURBB_644675).
Introduction
Bromhead, A.D. 2020. Unconventional Plays and Exploration Concepts. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
Magazine no. October, p. 30-22. (XURBB_644663).
Energy Information Authority, 2019. International Energy Outlook 2019 with projections to 2050, Energy Information
Administration (EIA), 85 p. (XURBB_644034).
Fugelli, E.M.G., and Olsen, T.R. 2005. Risk assessment and play fairway analysis in frontier basins: Part 2—Examples from
offshore mid-Norway. AAPG Bulletin, 89, 883-896. (XURBB_450496).
Handbook
Gluyas, J. and Swarbrick, R. 2004. Petroleum Geoscience. Blackwell Science, 359pp. (GURBB_234804).
Grant, S., Milton, N., and Thompson, M. 1996. Play fairway analysis and risk mapping: an example using the Middle Jurassic
Brent Group in the northern North Sea. In: Dore, A.G., and Sinding-Larsen, R., eds., Quantification and Prediction of Hydrocarbon
Resources: Stavanger, Elsevier, Norwegian Petroleum Society Special Publications, 167-181. (XURBB_620804).
Jahn, F., Cook, M. and Graham, M. 2008. Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production (2nd Edition). Elsevier, 444pp.
(XURBB_644676).
Longley, I., and J. Brown 2016. Why bother? (With Play Based Exploration): The Five Reasons Why Play Based Exploration
Worthwhile in a Modern Busy Understaffed and Overworked Exploration Company Environment. International Conference and
Exhibition, Melbourne, Australia 13-16 September 2015. AAPG Search and Discovery no. 110227, p. 1-97. (XURBB_644679).
Lottaroli, F., Craig, J. and Cozzi, A. 2018. Evaluating a vintage play fairway exercise using subsequent exploration results: did it
work? Petroleum Geoscience, 24, 159-171. (XURBB_644680).
Macgregor, D. 2020. Petroleum Systems and Basin Modeling. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no.
March, p. 30-35. (XURBB_643555).
Magoon, L.B. and Dow, W.G. (eds.) 1994a. The Petroleum System – from Source to Trap. AAPG Memoir, 60, 655pp.
(XURBB_460484).
Magoon, L.B. and Dow, W.G. 1994b. The petroleum system. In: Magoon, L.B. and Dow, W.G. (eds.) The Petroleum System – from
Source to Trap. AAPG Memoir, 60, 3-24. (MEBIB18252).
Mau, M. and Edmundson, H. 2015. Groundbreakers: The Story of Oilfield Technology and the People Who Made it Happen. Fast
Print Publishing, 462pp. (XURBB_644683).
Milkov, A.V. and Samis, J.M. 2020. Turning dry holes from disasters to exploration wisdom: Decision tree to determine the key
failure mode for segments in conventional petroleum prospects. AAPG Bulletin, 104, 449-475. (XURBB_643237).
Orajaka, I., Onyeji, J., Obaje, N. 2015. Petroleum Geology for Geoscientists. Xulon Press, 587pp. (XURBB_644693).
Rose, P. R. 2001. Risk analysis and management of petroleum exploration ventures: AAPG Methods in Exploration, 12, 164 pp.
(XURBB_644694).
Rudolph, K.W. and Goulding, F.J., 2017. Benchmarking exploration predictions and performance using 20+ yr of drilling results:
One company’s experience. AAPG Bulletin, 101, 161-176. (XURBB_641211).
Selly, R.C. and Sonnenberg, S.A. 2015. Elements of Petroleum Geology (3rd Edition). Academic Press, 507pp. (XURBB_237885).
Simm, R., 2020. DHI scenarios in exploration: a personal view. First Break, 38, 37-42. (XURBB_644695).
Sutcliffe, O.E. 2019. Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
Magazine no. July, p. 24-32. (XURBB_641584).
Van Buchem, F. 2019. Exploration Geology and the Digital Twin of the Subsurface. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration
Insights Magazine no. February, p. 34-43. (XURBB_641394).
DISCLAIMER
This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge created within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no
proprietary client data has been used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is acknowledged. Reproduction of
any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the
views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
Exploration Geology and the Digital Twin of the interpreter (Figure 1). The digital twin is, in principle,
Exploration
not bound by scale, and should include both basin-scale and

reservoir-scale geological information.
of the Subsurface The notion of uncertainty is directly linked to the digital
twin concept, as both evolve through time with the
availability of more data. Dealing with uncertainty is one of
Approaches
Approaches
By: Frans van Buchem the most important roles of the petroleum geologist when
balancing the, often limited, understanding of the geological
complexity in the subsurface and the application of that
information in economic decision making.
This chapter presents the Landmark philosophy of how to

The stratigraphic
workspace is the software
Handbook
construct a digital twin of the subsurface most efficiently,

Put simply, exploration geology is the science (or art!) of predicting where the key elements of and how to evaluate and track the uncertainties inherent to environment that provides
economically-viable hydrocarbon accumulations co-occur. That is the presence of (i) a suitably thick, the geological data and its interpretation. the petroleum geologist
porous, and permeable reservoir; (ii) a mature source rock, in which abundant organic carbon has flawless access to data
been converted to hydrocarbon and expelled, post the formation of a trap to contain it; and (iii) a This process takes place in a software environment, called and tools to interpret the
suitably thick, non-permeable seal to retain the hydrocarbons in place. In conventional exploration, a the stratigraphic workspace, which aims to provide the geology of the subsurface,
structural or stratigraphic trap is required whereas, in exploration for shale gas or shale oil, the trap geoscientist with flawless access to data and interpretation
in a multi-proxy, iterative
element is often of minimal importance. tools. Together, these efforts provide the best basis for
integration process.
informed economic decision making, constrained by the
The petroleum geologist combines data and context to build up a picture of the subsurface limitations of the available information and insights.
that elucidates the required predictions. Herein, we discuss how a petroleum geologist builds a
subsurface model, looking forward to developing best practice.
Exploration for hydrocarbons is the first step in the petroleum geological life cycle, which, if
successful, is followed by the appraisal and development phases. The exploration phase is unique in
that it deals with the regional scale in unknown and often poorly documented areas. Traditionally, this
was mostly limited to 1D (wells) and 2D (regional seismic lines, well correlations, and maps) data. This
is changing with increasing computation facilities towards 3D, with the availability of mega-merged
seismic surveys and modeling capacities. The challenge faced by petroleum geologists is, thus, given
that we are in a transitional period from 2D to 3D, to produce the most realistic (accurate) 3D models
of the subsurface that predict the presence of effective sources, reservoirs, and seals, as well as
traps and the timing of migration.
Much is at stake here since important economic decisions are based on the insights provided by
these 3D geological models. These include: high-grading basins and plays; de-risking the presence of
play elements; and ultimately defining and ranking viable prospects for drilling.
To create optimal models of the subsurface, geoscientists need to use all data types and
interpretation tools at their disposal. The data types can be classified as follows:
» Hard data — such as those obtained from seismic and wells

» Contextual information — such as outcrop/regional geology, analogs, and concepts
The geoscientist joins this information together using stratigraphy, which provides a genetic
understanding of the relationship between different geological elements. The stratigraphic attribution
of all data increases the accuracy of predictions and, for this reason, stratigraphy lies at the heart of
exploration. This is why the term ‘stratigraphic workspace’ is used for the software environment where
the subsurface interpretation and model building take place (Figure 1).
Geological models are dynamic with continual updates made as more information is gained. In
this sense, they can be called digital twins of the subsurface, a term borrowed from construction
engineering, which is defined as “a dynamic virtual representation of a physical object or system
across its lifecycle, using real-time data to enable updating, understanding, learning, and reasoning”
(Bolton et al., 2018). This recognizes that models are mere reflections of the physical reality, and that
their predictive accuracy evolves, and often improves, during the lifecycle.
Figure 1 > Schematic representation of the stratigraphic workspace. Three parts are distinguished: the geological interpretation
The digital twin is here defined as ‘the repository of the current best interpretation of the subsurface functionalities that provide information to improve our geological understanding of the subsurface; the geological conceptual
geology’, given the limitations of the available dataset, the applied geoscience concepts, and the bias model, called the ‘digital twin’, which is constructed through a multi-proxy, iterative integration process; and the petroleum
geological models, which take most of their geological input data from the digital twin, and are built for economic decision making.
THE STRATIGRAPHIC WORKSPACE » 2D information, including transects from well-log The digital twin of
Exploration
correlations and individual seismic lines, providing the subsurface is the

There is a large offering of tools available for the stratigraphic workspace, including analytical-, insight into the stratigraphic architecture, and maps
interpretation-, modeling-, visualization-, and monitoring tools. conceptual geological
(gross depositional environment and isopach), model that the petroleum
Traditionally, the focus is directly on the required end result, which is the basin-scale for exploration, providing insight into the lateral variation of
geologist constructs of
and the facies- and depositional system-scale for reservoir models. This traditional workflow is depositional systems and thickness
the subsurface within the
Approaches
Approaches
augmented by introducing a step focused on producing the best possible representation of the limitations of the available
subsurface. This step integrates information from all scales. The introduction of the digital twin as » 3D information from seismic in densely drilled areas
and (nearby) seismic-scale outcrops, providing data and interpretation
the repository of that information creates a ‘pit-stop’ in between the application of two different
types of tools: high-resolution images of both the stratigraphic tools, and the contextual
architecture and spatial variability of facies information. It represents
» Geological interpretation functionalities — these include all individual well and seismic the ’repository of the
Handbook
interpretation techniques that provide information (proxies) to reconstruct the most Support for the integration of the different datasets comes current best interpretation
optimized and robust conceptual geological representation of the subsurface. from the hierarchical organization of the sedimentary of the subsurface geology’.
system into different orders of depositional sequences,
» Petroleum geological models — these are built primarily to support economic decision which enables prediction into white space (Figure 2). The
making, covering different scales and intervening at different points in the lifecycle. They identification of the sequence stacking pattern is the key to
include, for instance, basin models, reservoir models, and rock mechanical models, each the prediction of facies distribution at the basin scale (the
of which uses specific components of the conceptual geological representation. The play fairways), as well as for the facies heterogeneities at
quality of these models relies on the quality of the geological interpretation and, thus, the reservoir scale.
carries its uncertainty/confidence level.
Insight from predictive patterns is also vital for the proper
The separation of these two groups of tools promotes the following high level work flow (Figure 1). integration of different scales of subsurface data. For instance,
knowing that a plug sample has been taken in the muddy,
1. Geological interpretation functionalities are used to collect information from different data
sources.
2. The digital twin captures the synthesis of geological information achieved in a multi-
proxy, iterative integration process.
3. Petroleum geological models are constructed, which are fit-for-purpose, built to assess
different components of the petroleum system and support specific economic decisions.
They rely on the input from the digital twin, from which they take those elements that
are essential for their outcomes.
For example, a basin model, designed to describe the distribution, maturation, and expulsion of
hydrocarbons, will incorporate regional surfaces, tectono-sedimentary packages, and general
lithologies. A reservoir model, however, is constructed to predict decimeter- to meter-scale
heterogeneities in the subsurface, which are the basis for volume calculations and well planning.
It needs some regional context, but mostly the high-resolution information at the scale of the
depositional systems. By ensuring that these different scales of geological information come from
the same digital twin, consistency between the models is guaranteed.
This distinction between different tools and the central position of the digital twin is useful
(Figure 1), because it provides a framework for geological interpretation and model building that
is scalable, independent of the amount of data, clear in its purpose and limitations, and allows for
quantification of uncertainties. For instance, a digital twin of the subsurface can be constructed
using one seismic line and two wells, but equally using a high-resolution 3D cube and 200 wells.
The models built for each case will have different performance expectations, and they will have
different confidence levels and uncertainty profiles. By adding more information to the first case,
the accuracy of the models will increase, but the workflows will essentially remain the same.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE DIGITAL TWIN — SCALE AND STRATIGRAPHIC

ARCHITECTURE
A 3D model of the subsurface at exploration scale is a challenging thing to construct. It has to deal
with data at different scales and densities: Figure 2 > Schematic representation of the stratigraphic architecture of a basin fill succession. The understanding of the stacking
pattern of different orders of sequences in landward and seaward stepping trends allows prediction of the distribution and
» 1D information from individual wells, providing insight into the stratigraphic column and heterogeneities of the petroleum system elements (reservoir, seal, and source facies) into white space. This stratigraphic insight is
reservoir characteristics critical for exploration, as well as for population of reservoir characteristics in a reservoir model.
Exploration
Approaches
Approaches
Handbook
Figure 4 > Example of the complexity of a carbonate reservoir (after Sharp et al., 2010). The complexity of carbonate reservoirs is the
result of the combination of depositional facies heterogeneity, early and burial diagenetic overprint, and structural deformation.
PETROLEUM SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND

RISKING
The petroleum
Once the geological understanding of the subsurface geological models are
is established, petroleum geological analysis (Figure built fit-for-purpose and
1) evaluates the potential presence and volumes of provide insights into
hydrocarbons, and their associated risks. This evaluation
specific aspects of the
supports the economic decisions taken at three levels:
subsurface geology,
1. The identification of play concepts and play which are of key
fairways, which allows the high-grading of certain importance for economic
stratigraphic intervals for further investigations decisions.
2. The ranking of prospects in order to define a
strategy and decide on budget allocation
Figure 3 > Schematic overview of the basin evaluation and play analysis workflow. The basin evaluation follows a scaled approach, 3. The exact positioning of the exploration well
zooming in from the basin scale to the facies scale, gradually adding more detail. The results are summarized in the digital twin, the within a given prospect
conceptual geological model. For play analysis, the geological data are subsequently analyzed for reservoir, seal, and source rock
characteristics. The petroleum system models that are particularly
relevant for this phase include: the basin model, to
low permeable transgressive facies of a high-frequency cycle in a landward stepping trend is essential
determine potential amount and the timing of migration of
for the correct interpretation of this sample point in terms of its representativeness of the reservoir
hydrocarbons; the regional exploration model, focused on
characteristics, and its spatial distribution in a subsurface model (Figure 2).
the distribution and heterogeneities of reservoir, source, and
Common practice basin analysis follows this organization of the stratigraphic record at different scales seal facies; and the provisional reservoir model, to estimate
by adapting a step-wise approach that starts with the basin scale and gradually zooms into the facies potential reserves in place, largely dependent on reservoir
heterogeneity scale (e.g. Allen and Allen, 2013; Miall, 2016). This approach is also adopted here, and quality.
three key steps are distinguished (Figure 3): These insights are summarized in two ways: 1) the
petroleum system event chart, which records the timing
1. The main stratigraphic surfaces are identified, subdividing the succession in the main tectono-
of the events; and 2) common risk segment (CRS) maps,
stratigraphic units and positioning these in a plate tectonic context.
which depict the geographical distribution and potential of
2. The detailed stratigraphic architecture of the tectono-stratigraphic units is defined, depositional petroleum system elements.
systems are interpreted, and the paleogeographical maps and chronostratigraphic charts are
The petroleum system event chart is provided by the
constructed.
analysis of the entire basin fill history; whereby, all events
3. The overprint and timing of syn-sedimentary and burial-related processes is evaluated, are considered, with particular attention to tectonic uplift
which can include compaction, diagenesis, and deformation (Figure 4). These factors and subsidence and associated heat flow (Figure 5). The
determine the rock type characteristics and the fluid maturation and migration, the CRS maps are prepared individually for reservoir, source
essential ingredients of the petroleum system. rock, and seal, and subsequently stacked together in the
Exploration
Approaches
Approaches
Handbook
Figure 5 > Petroleum system event chart. The understanding of timing of hydrocarbon migration in relation to trap development or
destruction is essential for a petroleum system evaluation.
composite CRS map for each play and prospect (Figure 6). These maps form, together with the
event chart, the play cartoon, the chronostratigraphic scheme, the gross depositional environment
(GDE) maps, and isopach maps, the high-level summary of the elements of an exploration play. It is
essential, however, not to separate the CRS maps from the associated geological information, since Figure 6 > Example of common risk segment (CRS) maps. The CRS maps, or traffic light maps, are a practical way to communicate
the uncertainty and, thus, the opportunity, may lie in alternative options of adapted interpretations petroleum system potential in a basin. They are commonly made for every petroleum system element, and summarized in the
and concepts. Composite CRS (CCRS) map. For a proper evaluation of the potential, they should, however, be accompanied by a play cartoon,
chronostratigraphic diagram, and relevant gross depositional environment (GDE) and isopach maps.
The economic viability of a prospect depends on the combination of: (a) the estimated volume of
hydrocarbons in place, expressed as (ST)OOIP (Stock Tank Original Oil-in-Place) and OGIP (Original
Gas-in-Place); (b) the recovery factor, which represents the recoverable amount of hydrocarbons Uncertainty further decreases through the drilling of
initially in place and can vary from a few percent to well over 50%; and (c) the rate of return on the appraisal wells and production wells in the green field
investment over a period of time, expressed as a proportion of the original investment, which is stage. When brown field stage is reached, a new element
influenced to a large extent by the surface conditions, such as geography, climate, distance from of uncertainty is brought in when predicting heterogeneities
markets, logistics, and legal frameworks. at the small scale becomes important in order to meet
production forecasts.
UNCERTAINTY Plays and play-fairways
An insightful way to deal with uncertainty is to use chance represent a combination of
Uncertainty is inherent in the work of petroleum geologists, and is influenced by: the quality, quantity, of success (sensu Rose, 2000). This comprises the geological circumstances
and density of the data; the skill and bias of the interpreter; and the robustness of the applied evaluation of confidence in data quality and observations that provide context
geological concepts. The appreciation of uncertainty changes along the lifecycle, and the concepts of on the one hand (including amount, density, and relevance for hypothetical or real
the digital twin and the hierarchical organization of the stratigraphic record can be used to evaluate the of data) and confidence in the applied concepts and
uncertainty/confidence level associated with interpretations.
petroleum geological
analogs on the other hand (including availability, maturity,
and experience with concepts). The chance of success for opportunities within a
Uncertainty is dealt with in different ways. The most fundamental difference is the way that reservoir, seal, charge, and trap can be plotted within this specific stratigraphic
uncertainty is perceived in the domains of exploration and production (e.g. Smalley, 2008): matrix, which provides a quick graphic overview (Figure 7). interval. An exploration
play is often named by the
» In exploration, uncertainty also represents opportunity (the upside) and is the basis for The uncertainty accumulation is not the result of a
deliberate (informed) risk taking. The risk taking is justified in the context of a well-balanced
combination of a reservoir
simple multiplication factor, but represents a more subtle and seal pair, charged by a
portfolio of exploration targets, which includes prospects in proven (lower risk), emerging evaluation, where experience, geological context, analogs,
(moderate risk), and frontier (high risk) plays (Rose, 2000). (specific) source rock (e.g.
and confidence in the applied geological concepts play as
important a role as the amount and quality of the datasets.
Otis and Schneiderman,
» In production, a maximum effort is made to minimize uncertainty. Uncertainty, and the
1997; Douste, 2010; Allen
associated risk of under-delivering promised production volumes, is a threat, and needs to be
controlled as much as possible. Although with a different focus, a clear appreciation of the A thorough understanding of the tectono-stratigraphic and Allen, 2013).
uncertainties is, thus, equally important for a balanced composition of a reservoir portfolio. context and position of a prospect in the overall stacking
pattern is typically a component that will strongly enhance
In the exploration domain, uncertainty is initially high due to lack of data in frontier areas, or the concept confidence, and likely reduce risk, even in a
a multitude of contrasting interpretations in well-explored basins. During the basin evaluation situation with little data. Conversely, large datasets that lack
process, uncertainty diminishes through the application of analogs and concepts, the possible a predictive geological concept may represent a bigger risk
acquisition of new data, the focusing in on play fairways, and eventually leads and prospects. (Figure 7).
REFERENCES A prospect is a potential

Exploration
accumulation that is
Allen, P.A. and J.R. Allen 2013. Basin Analysis: Principles and Application to
Petroleum Play Assessment. Wiley, 1-632 p. (XURBB_635980). sufficiently well defined
Bolton, R.N., J.R. Mccoll-Kennedy, L. Cheung, A. Gallan, C. Orsingher, L. Witell and
to represent a viable
M. Zaki 2018. Customer experience challenges: bringing together digital, physical and drilling target.
social realms. Journal of Service Management. Journal of Service Management no.
Approaches
Approaches
29, p. 776-808. (XURBB_640573). A lead is a highly
Doust, H. 2010. The exploration play: What do we mean by it?. AAPG Bulletin. AAPG immature prospect and
Bulletin no. 94, p. 1657-1672. (XURBB_640514). is defined as a potential
Macgregor, D. 2020. Petroleum Systems and Basin Modeling. Exploration Insights petroleum accumulation,
Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 30-35. (XURBB_643555). which is usually a
Maksymiw, P. 2019. Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. very crudely mapped
Handbook
Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 34-39. (XURBB_641247). structure.

Miall, A.D. 2018. Stratigraphy: A Modern Synthesis. Springer, 1-454 p.
(XURBB_640517).
Otis, R.M. and N. Schneidermann 1997. A process for evaluating exploration
prospects. AAPG Bulletin. AAPG Bulletin no. 81, p. 1-23. (XURBB_640518).
Rose, P.R. 2000. The explorationist’s dilemma: the ‘prospector myth’ vs systematic
management of prospect portfolios. AAPG Bulletin. AAPG Bulletin no. 84, p. 95-98.
(XURBB_640516).
Sharp, I., P. Gillespie, D. Morsalnezhad, C. Taberner, R. Karpuz, J. Verges, A. Horbury,
N. Pickard, J. Garland and D. Hunt 2010. Stratigraphic architecture and fracture-
controlled dolomitization of the Cretaceous Khami and Bangestan groups: an outcrop
case study, Zagros Mountains, Iran. In F.S.P. van Buchem, K.D. Gerdes and M.
Esteban (Eds.), Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonate systems of the Mediterranean and
the Middle East: stratigraphic and diagenetic reference models. Geological Society of
London - Special Publications no. 329, p. 343-396. (XURBB_455362).
Simmons, M. 2020. Introduction: The Role of Geology in Frontier Hydrocarbon
Exploration. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 6-16. (XURBB_645992).
Simmons, M. 2020. Outcrop Geology. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark,
p. 52-59. (XURBB_645995).
Simmons, M. 2020. The Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow. Subsurface
Insights, v. November, p. 24-35. (XURBB_645951).
Smalley, P.C., S.H. Begg, M. Naylor, S. Johnsen and A. Godi 2008. Handling risk and
uncertainty in petroleum exploration and asset management: An overview. AAPG
Figure 7 > Petroleum element risk overview presented as a matrix of confidence in data, and observations and confidence in Bulletin. AAPG Bulletin no. 92, p. 1251-1261. (XURBB_640572).
analogs and applied concepts (after Rose and Associates). The evaluation may change over time, when, for instance, more data or
better analogs become available. Sutcliffe, O. 2020. Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in Exploration. Exploration
Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 34-41. (XURBB_645994).
CONCLUSIONS Sutcliffe, O.E. 2019. Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Exploration. Exploration
Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July, p. 24-32. (XURBB_641584).
Herein, we have summarized the main principles of our vision of the exploration workflow,
centered on the stratigraphic workspace and the creation of the digital twin of the subsurface —
DISCLAIMER
This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge created within
‘the repository of the current best interpretation of the subsurface geology’. Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been used in its preparation.
If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is acknowledged. Reproduction of any
A systematic integration of well log, seismic, and contextual information in a multi-proxy, iterative copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in
the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its
approach is very effective. This approach first focusses on building the digital twin, which creates affiliates including but not limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
a ‘pit-stop’ that draws proper attention to the fundamental value of the geological work before
this information is used in various fit-for-purpose models built to analyze the petroleum system.
Consequently, it also becomes the natural point to take stock of the accumulated uncertainties,
summarized in a matrix of the data quality and the confidence in the geological concepts and
analogs.
The hierarchical organization of the stratigraphic record in different orders of depositional

sequences is a key characteristic to predict the distribution and heterogeneity of the petroleum
system elements in the subsurface, as well as to populate models with rock properties. A scaled
approach, breaking down the stratigraphic record into packages and sequences of different orders
and durations, makes manageable the otherwise overwhelming complexity of the rock record.
The combined understanding of the stratigraphic organization and the main basin events strongly
enhances confidence in the applied geological concepts and, thus, reduces risk, even in situations
where data are relatively poor.
Stratigraphy in Exploration relative time methods, cyclostratigraphy and sequence

Exploration
stratigraphy.
How important is it to understand the absolute (numerical)

By: Pollyanna Maksymiw age of rocks? Some techniques enable an absolute age
to be calculated, which is indeed useful in burial history
Approaches
modeling, but age is often determined by proxy (i.e. the
Approaches
correlation of fossils to other sections where absolute
THE ROLE OF STRATIGRAPHY age has been determined). These proxies are important
One of the main tasks of a petroleum geologist is to produce an optimal geological model of the for the majority of petroleum geologists, as they enable
subsurface, the digital twin. This allows geologists to be predictive with respect to the location the combined understanding of stratigraphic organization
and quality of petroleum system elements — source, reservoir and seal — the foundation for and key basinal events and, thus, help improve likelihood
of successful exploration activities, even where data are Stratigraphy, which is
Handbook
hydrocarbon exploration.
relatively poor. essentially a study of the
Herein, we explore the place of stratigraphy in the exploration workflow. Since petroleum way in which rocks are
geologists are interested in following a scaled approach to the rock record (from plate scale to pore STRATIGRAPHY LINKS GEOLOGICAL DATA organized, provides a
scale), stratigraphy, which is essentially a study of the way in which rocks are organized, provides a
Understanding the timing of geological events is important framework for dealing with
framework for dealing with the otherwise overwhelming complexity of the rock record.
to the exploration process. However, other areas of the otherwise overwhelming
stratigraphic thought need to be applied to understand the complexity of the rock
A STRATIGRAPHIC APPROACH relationships between geological data properly. For example, record”
Geologists often begin their stratigraphic understanding of an outcrop, well- or seismic- section how does a geologist know the relevance of a porosity
by asking “What age is it?” However, what they really mean when posing this question is not measurement in relation to seismic data? In this sense,
necessarily an age expressed by a number of millions of years, but the understanding of how the stratigraphy deals with the amount of time (i.e. the age of
strata in question relates to other strata, thus allowing the prediction of rock character between the rocks) and the organization of sedimentary successions
those sections. Stratigraphy acts as the common language that allows geological data to be into ‘packages’.
distilled into a working model. Without a stratigraphic framework, all the observations we make as
geologists cannot be given context or meaning — it is a binding methodology that holds geological A particularly useful area of stratigraphic study in the
data together (Gradstein et al., 2012). geologist’s interpretive ‘toolbox’ is sequence stratigraphy.
The hierarchy of sequences stacked in a pattern provides a
The discipline of stratigraphy comprises many techniques, as summarized in Figure 1. It has a long framework for interpreting geological data. Sea level change
and illustrious past (Bjornerud, 2018; Simmons, 2018), beginning with Nicolas Steno’s 17th century
observations that younger rocks normally overlie older rocks. James Hutton was one of the first
geologists to recognize the vast expanse of geological time. Following on from this, William Smith
and Georges Cuvier pioneered biostratigraphy. They recognized that different fossils only occurred
in certain strata, providing an ideal tool for correlation and a guide to the stratigraphic succession.
Biostratigraphy remains the lynchpin of stratigraphy, although it is increasingly integrated with other
Figure 2 > Two differing interpretations of the same raw data: A) shows a lithostratigraphic correlation (simplistic interpretation);
Figure 1 > The different disciplines of study encompassed by stratigraphy. and B) shows a sequence stratigraphic correlation (detailed interpretation).
is the main driver behind the theory of sequence stratigraphy and can be applied locally or globally. in areas of frontier exploration, where little is known about Relative Age — A
Exploration
It represents the interaction between accommodation space in a basin and sediment supply, which an under-explored basin (Blatt et al., 1991). In a frontier knowledge of the
control the expression of stratigraphic architecture. basin, there may be one or two wells penetrating the stratigraphic position of a
thickest stratigraphy. Applying these methodologies with rock unit, relative to other
This architecture can be viewed in seismic sections, and the integration of seismic and well data the known stratigraphic context from regional geology and
into a sequence stratigraphic model provides a link to time correlation and a wider geological units.
data from the few wells, a geologist can begin to predict
Approaches
context. For a petroleum geologist, the predictive nature of sequence stratigraphy is very valuable
Approaches
the stratigraphy in more distal parts. The more data that Cyclostratigraphy — The
in the exploration process. are available, the more accurate the model becomes. study of astronomically
So, as more wells are drilled the petroleum geologist’s forced climate cycles within
There are different approaches to correlating rocks. One is to assume that rocks of similar
understanding of the subsurface improves and the sedimentary successions.
character correlate with each other. This is lithostratigraphy (Figure 2A). While this may work in
predictions become more accurate.
certain circumstances, geological reality is often more complex and apparent correlations may be Astronomical cycles are
false (compare figures 2B and 2A). An understanding of the relative ages of sediments (i.e. via The first step is representing well or outcrop sections in variations of the Earth’s orbit
Handbook
biostratigraphy) is important, since when linked to an understanding of patterns of sedimentation time, not depth (Figure 4A). The facies information is only around the sun due to the
via sequence stratigraphy, it can lead to more accurate correlations (Figure 2B). recorded in relation to the relative age and is, therefore, not gravitational interaction with
related to rock thickness. The second step is to show well/ other masses within the
Accurate correlation is important for sub-surface prediction at any scale. For example, a
outcrop sections in geographic proximity to one another solar system.
development drilling strategy based on the occurrence of hydrocarbons in the topmost shoreface
(Figure 4A). Using Walther’s Law and a prediction of how
facies of both wells in Figure 2 will require considerable and expensive revision if, erroneously, Sequence stratigraphy
facies will prograde and retrograde in relation to changing
based on the overly simplistic lithostratigraphic model. — A study of the vertical
sea level, the rock units occurring between the data points
can be predicted (Figure 4B). and lateral variations in rock
STRATIGRAPHY IS PREDICTIVE successions as caused by
Understanding the positions of geological data in both time and space help stratigraphic Ordering geological data in time allows many different relative changes in sea-level.
interpretation. Once a geologist has this fundamental knowledge, stratigraphy can begin to be elements to be incorporated in one model. Being able to
predictive. understand the geographic extent of a facies is also very
important from a petroleum geologist’s point of view —
Initially, stratigraphic understanding was based on the correlation of different rocks (originally essentially, concerning “what is the presence and extent
using lithostratigraphy, followed by biostratigraphy, and so on). Then came the understanding of of this particular play?” Before the volume of hydrocarbons
processes. A primary example of predictive stratigraphy was coined by Johannes Walther in 1894.
Walther’s Law states that “facies that overlie each other in a conformable vertical sequence must
have been laterally adjacent to one another at the time of deposition”. This fundamental concept is
the basis of predictive stratigraphy (Figure 3).
Sequence stratigraphy is the natural successor to Walther’s Law. It explains how facies may be
organized with respect to relative sea level change. A petroleum geologist can use these principles
in a predictive way to fill in ‘white space’ between data points (Figure 4). This is particularly useful
Figure 4 > A chronostratigraphic chart showing the steps of interpretation: A) wells represented in time (Y-axis) and in
Figure 3 > A visual representation of Walther’s Law — facies that are observed vertically are also found laterally. geographical proximity (X-axis); and B) the ‘white space’ between the wells interpreted.
in place (STOOIP and OGIP) can be estimated, these factors need to be understood: “What is REFERENCES Absolute age — A
Exploration
the depositional extent of this facies?”; “Is it consistent in its distribution?”; “Is it uniform in its geological age expressed in
composition?”. Visualising geological data in this way allows the petroleum geologist to answer Bjornerud, M. 2018. Timefulness: How Thinking Like a Geologist Can Help
Save the World. Princeton University Press, 1-224 p. (XURBB_640414). millions of years, with error
such questions. bars. Usually determined by
Blatt, H., W.B.N. Berry and S. Brande 1991. Principles of Stratigraphic
Analysis. Blackwell Publishing Ltd (Wiley-Blackwell), 1-512 p. radiometric methods.
STRATIGRAPHY AT DIFFERENT SCALES (GURBB_158022).
Approaches
Approaches
Accommodation space
The nesting of stratigraphic scales is extremely useful to a petroleum geologist, as described in Davies, A. 2019. Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights
Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28. (XURBB_641393). — The space available
the chapter on the Digital Twin of the Subsurface. Reservoir models sit in the context of regional
models. Stratigraphy, thus, has a hierarchy, which is useful no matter if the petroleum geologist Gradstein, F.M., J.G. Ogg and F.J. Hilgen 2012. On The Geologic Time Scale.
for potential sediment
wishes to correlate at the global scale or at the reservoir scale. Thus, stratigraphy-based models Newsletters on Stratigraphy, v. 45, no. 2, p. 171-188. (XURBB_472279). accumulation (seabed to sea-
have application at scales ranging from frontier exploration, to helping guide directional drilling in Nicoll, G., B. Gréselle, J. Smith and P. Helps 2020. Earth System Science: surface).
established oilfields. Source-to-Sink. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 126-132.
Handbook
(XURBB_645996).
Facies — The sum total
In exploration, understanding the sedimentary system of a region in a broader context is useful. characteristics of a rock,
Simmons, M. 2018. Great Geologists. Exploration Insights, 1-140 p.
For example, understanding the relationship between a sedimentary system and climate models (XURBB_640415). including its chemical,
can be a powerful technique for increasing the reliability of predictive models of facies. Through Van Buchem, F. 2019. Exploration Geology and the Digital Twin of the
physical, and biological
geological time, geodynamic plate movements will cause a depositional basin to migrate between Subsurface. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. features, that distinguishes
climatic belts, in turn, impacting on sediment supply or organic productivity. Here, the integration February, p. 34-43. (XURBB_641394). it from adjacent rock, usually
of stratigraphy with geodynamics and Earth system science is key. The age of sediments in a basin related to a depositional
DISCLAIMER
links to geodynamic location and paleoclimate. Earth systems science is an exciting trend in global setting and process (e.g.
This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge
stratigraphic studies. created within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been carbonate reef facies).
used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is
acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder
STRATIGRAPHY AND MACHINE LEARNING and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/ White space — The area
or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark
Graphics Corporation. between data points that
The science of stratigraphy is now moving forward into the digital age. The knowledge geologists
requires informed prediction
have gained over the past two centuries can now be consumed digitally. The oil and gas industry
has a legacy of huge geological datasets, referred to as the ‘long tail’ of geological data, the
to understand the likely
digitalization of which will allow further leaps in knowledge to be made. geology.
Earth system science
There are many geological datasets that would benefit from a machine learning approach, for
example, the assisted interpretation of lithology, biostratigraphy and seismic data. This approach
— In this context, an
offers a time-efficient and consistent way to consume data, while removing interpreter bias, understanding of the
and applying robust geological concepts and a measurable level of uncertainty. This will require Earth as a whole system,
petroleum geologists to articulate stratigraphic thinking to data scientists and for geologists, comprising life and its
themselves, to understand the benefits and limitations of machine learning. environment, including the
atmosphere, ocean, sea ice,
THE FUTURE OF STRATIGRAPHY land surface, ice sheets, and
Since the 17th century, geologists have been engaged in the process of finding more accurate crustal rocks. Paleoclimate is
ways to read and interpret the rock record. Ordering geological data within a standard time scale, a typical component.
and recognizing patterns and processes enable the petroleum geologist to go from the descriptive Machine learning —
to the predictive and the quantitative. Developments in stratigraphy (e.g. from Walther’s Law to
Machine learning uses
sequence stratigraphy) allow disparate geological datasets to be better organized, integrated, and
examined at all scales, increasing the predictive capability of petroleum geologists. It is for these algorithms and statistical
reasons that stratigraphy is vital in the exploration of hydrocarbons. The application of holistic models to perform a task
approaches, such as Earth system science and data science, to stratigraphy are exciting new without using explicit
developments that should further increase those capabilities. instructions, relying instead
on models and inference.
Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in

Exploration
Handbook
Exploration
By: Owen Sutcliffe
Data Types
Data Types
Ever since the methodology for gathering seismic data was devised in the early part of the 20th
century, its analysis has provided invaluable information regarding the nature of the subsurface
Exploration
and has contributed to innumerable hydrocarbon discoveries. As a window on the Earth beneath
Handbook
our feet, seismic data and its analysis are cornerstones of hydrocarbon exploration. This is
because when the raw data are processed, they can reveal details of the architecture and
structural framework of the subsurface at a variety of scales, and in favorable circumstances,
reveal information about rock properties, and even directly indicate the presence of hydrocarbons.
Seismic analysis is thus the main tool for defining prospects for drilling. Following a discovery,
asset models constrained by seismic data are commonly carried through to production and are
delivered as geological frameworks that illuminate the value of the asset when populated with rock
property information (Figure 1). Understanding the uncertainties that surround these models is an
important part of any asset evaluation. Gathering, processing, and interpreting seismic data are
computationally and operationally complex, and only a broad overview can be provided here. Herein
we will only deal with seismic reflection (not refraction) methods.
APPLICATIONS
The analysis of seismic data remains the main tool for subsurface evaluation. It provides:
» Models of the tectonostratigraphic evolution of a basin as determined from the structural
disposition of the main depositional packages present in the data (Figure 1).
» Inputs into subsurface mapping, notably models revealing the depth variation of
petroleum system elements, when depth-conversion has been carried out.
» Recognition of stratigraphic geometries (e.g. clinoforms) that help reveal the depositional
history of a basin through sequence stratigraphic analysis. Analysis of selected seismic
attributes in a 3D volume of data can reveal key depositional structural features, greatly
enhancing the creation of depositional environment maps and the recognition of, for
example, potential reservoir targets (e.g. de Groot et al., 2010).
» Identification of traps through models of structural and stratigraphic geometries that, in
the presence of other play elements, can form prospects for drilling.
» An assessment of trap-density that can aid the ranking of a plays or basins, by
Figure 1 > Example of a framework model using publically available data from the Volve Field, Norway. A) A sealed framework
contributing to an estimation of the yet-to-find volume of hydrocarbons. model; B) 2D cross section showing structural horizons, faults, and seismic data; C) Structural grid of the top of the Hugin Formation;
» Rock properties models that reveal the value of an asset, when integrated with well data, and D) Isopach of the Hugin Formation.
by contributing to the estimation of recoverable reserves.

The reflection and refraction of seismic waves are indicative
» In favorable circumstances, suggestions for the presence of hydrocarbons within a trap.
of lithological properties (Figure 2B), since the speed of
However, the risk associated with such Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHIs), may be
propagation is governed by acoustic impedance (a product
high (Simm, 2020).
of density). Once a seismic wave strikes an interface, only
» Indications of potential drilling hazards such as the presence of shallow gas. a limited amount of energy is reflected back to a receiver.
The rest is refracted to deeper levels, and may bounce off
THE SEISMIC METHOD a deeper interface (Figure 2B). Therefore, seismic waves
The propagation of sound (seismic) waves in the Earth provides a way to explore the subsurface. are recorded at receivers as a series of overlapping pulses
The seismic reflection method works by generating sound waves artificially, bouncing them off (Figure 2C). As waves pass deeper, they lose energy,
lithological interfaces, and recording the time taken to reach an array of receivers (e.g. McQuillan et causing the resolution of seismic data to decay (McQuillan
al., 1984; Ashcroft, 2011) (Figure 2A). et al., 1984).
SEISMIC SURVEYS “The collation and

Exploration
interpretation of seismic
Seismic surveys extend over a number of kilometers, with receivers typically spaced every 20 m.
data are computationally
A source of sound is activated and the arrival times and amplitudes of the derived waves are
complex. The assumptions
recorded at the receivers (Figure 2C). This process is repeated along the array (Figure 2D). During used in processing can
acquisition, every effort is made to maximize the signal to noise ratio of the data. On land, the result in uncertainties in the
Data Types
Data Types
seismic source includes dynamite final subsurface model.”
or vibroseis (a truck-mounted
vibrator), while air guns are used in
water (e.g. McQuillan et al., 1984).
Land-based receivers are referred
Handbook
to as geophones and in the water

hydrophones. Seismic surveys are
normally oriented in dip and strike
directions relative to structural grain.
2D surveys provide tied grids of data.
These are most commonly shot in
the earliest stages of exploration.
3D surveys are representations of
densely spaced 2D surveys, providing
cross-sectional views along any
azimuth, as well as horizontal or
strata-parallel sections. 3D seismic
is normally shot once prospects are
selected, and a more refined model of
the asset is needed. 4D seismic data
(collected over a period of time) also
exists, but is not used in exploration.
CONVERSIONS AND
PROCESSING OF SEISMIC
DATA
There are three main steps in
processing seismic data (Ashcroft,
Figure 3 > A) Diagram showing the location of wave paths between a source
2011). These are velocity analysis, and a receiver when a dipping bed occurs in the subsurface; B) A model for
common mid-point gathering, and unmigrated data with two dipping beds; and C) The effect of constructive
interference in migrating traces to position the dipping bed accurately.
migration, and are briefly described
as follows. An analysis of the seismic the average seismic velocity of the layer (Figure 2C). At a “A robust tie between well
velocities, used to integrate well and point, modifying the waves by this factor flattens their arrival and seismic data allows
seismic data, can be achieved in a times and allows the gathering of traces at one location accurate chronostratigraphic
number of ways. The simplest is from to enhance the true signal of the wave. CMP gathering and depositional models
check shot data in wells. assumes flat reflectors (figures 2A and B). When a dipping to be populated into the
bed occurs, the point of reflection will not coincide with the seismic data.”
Common mid-point (CMP) gathering
helps enhance signal to noise CMP (e.g. McQuillan et al., 1984) (figures 2A and 3A), so
ratios (Ashcroft, 2011). A point on a reflectors in seismograms are misplaced (figures 3A and B).
reflector is used to gather seismic Figure 2 > A) Schematic diagram showing the pathways for seismic waves The migration of seismic data corrects the misplacement
during acquisition; B) Model showing layers of differing seismic velocities.
waves collected from a range of Note the refraction and reflection of waves. CMP = common mid-point; C) of reflectors produced by CMP gathering by modeling all
shot points and receivers (figures The collation of traces derived from the modeled reflectors in (B). Note the
possible locations where a single source-receiver pair could
hyperbolic increase in two-way-time (TWT) with offset distance; and D)
2C and D). Away from a shot point, Schematic of a multichannel hydrophone streamer in an aquatic seismic survey. produce the observed result. Combining all possible traces
there is hyperbolic increase in This shows wave paths that can be gathered at CMPs from shots made at
different times. Images after Gluyas and Swarbrick (2004), Ashcroft (2011), and across the survey allows zones of constructive interference
two‑way-time (TWT) that reflects McQuillin et al. (1984). to locate the reflector (Figure 3B).
C). Rock or fluid properties are also calculated by applying “Conceptual uncertainties
Exploration
algorithms to the seismic data, such as amplitude versus can be common in
Handbook
offset interpretation (AVO). interpreted seismic data.”
The continuity of reflectors can also be affected by seismic
data quality and it is a skill of the interpreter to differentiate
Data Types
Data Types
real signals from noise. During interpretation of a grid of
seismic data, care also needs to be taken to ensure selected
reflectors tie at their point of intersection. Furthermore,
during analysis, the interpreter needs to be self-critical and
Exploration
aware of the uncertainties and assumptions used in the
Handbook
processing of seismic data.

The detail required during seismic interpretation reflects
the position in the lifecycle of the asset. In the early stages
Figure 4 > Image showing the construction of a synthetic seismogram from the Volve Field.
of exploration, it is normally sufficient to identify the main
faults, prominent reflections, and unconformities in a 2D
section to help to delimit the basin-filling packages (Bertram
DISPLAY OF SEISMIC DATA and Milton, 1996). These data provide insights into the
Seismic data are displayed as seismograms made up of individual “wiggle traces” (Figure 4). Each tectonostratigraphic evolution of a basin and factors that
wiggle trace shows the variations in seismic amplitude under each receiver. Positive amplitudes may influence subsidence and deposition. They also provide
are conventionally shaded black, but the size of amplitudes can also be used to assign a range of input into models for trap densities to be used in yet-to-
shades or colors (Figure 4). find calculations. Initial depth models constructed from
the seismic data are then used to map the effective limit
Seismic data are initially displayed in TWT, but since seismic velocity changes with depth, structural
of reservoirs and migration directions from mature source
geometries are distorted. More accurate representations of geological structures are realized when
rocks when combined within burial models. Seal risk may
seismic data are converted into depth. This conversion is enabled by the construction of velocity
also be recognized where leaking hydrocarbons are noted
models that describe lateral and vertical changes in seismic velocity. The veracity of a velocity
in the form of gas chimneys. Other seismically-derived
model is tested by data from wells. Maps of depth-converted horizons, or the thickness of rock
indicators of hydrocarbons include flat-spots in potential
between horizons, are then used as inputs to burial models or in play fairway evaluation.
traps (DHIs). These can represent oil-water contacts. Once
RESOLUTION OF SEISMIC DATA a prospect has been ranked and selected, 3D seismic data
enable more detailed mapping of reservoirs and structures,
Most seismic data have a resolution of 10s of meters vertically, and 100s of meters laterally
and an assessment of the volume of hydrocarbon-filled rock
(Bertram and Milton, 1996) (Figure 5). A term commonly encountered in seismic interpretation is
to be carried out.
“seismic basement”. This is the depth below which stratigraphic character cannot be resolved.
This need not correspond to a transition from sedimentary to crystalline successions, especially if
reflective features, such as sills or lava flows, occur.
WELL TO SEISMIC TIES
This integration of well and seismic data can be achieved in a number of ways that include analysis
of check shots and/or sonic logs data. Well and seismic data can also be linked by creating synthetic
seismograms from sonic and density logs (e.g. McQuillan et al., 1984; Ashcroft, 2011). Synthetic
seismograms are created by calculating the reflection coefficient where changes in lithology occur.
These coefficients are then substituted by wavelets proportional to this coefficient (Figure 4) that
can then be compared with the seismogram.
Ties between well and seismic data allow chronostratigraphic and depositional models to be
populated into the seismic data, along with a calibration of models for rock properties. This level of
Figure 5 > Diagram showing the
integration is vital for revealing the true lithological and petrophysical properties of the subsurface.
vertical resolution of seismic data when
compared with stratigraphy from the
SEISMIC INTERPRETATION Beatrice Field of the North Sea. The
sine wave has frequency of 30 Hz and
Seismic interpretation is carried out in software packages that allow the identification of faults and a median velocity of 2,000 m/s (after
the lateral tracking of continuous reflectors (Figure 1). A number of derived products are made from Bertram and Milton, 1996). Schematic
of the Houses of Parliament (UK) shown
these interpretations that include structure maps and/or the isopach between them (figures 1B and for comparison.
REFERENCES
Exploration
Ashcroft, W. 2011. A Petroleum Geologist’s Guide to Seismic Reflection. Wiley-

Blackwell, 157p. (XURBB_469891).
Bertram, G.T., and N.J. Milton. 1996. Seismic stratigraphy. In: D. Emery
and K.J. Myers (eds). Sequence Stratigraphy. Blackwell Science, p. 45-60.
(XURBB_642014).
Data Types
Data Types
Bond, C.E, Gibbs, A.D., Shipton, Z.K., and S. Jones. 2007. What do you think
this is? “Conceptual uncertainty” in geoscience interpretation. GSA today, 17,
4-10. (XURBB_627560).
Davies, A. 2019. Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights
Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28 (XURBB_641393).
de Groot, P., A. Huck, G. de Bruin, N. Hemstra and J. Bedford 2010. The horizon
cube: A step change in seismic interpretation!. The Leading Edge, v. 29, no. 9,
Handbook
p. 1048-1055. (XURBB_645901).
Gluyas, J and R. Swarbrick. 2004. Petroleum Geoscience. Blackwell Publishing,
359p. (GURBB_234804).
McQuillin, R., M. Bacon and W. Barclay. 1984. An Introduction to Seismic
Interpretation. Graham & Trotman. 287p. (GURBB_156843).
Mitchum, R.M., Jr., P.R. Vail and J.B. Sangree. 1977. Seismic stratigraphy
and global changes in sea-level part 6: seismic stratigraphic interpretation
procedure. In: C. E. Payton (ed). Seismic Stratigraphy – Applications to
Hydrocarbon Exploration, Memoir of the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, 26, 117-134. (MEBIB18645).
Figure 6 > Interpreted seismic line showing the varied seismic facies and systems tracts in syn- and post-rift parts of the section. Pummard, V., J. Bourget, T. Payenberg, A.D. George, R.B. Ainsworth and
Image derived from Richardson (2017). S. Lang. 2019. From quantitative 3D seismic stratigraphy to sequence
stratigraphy Insights into the vertical and lateral variability of shelf-margin
depositional systems at different stratigraphic orders. Marine and Petroleum
Geology, 110, 797-831. (XURBB_642015).
SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
Richardson, P. 2017. The Roebuck Basin – Searching for a potential viable
The main principle of seismic stratigraphy is that seismic reflectors follow bedding and represent petroleum system in an underachieving basin. Exploration Insights Magazine,
11-18. (XURBB_634459).
time lines (Bertram and Milton, 1996). When seismic data have sufficient resolution, seismic
Simm, R., 2020. DHI scenarios in exploration: a personal view. First Break, 38,
facies interpretation is possible. Seismic facies are characterized by the configuration of reflectors, 37-42. (XURBB_644695).
their continuity, amplitude, frequency, internal velocity, and form (Mitchum et al., 1977). The DISCLAIMER
configuration of reflections also allows penecontemporaneous deformation to be recognized. Due This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge
created within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been
to the form of some seismic facies, the geomorphology of depositional systems can be assessed used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is
(Pummard et al., 2019). In long regional transects, groups of seismic facies are arranged into sets acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright
holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect
bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities. These seismic sequences incorporate a the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not
range of depositional environments that define a systems tract (Figure 6). The identification of these
sequences is the basis for sequence stratigraphic interpretation.
INTERPRETATIVE UNCERTAINTY AND MODEL BIAS
Conceptual uncertainties are common in seismic interpretation and result from the scale, extent,
and resolution of data, and the range of experiences of the interpreter (Bond et al., 2007). During
interpretation, the impact of these uncertainties is considerable. Without prior knowledge, a range
of appropriate or inappropriate models can be derived from equivocal data. The impact of such
conceptual uncertainties has the potential to be as great as those associated with the positioning of
features in the seismic data itself.
PRACTICALITIES AND FUTURE TRENDS
Due to the importance of seismic data, the development of seismic technologies continues at pace.
These developments impact acquisition through to the interpretation and visualization of data. For
example, drones can be used to deploy geophones to create cost efficiencies. Autonomous Ocean
Bottom Nodes (OBNs) are becoming an increasingly popular technique to acquire high-resolution
reservoir imaging data. During interpretation, data science and machine learning techniques can be
used to enhance interpretation by automating the population of faults, picking all of the reflectors in
the data, identifying seismic facies, and/or interpreting rock or fluid properties. These developments
will maximize our utilization of seismic data.
Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in

Exploration
By: Owen Sutcliffe
Data Types
Data Types
INTRODUCTION
A fundamental role of the petroleum geologist is to build a testable model of the subsurface. The
first major test of this model occurs when an exploration well is drilled. The well results are not only
relevant for the prospect, but help de-risk the basin by providing data to characterize the petroleum
system, constrain velocity models for seismic data, and illuminate the lithologies revealed by
different seismic facies.
To ensure the subsurface model is appropriate, data collected from a well must be analyzed,
interpreted, calibrated, and integrated — processes that all add some uncertainty to the model.
Many uncertainties are eliminated by good practice, but when interpretations are subjective, they
cannot be reduced without additional data.
APPLICATIONS
Well data and well correlations provide:
» Accurate records for the lithological, petrophysical, and environmental properties of the
subsurface
» Data to constrain models for the stratigraphic architecture of a basin at sub-seismic scale
» Data to integrate seismic interpretations
Well data provide a continuous model for stratigraphic development along a singular transect at
meter-scale resolution (Figure 1). These data are vital for understanding lithological heterogeneity
within reservoirs. In the following sections, the nature of well data is described, along with some
limitations of its use.
THE NATURE OF A BOREHOLE AND THE INFORMATION RECORDED

Boreholes are drilled in phases, during which the diameter of the hole decreases downwards
(Figure 1C). At the end of a phase, the drill string is removed and the hole logged geophysically.
Logging can also take place while drilling. Once logging is completed, casing is set to protect the
borehole wall, and drilling resumes with a smaller bit. The process is repeated until the well reaches its
total depth. It is essential that the trajectory of the well be recorded.
All measurements of a well are reported against a depth measured from the drill floor (DF, RT, or KB
are common) (Figure 1A). These can be converted to other values, such as TVD (true vertical depth)
or TVDSS (TVD sub-sea). Referring measurements to a common geographical datum, like sea level,
is essential when correlating wells structurally.
Depth is recorded by the driller and the logger. Driller’s depth reflects the length of the drilling
apparatus, and errors reflect the elastic stretch and/or thermal expansion of the drill string.
Corrections of <10 m are normal in deep wells. Errors also occur in logger’s depth and are reviewed
by Rider and Kennedy (2011). Driller’s depth and logger’s depth are rarely the same, and beyond Figure 1 > Schematic diagrams simplifying some of the elements involved in collecting well data from the subsurface. A) Drill rig
4,000 m, logger’s depth could be up to 10 m greater. In practice, it is impossible to identify the showing where cuttings are collected. B) Conventional roller cone drill bit producing cuttings. C) Phases in drilling a well, relative
depths and sizes of the hole, and variability in log suites collected. D) Drill bit for cutting core. E) Comparison of stratigraphic
most accurate depth measurement, but logger’s depth is normally perceived to be more reliable. interpretations, subsurface data, and their ability to resolve subsurface interpretations.
LITHOLOGY Core
Exploration
Drilling provides a direct sample of the lithologies in the subsurface as cuttings or core (figures 1B The recovery of core provides a precise, continuous record of
and 1D). The differences between these are described below. rocks over a short stratigraphic interval (figures 1E and 2B). Core
is only cut where detailed information is needed, and reservoirs
Cuttings are normally the main focus (figures 1D and 1E). Coring is
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Data Types
operationally expensive and, therefore, it is normally done on a
During drilling, a drill bit abrades or shears off fragments of rock (the cuttings), which are returned
limited basis.
to the surface by circulating drilling fluids (figures 1A and 1B). Fluids are filtered from drilling
mud at the shale shaker (Figure 1A) and inspected by eye or under a stereoscopic microscope. The drill bits used to cut core comprise an annular cutting ring
Ultraviolet light may reveal the occurrence of hydrocarbons. Typically, sampling occurs at every that allows an undisturbed column of rock to pass into a core
10 m (Figure 1E). The proportion of lithologies sampled is recorded on a mud log (Figure 2A). These barrel (Figure 1D). The core barrel has an outer rotating sleeve,
Handbook
samples can also be used for further biostratigraphic or geochemical analyses. while the inner sleeve is stationary and snugly fits the core.
© 2020 Halliburton
Upon the completion of coring, the core barrel is pulled upwards,
In order to assign a depth to a cuttings sample, the lag time between the production of cuttings the column of rock detaches, and the core is captured by a
“Well data provide a
and their arrival at the surface is calculated. The precision of this calculation ultimately influences continuous model for
sprung device. See Blackbourn (2009) for a complete review.
the model for lithological change with depth. stratigraphic development
Core diameter is typically 20–150 mm, while length can vary along a singular transect.”
Based on the type of drill bit used, there can be significant variability in the quality of cuttings and from 1.5–30 m. At the surface, the core is curated for transport,
the validity of the sample recovered. Cuttings can also be contaminated by cavings from above, analysis, and preservation. Sections of core can also be specially
recirculated cuttings, or non-formational drilling materials. Careful analyses of cuttings allow these selected and sealed to retain the original subsurface fluids.
contaminants to be distinguished. Damage to core is common and can occur during the drilling,
capture, or curation. The recovery may not be complete, with
In summary, cuttings represent a composite sample of a multi-meter interval, defined by an most losses generally occurring at the base of the core barrel.
operationally assigned sampling rate. These data cannot be used to model precise changes in When integrating core with geophysical log data, all of these
stratigraphy (figures 1E and 2A). factors need to be considered, and core-to-log shifts need to be
applied, due to differences in logger’s and driller’s depths.
The recognition of sedimentary features in core is difficult, due to

the curved nature of its face, unless it is later slabbed. Core can
be described optically, viewed under ultraviolet light,
photographed, x-rayed (tomographically), or logged for its
naturally occurring radioactivity. In addition, smaller core plugs
are taken in order to accurately measure porosity, permeability,
water saturation, and the grain density of the sample.
Biostratigraphic samples, thin section analysis, or other
petrographic techniques are also possible from this material. A
variety of features are both recorded and interpreted from core,
including lithology, textures and fabrics, grain sizes, porosity,
sedimentary structures, fractures, fossil content, and/or
hydrocarbon staining of the rock. This information is recorded
graphically (Figure 2B).
In summary, core data provide a precise lithological sample that

can be subjected to detailed and varied evaluations. However,
the stratigraphic extent of this sample is limited.
In addition to conventional core, sidewall core samples are

sometimes taken. Most sidewall cores are obtained by
percussion sidewall coring systems. These tools shoot hollow,
retrievable, cylindrical bullets 1 in. wide by 1.75 in. long into the
borehole wall. The tool (gun) can be combined in multiples of
approximately 30 bullets with 120 shots a general maximum. The
Figure 2 > Examples of how different types of lithological information are recorded from well data. A) Typical mud log (adapted
gun is lowered to the desired depth, then individual bullets are
from Dolson, 2016), showing the changing proportion of lithologies against a low-resolution depth scale. Other information can electrically fired from the surface. The bullets remain connected
also be presented on these logs. B) Detailed sedimentary log, showing lithologies and grain size change as described in a core to the gun by wires, and movement of the gun pulls the bullets
(Blackbourn, 2009). This datatype has a higher resolution scale and shows driller’s depth compared with TVDSS.
from the borehole wall.
Two main factors influence the resolution of log data. The “Wells provide vital
Exploration
first is the distance between the emitter and the receiver in information on the
the logging tool, which limits the ability to resolve individual pressure, pressure
beds. The second is the logging rate, because, in many gradients, and nature of
cases, sampling of the subsurface only occurs every 15 cm. fluids in the subsurface”
Thus, interpreting log data at a finer scale is not reliable
Data Types
Data Types
unless borehole image logs are being used (Figure 1E). One
additional limitation of log data is that measured thickness
may not be a true stratigraphic thickness unless the dip of a
bed is known.
SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
Handbook
Wells provide vital information on the pressure, pressure

gradients, and nature of fluids in the subsurface. This
information is vital for modeling fluid behavior during drilling
operations or during hydrocarbon production.
Pressure is recorded by a gauge that is in communication
with the fluids in the formation. During the course of a test
(5–20 minutes), changes in pressure are recorded until
equilibrium is reached. The temperature of the fluids is also
measured. The differences in pressure are then used to
calculate the mobility of fluids in the formation. The same
tools also secure a small number of contamination-free fluid
samples at reservoir conditions.
Subsurface temperature data are needed for the accurate
calibration of log data, and as inputs to the geochemical
© 2019 Halliburton
modeling of the hydrocarbon charge system. Tools can
measure temperature during drilling or while pulling out of
hole, and are accurate. Due to cooling by the drilling mud, the
Table 1 > A comparison of log types and their
temperature recorded is not that of the formation. Recorded utilization in subsurface evaluation.
temperatures are calibrated to assess conditions in the
Figure 3 > Example of geophysical log data from the WolfCamp Formation. Different suites of logs were integrated, along with formation, but there is no consistent method to achieve this.
their petrophysical interpretations, to derive insight into the lithologies represented, the proportion of TOC, and the brittleness of Therefore, uncertainties or errors could occur when comparing
these deposits. Borehole image data and the facies interpretation of uncored intervals were also integrated.
borehole temperatures of different vintages or operators. See
Rider and Kennedy (2011) for a review.
GEOPHYSICAL LOGS
Geophysical logs (Figure 3) provide a continuous record of a pre-selected parameter recorded from
a volume of rock adjacent to the borehole (Table 1). These are normally plotted against logger’s
depth. Logging is required because cuttings data are incomplete and imprecise (Figure 1E).
Logs record either spontaneous measurement of a formation or induced measurements. Both

require a level of interpretation to gain insight from them, and when calibrated, they provide
confident models for the subsurface. Petrophysical interpretations of logs are validated against
core or cuttings and not only provide information on lithologies, but also the properties of the
rocks (porosity, permeability, and density) and the fluids, too (composition and levels of saturation)
(Table 1).
The only logs with associated directional information are borehole image logs or dip meters. In
these logs, the circumference of a borehole is recorded and the data reconstructed by a computer
to generate an image that depicts changes in rock properties as a colored image. Electrical,
acoustic, or density varieties are available. These logs have high resolutions and can be used to
identify bed boundaries, sedimentary structures, or fractures. The azimuth and direction of dip of
bedding and/or paleo-currents can also be measured. Borehole image logs should be considered as
complementary to core data.
Exploration
Data Types
Data Types
Handbook
Figure 4 > Examples of the regional integration of correlated well data. A) A strike well correlation across the Appalachian Basin, revealing the regional changes in the geology of the target reservoir, the Marcellus Formation. B) Depth model for the top of the
Niobrara Formation, largely revealed by correlating well data.
STRATIGRAPHY AND DEPOSITIONAL SETTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND CORRELATION

The conventional geological procedure for a basin requires the subdivision of rocks into In areas where regional-scale 2D seismic lines or “mega‑merged”
stratigraphic units that provide a nomenclature for describing its evolution. The most 3D seismic volumes are not available, the correlation of
stratigraphic units between wells is the primary way to reveal
common methods of subdivision are either lithostratigraphic or sequence stratigraphic,
changes in stratigraphic architecture (Figure 4A). In order for
and are described in earlier contributions to the Exploration Handbook described in the
stratigraphic geometries to be accurate, correlations have to be
chapters on: Sequence Stratigraphy; Stratigraphy; Non-biostratigraphic Techniques; and
conditioned by biostratigraphic data. In the absence of these data,
Biostratigraphy. When compared with the evaluations of lithology or rock properties,
correlations are at best lithostratigraphic.
establishing these stratigraphic schemes is more subjective.
In those basins where seismic datasets are widespread, there
Within a well, the boundaries of these units are commonly referred to as tops, and are drawn may be an impression that the discipline of well correlation is
as a line across a log (Figure 1E). Outside of core data, the precision of these tops is limited redundant. However, it should be remembered that the resolution
by the resolution of logs. However, errors in stratigraphic precision are likely to be minor when of seismic data does not reveal changes in lithology below the
compared with the potential for human error or bias in defining the positon of a top. scale of 10s of meters. Therefore, well correlation remains an
essential tool for revealing changes in reservoirs across a basin. “Well correlation remains
In an exploration campaign, evaluating the range of depositional environments within a an essential tool for
Models generated by correlations provide essential constraint on
well can be highly impactful, as it defines models for predicting lateral changes in lithology. the nature of rocks between or beyond the wells. revealing changes in
Unlike lithostratigraphic interpretation, which can be achieved from log data alone, the reservoirs across a basin.”
interpretation of depositional environments requires core, because it is derived from an In basins with large numbers of wells, the correlation of stratigraphic
appreciation of the sedimentary processes that influenced deposition. These, in turn, are units provides a framework that defines the structure and geometry
derived from interpretation of the sedimentary structures preserved in individual facies of the whole basin (Figure 4B). This framework can be presented as
(generally below the meter scale) and the manner in which these intercalate. If core data a set of structure contour map for surfaces or units. Furthermore,
are not available, the geologist is forced to extrapolate models from either correlative the regional correlation of well data may also be used to generate
outcrops or adjacent wells, or rely on equivocal log signatures supported by biostratigraphic maps defining changes in the properties of a formation (e.g.
porosity). 3D visualization of multiple surfaces is also possible in
data.
geological software to reveal a geometric model for an entire basin.
Once the model for depositional environments has been established from core, it can be These 3D models can be used to facilitate better exploration results.
extrapolated into the uncored parts of the well using logs, cuttings, and any biostratigraphic
data. In the log data, the interpreter will define larger scale lithological trends and assess
how depositional environments change vertically. This generates insight into intrinsic or Radioactive sources are currently used in logging tools (Table 1).
extrinsic factors that influenced basin fill and can also be used to aid correlation between wells Their transportation poses a low, but tangible, threat to national
(Figure 4). Interpretations of depositional environment remain subjective and are best achieved security. Initiatives are under way to replace nuclear logging
through a holistic integration of all available data. technologies with non-nuclear alternatives. The main challenge
for the new tools is to validate the quality of the results and to understand the uncertainties that
Exploration
surround their interpretation when compared with historical datasets. Data analytics will have a role
in facilitating these comparisons (IFM, 2018).
In many companies today, large volumes of historical data are preserved in siloed databases
that have inconsistent geological interpretations. Companies wish to achieve more with these
Data Types
databases, and standardizing interpretations will facilitate a better analysis of the data. Manually
standardizing interpretations is extremely time-consuming. Therefore, it is a requirement that
automated, consistent interpretations of both lithology and stratigraphy are generated. The delivery
of these interpretations will be facilitated through machine learning of precompiled and validated
training data.
Handbook
The growth of unconventional reservoirs has helped to reinforce the impact of core analytics on
production. Due to the geological complexities of these reservoirs, more complex and higher
resolution data now need to be routinely acquired, digitally curated, and rapidly integrated into
models for production. By efficient up-scaling from the pore to core, these analyses of rock
properties will provide a link between downhole measurements and the physical properties of
rocks.
REFERENCES
Abeed, Q. 2020. The Application of Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration
Insights Magazine no. July/August, p. 20-29. (XURBB_644265).
Blackbourn, G.A. 2009. Cores and Core Logging for Geoscientists. Whittles Publishing, Scotland, 1-152 p. (XURBB_423207).
Cowliff, L. and J. Montero 2020. Reservoir Properties and Petrophysics in Exploration: From New Ventures to Prospect Analysis.
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. April, p. 33-26. (XURBB_643794).
Davies, A. 2019. Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p.
22-28. (XURBB_641393).
Dolson, J. 2016. Drilling, Mud-Logging, Wireline Logs and Cores. Understanding Oil and Gas Shows and Seals in the Search for
Hydrocarbons. Springer, p. 91-143. (XURBB_600228).
IFM Education and Consultancy Services 2018 2018. Roadmapping Workshop for Identifying Alternative Technologies for Radiation
in the Energy Industry, , 41 p. (XURBB_641370).
March, p. 30-35. (XURBB_643555).
Maksymiw, P. 2019. Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 34-39.
(XURBB_641247).
Ray, D., B. Gréselle and G. Nicoll 2019. Non-biostratigraphic Techniques in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration
Insights Magazine no. May, p. 24-31. (XURBB_641264).
Rider, M. and M. Kennedy 2011. The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs. Rider-French Consulting Ltd., 1-432 p.
(XURBB_467608).
Simmons, M. 2019. Biostratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. April, p.
30‑35. (XURBB_641248).
Sutcliffe, O. 2020. Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in Exploration. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 34-41.
(XURBB_645994).
Van Buchem, F. 2019. Exploration Geology and the Digital Twin of the Subsurface. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration
Insights Magazine no. February, p. 34-43. (XURBB_641394).
DISCLAIMER
proprietary client data has been used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is acknowledged. Reproduction of any
copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/or
opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
Outcrop Geology
Exploration
By: Mike Simmons
INTRODUCTION
Data Types
Data Types
For many geoscientists, the examination of rocks in the field acts as a turning-point in their
understanding of theories and concepts learnt in the classroom. This is true for all branches of Above > Spectacular outcrop of
geoscience, not least petroleum geology. Petroleum geoscientists are engaged in building models Cretaceous carbonates, Vercors, France
of the subsurface, yet they often turn to surface outcrops to develop insight. Outcrops can be vital
Handbook
in exploration studies as analogues and data points to reduce uncertainty in building models of the
subsurface, at any scale. Their study is also important for developing the skills of the explorationist.
Geology is a visual subject, so there is no better place to consider and understand, for example, the
internal architecture of a reservoir, than by discussion in front of a relevant outcrop analogue. Ideas and
knowledge are shared and new insights are developed. Figure 1 is an outcrop of the Triassic Sherwood
Figure 2 > Data used by exploration geoscientists is a variety of vertical and
Sandstone, the main reservoir in the giant Wytch Farm oilfield in southern UK. The rock unit was horizontal scales. Outcrops bridge the gap between detailed core descriptions
deposited in a braided stream environment on an arid continental flood plain and represents a series of at one end of the spectrum, with seismic data at the other end of the
spectrum.
cross-cutting fluvial channels. By studying this outcrop and understanding the depositional environment
it represents, geoscientists and reservoir engineers are immediately able to visualize the types of » Outcrops bridge the gap in scale between cores
sedimentary architecture that a realistic reservoir model should contain. Especially important are the and well logs, which provide detailed, but spatially
lateral and vertical distribution of porous and permeable units, versus those of the non-permeable units, limited data, and seismic, which provide regional
found at the base of the channels, that will be barriers and baffles to flow when the reservoir is on data, but of limited vertical resolution (Figure 2).
production. “Geology is a visual subject,
» Outcrops provide insight into the structural style of so there is no better place
APPLICATIONS a basin, and the geomechanical properties of the to discuss and understand,
rocks in a stratigraphic succession. For example, for example, the internal
Outcrop descriptions and data are useful in exploration studies for the following reasons: architecture of a reservoir,
they can provide information about the amplitude
» They provide detailed data to constrain the depositional and tectonic history of a basin. This of folding within a basin, or they can be used to than by discussion in
information can be incorporated into palaeogeographic mapping, chronostratigraphic charts gather information on fracture patterns, which may front of a relevant outcrop
and petroleum systems models. enhance or reduce productivity of a reservoir (be analogue.”
that conventional or unconventional) (Figure 3).
» Analysis of outcrop samples can provide information on reservoir properties, potential
source rock quality, and the precise age of stratigraphic events through biostratigraphic and In the following sections, the nature of outcrop data is
non-biostratigraphic age calibration techniques. described, along with some discussion of their uses.
» Outcrops act as analogues to understand subsurface architecture. This is most commonly

applied to reservoir successions (Figure 1), but can also be useful for other aspects of a play,
and the depositional succession as a whole.
Figure 3 > Natural fractures in the Kimmeridge Clay Formation at Kimmeridge

Bay in southern UK. Understanding of the orientation, spacing, and fill of such
fractures could be important for modeling this rock unit as an unconventional
Figure 1 > A Triassic outcrop at Ladram Bay, southern UK — an excellent reservoir analogue. reservoir.
THE NATURE OF OUTCROP DATA Modern outcrop logs are drawn in a variety of forms, from “The disposition of rocks
Exploration
the very simple to the complex, depending on their purpose. at surface as portrayed in
At the beginning of the 19th century, pioneers of geology such as William Smith and Georges Cuvier At their most basic, outcrop logs capture vertical variations in a geological map can be
(Simmons, 2018) sought to capture information on outcropping rocks through two innovative means: lithology and the thickness of the various rock units present. useful in elucidating regional
geological maps, and logs (Figure 4). These techniques remain the cornerstones of descriptive outcrop More detailed logs capture other observations such as fossil structural trends, and helps
geology today, although both data gathering and descriptive methods have greatly evolved. content, sedimentary structures, grain size variations, details create preservation limits for
Data Types
Data Types
of mineralogy, and sampling points. When published they also depositional sequences...”
Geological maps now incorporate data from remote sensing techniques (e.g. satellite data, aerial/drone
imagery), as well as the observations of a geologist walking across the landscape. The disposition of often depict interpretative elements such as assignment to
rocks at surface as portrayed in a geological map can be useful in elucidating regional structural trends, lithostratigraphy, age and depositional setting. Such data are
and helps create preservation limits for depositional sequences, ultimately contributing to mapping play extremely useful to the exploration geologist in building a picture
extent. of the geological history of the region or basin under study.
Handbook
Figure 4 > Associated logs (left) and geological map (right) of measured sections from outcrops in north-western Turkey (Okay et al., 2020). Such depictions are the cornerstones of outcrop-based geology. Note the samples that were collected for subsequent
study (in this case biostratigraphy, organic geochemistry, petrography, and radiometric isotope dating).
Description of the geology at surface is typically followed by analysis of samples collected at the “When assessing
Exploration
outcrop, which helps to substantiate interpretations. Sample spacing depends on the purpose of the reservoirs, outcrops are
study, but in a sedimentary succession where understanding age and depositional setting is important, invaluable. Selection of
at least one sample may be collected from each lithological unit. In studies focused on collecting the correct analogue can
organic geochemistry data (for source rock evaluation), or on collecting petrographic data (for reservoir reveal much about the likely
analogue studies) closely spaced samples may be collected. Many different types of analysis can be internal architecture of a
Data Types
Data Types
conducted on outcrop samples, including petrographic, biostratigraphic, and geochemical techniques. reservoir...”
The data so collected can prove vital to the exploration geologist in their quest to understand the
petroleum significance of a depositional sequence.
OUTCROPS AS ANALOGUES AND DATA POINTS

Handbook
The ultimate arbiter of the validity of any subsurface model is the drill-bit. Nevertheless, to risk stating
the obvious, drilling wells, and taking core samples is expensive, as is the gathering and processing
of high quality seismic data. Therefore, petroleum geoscientists look to outcrops as cost-effective
analogues and data points, in order to reduce uncertainty in their subsurface models. This can be true
at exploration scale and at production scale.
At exploration scale, outcrops tend to be most useful as data points, providing, for example, information
on source rock quality and maturity (Figure 5), possible reservoir facies and quality, and sediment
provenance. Detailed biostratigraphic study of outcrops can create biozonation schemes, effective for
use in the correlation of equivalent rocks in the subsurface. Tectonic events and the structural style of
a basin can be determined from outcrops.
While outcrops tend to be at the margins of the basins being explored, and often some distance from
a prospective exploration well location, they still provide insight into the likelihood of the presence
and quality of various petroleum systems elements. This is because outcrops form an essential
part of paleogeographic mapping, which provides context for what is being observed. For example,
by correlating the outcrop of the Jurassic Blue Lias Formation (Figure 5) with nearby onshore and
offshore wells and other outcrops, and by integrating this information with seismic facies, it can be
shown that the character of the Blue Lias Formation at the outcrop shown in Figure 5 is very similar to
that which will be encountered in exploration acreage in the same basin. The geoscientist can make
relevant adjustments for the tectonic history of the outcrop belt versus the subsurface — in this case Figure 6 > Channelized fluvio-deltaic reservoir facies of the Neogene
Productive Series at outcrop in Azerbaijan.
considering different thermal histories that will have affected source rock maturity.
When assessing reservoirs, outcrops are invaluable. Selection
of the correct analogue can reveal much about the likely
internal architecture of a reservoir, including the likely net to
gross, and the presence of barriers and baffles, and zones of
high porosity or high permeability. This enables better static
and dynamic reservoir models to be built.
For example, the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone reservoir of

the Wytch Farm oilfield in southern UK can be effectively
modeled by studying outcrops of the same rock unit exposed
on the coastline some 50 km+ away (Figure 1) (Newell and
Shariatipour, 2016). Models of the Neogene Productive Series
reservoir in the South Caspian have greatly benefited from
outcrop studies (Reynolds et al., 1996; Hinds et al., 2006)
(Figure 6). These studies revealed the complex reservoir
heterogeneity that could be expected to be encountered
in the subsurface, and helped plan a suitable exploitation
strategy. Once well log and core data were gathered from the
Figure 5 > Organic-rich Early Jurassic mudstones of the Blue Lias Formation exposed at Lyme Regis in the Wessex Basin of subsurface, their interpretation was greatly aided by reference
southern UK. Examination of their source rock quality is useful for assessing the petroleum potential of the local sedimentary
basin, provided local tectonic effects are taken into account. to the outcrop observations and interpretations.
Outcrop studies should always be conducted with health “...advances in digital

Exploration
and safety uppermost in mind. With comprehensive risk outcrop characterization and
assessment, personal protection equipment and adherence to data capture, coupled with
safe working practices, the likelihood of injury can be reduced increased computational
to a minimum. capabilities, have resulted in
a resurgence in fieldwork...”
REFERENCES
Data Types
Data Types
Abeed, Q. 2020. The Application of Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration.
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July/August, p. 20-29.
(XURBB_644265).
Bowman, M.B.J. & Smyth, H.R., 2016. Reducing uncertainty and risk through field-based
studies. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 436, 1-8 (XURBB_642929).
Handbook
Cowliff, L. and J. Montero 2020. Reservoir Properties and Petrophysics in Exploration:

From New Ventures to Prospect Analysis. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration
Insights Magazine no. April, p. 33-26. (XURBB_643794).
Hinds, D.J., M.B. Allen, M.D. Simmons and E. Aliyeva 2006. Architechture Variability in the
Pereriva and Balakhany Suites of the Neogene Productive Series, Azerbaijan: Implications
for Reservoir Quality. Oil and Gas of the Greater Caspian Area. AAPG Studies in Geology
no. 55, p. 87-107. (CAZBB_155442).
Laird, S. 2019. Chronostratigraphic Charts — Working in Time. Exploration Insights

Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. August, p. 30-37. (XURBB_641588).
Macgregor, D. 2020. Petroleum Systems and Basin Modeling. Exploration Insights

Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 30-35. (XURBB_643555).
Newell, A.J. and S.M. Shariatipour 2016. Linking outcrop analogue with flow simulation
to reduce uncertainty in sub-surface carbon capture and storage: an example from the
Sherwood Sandstone Group of the Wessex Basin, UK. In Bowman, M., H.R. Smyth, T.R.
Good, S.R. Passey, J.P.P. Hirst and C.J. Jordan (Eds.), The Value of Outcrop Studies in
Reducing Subsurface Uncertainty and Risk in Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production.
Geological Society of London - Special Publications no. 436, p. 231-246. (XURBB_619052).
Nicoll, G., B. Gréselle, J. Smith and P. Helps 2020. Earth System Science: Source-to-
Sink. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 126-132. (XURBB_645996).
Okay, A.I., Simmons, M.D, Özcan, E., Starkie, S., Bidgood, M.D. and Kylander-Clark,
A.R.C., 2020. Eocene-Oligocene succession at Kıyıköy (Midye) on the Black Sea coast in
Thrace. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences, 29, 139-153. (XURBB_644701).
Pringle, J.K., Howell, J.A., Hodgetts, D., Westerman, A.R. & Hodgson, D.M., 2006. Virtual
outcrop models of petroleum reservoir analogues: a review of the current state-of-the-art.
First Break, 24(3), 33-42 (XURBB_642930).
Rarity, F. van Lanen, X.M.T., Hodgetts, D., Gawthorpe, R.L., Wilson, P., Fabuel-Perez,
I. & Redfern, J. 2013. LiDAR-based digital outcrops for sedimentological analysis:
workflows and techniques. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 387, 153-183.
(XURBB_642927).
Figure 7 > LIDAR-based outcrop model used to develop a reservoir model. After Rarity et al. (2013).
Ray, D., B. Gréselle and G. Nicoll 2019. Non-biostratigraphic Techniques in Exploration.
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. May, p. 24-31.
FUTURE TRENDS (XURBB_641264).
Reynolds, A.D., M.D. Simmons, M.B.J. Bowman, J. Henton, A.C. Brayshaw, A.A.
The classic tools of the geologist working at outcrop — a hammer, field notebook, sedimentary logging Ali‑Zade, I.S. Guliyev, S.F. Suleymanova, E.Z. Ateava, D.N. Mamedova and R.O. Koshkarly
sheet, tape measure, grainsize card, hand lens and compass clinometer — are not the only tools that 1998. Implications of outcrop geology for Reservoirs in the Neogene productive series:
Apsheron Peninsula, Azerbaijan. AAPG Bulletin, v. 82, no. 1, p. 25-49. (CAZBB_121347).
can be used in outcrop studies. Today, the geoscientist in the field can use drones, panoramic cameras
Simmons, M.D. 2018. Great Geologists. Halliburton, 141pp. (XURBB_640415).
and LIDAR (3D laser scanning) (Figure 7) to create outcrop models that are directly importable into the
Simmons, M. 2019. Biostratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine.
software used in subsurface modeling (Pringle et al., 2006; Rarity et al., 2013). As noted by Bowman Exploration Insights Magazine no. April, p. 30-35. (XURBB_641591).
and Smyth (2016), advances in digital outcrop characterization and data capture, coupled with increased Simmons, M. 2020. The Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow. Subsurface
computational capabilities, have resulted in a resurgence in fieldwork; these field studies are required Insights, v. November, p. 24-35. (XURBB_645951).
to develop depositional, stratigraphic and structural concepts, and provide the data that underpin the Sutcliffe, O. 2020. Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in Exploration. Exploration
Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 34-41. (XURBB_645994).
current generation of complex, computer-generated, 3D subsurface models. These models provide an
Sutcliffe, O.E. 2019. Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Exploration. Exploration
informed means of benchmarking the subsurface along with a more considered view of subsurface Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July, p. 24-32. (XURBB_641584).
uncertainty and management of the risks identified. Wrobel-Daveau, J.-C. and C. Luneburg 2020. Structural Modeling in Exploration —
Reducing the Risk in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
SUMMARY Magazine no. June, p. 22-32. (XURBB_644269).
The study of outcrops remains vital to successful petroleum geology. Fieldwork allows geoscientists DISCLAIMER
and their associated colleagues in exploration and production to develop and reinforce their skills and This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge
gain insight into areas of contention. Moreover, outcrops act as analogues and data points, vital for used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is
acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright
successful interpretation of the subsurface. Data gathering is now aided by a variety of technological holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect
the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not
innovations that facilitate the input of outcrop observations directly into subsurface models. limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

Exploration
Although the nuances of sequence stratigraphy remain

By: Andrew Davies a topic of debate, the fundamental concept is simple
to grasp; sedimentary systems respond to variations in
Methodology
accommodation (Figure 1) and sediment supply, and in so
Methodology
doing, form characteristic stratal stacking patterns within
WHAT IS SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY? the sedimentary record.
Sequence stratigraphy describes the organization of sedimentary packages, expressed as stratal Sediment supply determines how quickly any
stacking patterns, through an understanding of changes in accommodation (space for sediment to accommodation is filled and is related to a number of
accumulate) versus sediment supply, with time. The technique allows the identification of packages factors, including the hinterland geology, relief, drainage
Handbook
of strata that were deposited during similar conditions of accommodation change (stationary, basin size, and climate. For carbonate systems, the nature
increasing, or decreasing) in relation to sediment supply, and the key stratigraphic surfaces that “Sequence stratigraphy
of the carbonate producers, the size of the carbonate allows the integration
bound them. A sequence corresponds to a cycle of change in stratal stacking patterns, as identified
factory, water depth, and tropic levels are also important. of a range of disparate
by the re-occurrence of a key stratigraphic surface (Catuneanu, 2019). Sequence stratigraphy allows
Changes in accommodation relate to the interplay of various
geological datasets,
the integration of a range of disparate geological datasets, provides a powerful framework for
provides a powerful
correlation, and allows the informed prediction of sedimentary geometries, architecture, facies, and independent factors. In the marine realm, accommodation
framework for correlation,
lithologies away from data control. relates to relative sea level, which is primarily controlled by and allows the informed
tectonism (subsidence or uplift) and eustatic (global) sea prediction of sedimentary
APPLICATIONS level. Relative sea level also has a significant influence on geometries, architecture,
Sequence stratigraphy was developed in the 1970s and represents one of the most recent accommodation within the downstream portion of fluvial facies, and lithologies away
paradigm shifts in geoscience. It has helped revolutionize our understanding of sedimentary and lacustrine systems. However, in upstream portions from data control.”
systems on a range of spatial and temporal scales, and has many applications in oil and gas of the fluvial and lacustrine system, accommodation is
exploration, including: controlled by changes in tectonism (e.g. subsidence in
» Enabling disparate geological datasets (e.g. wireline, outcrop, seismic, biostratigraphy, lakes or the gradient of a river system) and discharge,
porosity-permeability, and organic geochemistry) to be meaningfully integrated. which in turn, may be controlled by climate.
The characteristic stratal stacking patterns resulting
» Allowing the informed prediction of facies, lithologies, and sedimentary geometries away
from changes in accommodation and sediment can be
from data control, so that the occurrence of reservoirs, source rocks, and seals may
be inferred regionally from relatively sparse datasets. Thus, it provides a framework for determined by assessing the vertical stacking pattern of
understanding reservoir architecture and rock properties, such as porosity, permeability, and depositional facies, and by analyzing the path taken by the
TOC characteristics, at a variety of scales. shoreline as it changes position, also known as shoreline
trajectory. The different stratal stacking patterns (Figure 2)
» Providing a mechanism to move away from potentially misleading lithostratigraphic are classified as:
correlations.
» Aggradational — when sediments of the same
» Enabling the chronology of basin fill to be visualized, allowing the generation of precise facies stack broadly vertically and the shoreline
paleogeographic maps, and resulting play fairway and common risk segment maps. trajectory rises vertically. Aggradation develops
when accommodation creation and sediment supply
are balanced.
» Retrogradational — when facies belts display a
landward movement and the shoreline trajectory
rises towards the land. Retrogradation occurs when
accommodation creation outpaces sediment supply.
» Progradational — when facies belts move
basinward and the shoreline trajectory rises
towards the basin center. Progradation occurs when “While the expression of
accommodation change
sediment supply outpaces accommodation creation.
versus sediment supply
» Forced progradational — when sediments are is well understood, the
forced to prograde, irrespective of sediment supply, exact means of classifying
and the shoreline trajectory falls towards the basin the different systems
center. Forced progradation is related to the active tracts and stratal surfaces
destruction of accommodation, by a drop in relative remains a subject of
Figure 1 > Changes in accommodation that would occur in South America if global sea level were 200 m higher or lower than at
sea level for instance.
debate”
present.
“Eustatic sea level

variation...relates to
changes in the volume of
seawater...and changes in
the volume of the ocean
Methodology
basins.”
Methodology
Figure 2 > Diagrammatic representation of the four stratal stacking patterns relating to the evolution of accommodation versus
sedimentation rate, over time. Modified from Van Wagoner e al., 1998.
These stacking patterns and geometries allow sediments to be grouped into different ‘systems
tracts’ that are bound by key stratigraphic surfaces (Figure 3). An important distinction can be made
between clastic and carbonate systems (Schlager, 2005) because carbonates can grow rapidly in‑situ
(Figure 3B), although the basic sequence stratigraphic principles are common to both systems. While
the expression of accommodation change versus sediment supply is well understood, the exact
means of classifying the different systems tracts and stratal surfaces remains a subject of debate
(Catuneanu, 2019), but can be summarized as follows:
» Transgressive Systems Tract — when the creation of accommodation outpaces sediment

supply, such as during periods of rapid sea level rise or when sediment supply is dramatically Figure 3 > Diagrammatic representation of the response of a clastic A) and
carbonate B) system to changes in accommodation. Stratal stacking patterns
reduced, stratal stacking patterns display a retrogradation pattern. Sediments deposited and the shoreline trajectory help to define three systems tracts (the FSST
under these conditions are grouped into a transgressive systems tract (TST). TST deposits has been grouped into the LST) and their bounding stratal surfaces. Note the
potential to form isolated carbonate build-ups during transgression.
display a rising shoreline trajectory as the shoreface transgresses towards the land. The
top of the TST is marked by a maximum flooding surface (MFS), which represents the
most landward migration of the shoreline and the maximum amount of accommodation. In deposited under these conditions are always taken as part of the
carbonate systems, it is possible to develop isolated carbonate build-ups during the TST that LST and display a rising, basinward shoreline trajectory. The top
may be drowned, if the creation of accommodation is sufficiently rapid (Figure 3B). of the LST is marked by a maximum regression surface (MRS),
representing the most basinward migration of the shoreline.
» Highstand Systems Tract — above the TST, sediments occur that comprise the highstand
systems tract (HST). They are characterized by initial aggradation, reflecting a balance LOCAL VERSUS GLOBAL CONTROLS
between accommodation creation and sediment supply, and later by progradation, as Sediment supply is an inherently local factor, although the nature
sediment supply outpaces any new accommodation creation. In the marine realm, HST of the sediments may be modulated by global processes (e.g.
sediments record the slowing of relative sea level rise. HST sediments display a rising, the nature of carbonate builders). Changes in accommodation,
followed by a flat, shoreline trajectory. however, relate to various factors that may have local or global
effects. Local changes in accommodation may be driven by ba-
» Lowstand Systems Tract and Falling Stage Systems Tract — above the HST, sediments
sin or fault-block specific tectonic uplift or subsidence, changes
may occur that mark the onset of the active destruction of accommodation, due to a drop
in discharge, or the gradient.
in relative sea level. Sediments deposited under these conditions are forced to prograde,
irrespective of sediment supply, and display a falling, basinward shoreline trajectory. They Eustatic sea level variation (Simmons et al., 2020) relates
may form part of the lowstand systems tract (LST), or can be classified into a discrete falling to changes in the volume of seawater (e.g. the growth and
stage systems tract (FSST). demise of continental ice sheets), and changes in the volume
of the ocean basins (e.g. changes in the mid-ocean ridge
The base of the LST is marked by the sequence boundary (SB) or, if an FSST is recognized, by the surface of length). Eustatic variability happens over different timescales
forced regression with the SB instead marking the top of the FSST. Once base level fall has ceased, sediment and amplitudes. For example, in the Carboniferous, the waxing
supply may be able to outpace accommodation creation, so that sediments continue to prograde. Sediments and waning of large, polar ice sheets resulted in high amplitude
(>80 m), global sea level cycles on hundred-thousand-year time scales (3rd order). In contrast, changes can be understood and predicted in a sequence “With the advent of
Exploration
in the volumes of ocean basins result in long-term trends (1st order), such as the general increase in stratigraphic framework, with HST sediments often the digital revolution
global sea level during the Mesozoic that culminated in the Late Cretaceous highstand. Any marine or demonstrating better reservoir quality than TST and major efficiency
downstream sedimentary succession will reflect a combination of both local and global signals. sediments. Subaerial exposure during the LST can gains in interpreting
also lead to karst development in HST deposits. 3D seismic volumes,
APPLICATIONS OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Methodology
a truly quantitative
Methodology
» Providing a means to help identify where thick, sedimentological approach
Sequence stratigraphy has many direct applications in assisting successful hydrocarbon exploration. amalgamated deep-water fans may have been to sequence stratigraphy is
Examples include: deposited. An over-steepened slope results in a now possible.”
» Providing a time-based framework for generating precise paleogeographic maps (Figure 4), stationary shelf edge, which ensures sediment is
which can be used to create play fairway and common risk segment maps. delivered to the base of the slope for a protracted
amount of time. Over-steepening can occur
Handbook
» Predicting stratigraphic traps. For example, isolated depositional reservoirs (e.g. perched LST
following major transgressions, with subsequent
wedge or drowned pinnacle reefs), up-dip pinch outs (e.g. LST channel fill), subcrop traps
shelf-edge deltas (HST or LST) efficiently feeding
beneath major sequence boundaries, and diagenetic traps (e.g. dolomitization resulting from
coarse sediment into deep water.
LST exposure).
» Providing a means to predict the occurrence of
» Providing a better understanding of stratigraphic geometries and reservoir heterogeneity to
potential source rocks. Source rocks may form
help identify bypassed zones.
regionally during major transgressions, due to low
» Providing a mechanism to identify or predict zones of enhanced reservoir quality. Reworking sedimentation rates enhancing the concentration of
of sediments during the LST can improve the textural and composition maturity of organic matter in basinal sediments. Alternatively,
sandstones and increase net to gross. In carbonates, vertical porosity-permeability changes the degree of restriction within epicontinental
basins is impacted by accommodation changes, and
enhanced restriction can help improve source rock
characteristics through better developed bottom
water hypoxia and increased nutrient flux.
» Helping to better understand and extrapolate the
stratigraphic architecture of organic-rich versus
organic-lean sediments, to improve the exploitation
of resource plays.
The benefits of sequence stratigraphy in exploration are
clear. However, if a eustatic sequence stratigraphic mod-
el can be applied, then the technique holds even greater
promise (e.g. Vail et al., 1977). A eustatic model allows any
subsurface, or outcrop, data to be attributed using a single
stratigraphic scheme. This, in turn, allows all geoscience
data to be meaningfully integrated, enabling data to be
analyzed and visualized in both space and time, further en-
hancing the predictive power of sequence stratigraphy. The
benefits of this include a framework for detailed and precise
global correlation, the ability to create global paleoenviron-
ment and isopach maps, and being able to readily identify
analogues and generic play concepts.
FUTURE TRENDS
With the advent of the digital revolution and major
efficiency gains in interpreting 3D seismic volumes, a
truly quantitative sedimentological approach to sequence
stratigraphy is now possible. Such an approach holds the
potential to provide abundant information on the impact
of changing accommodation and sedimentation on
progradation/aggradation/retrogradation rates, depositional
Figure 4 > The interpretation of well and outcrop data to generate paleogeographic maps at an MFS and MRS provides insights volumes, and the pace and magnitude of relative sea level
into the distribution of different play elements.
change. This information can be used to better constrain forward stratigraphic models, generating
Exploration
enhanced insights into play fairway extents and reservoir heterogeneity. Quantitative analysis will
also allow more robust eustatic signals to be extracted from vast global datasets.
The integration of disparate geological datasets into a sequence stratigraphic framework is currently a
Methodology
manual, and often laborious, effort. However, emerging techniques, such as machine learning hold the
promise of assisting geoscientists with this task in the near future. Ongoing research by Halliburton has
demonstrated that it is possible to determine biozones and paleoenvironments automatically from raw
biostratigraphic data, to a standard comparable with human interpretation, using Random Forest and
Naïve Bayesian algorithms. Using similar techniques, it has also been demonstrated that lithology can
be interpreted from wire logs, automatically. When combined with future research into the classification
Handbook
of wireline log signatures and the assisted extraction of horizons, geomorphology, and facies from
seismic volumes, an assisted approach to the identification of different systems tracts and their
bounding stratigraphic surfaces does not seem too far away.
REFERENCES
Catuneanu, O., V., 2019. Model-independent sequence stratigraphy. Earth-Science Reviews, v. 188, p. 312-388. (XURBB_641091).
Cowliff, L. and J. Montero 2020. Reservoir Properties and Petrophysics in Exploration: From New Ventures to Prospect Analysis.
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. April, p. 33-26. (XURBB_643794).
Embry, A.F. 2002. Transgressive-Regressive (T-R) Sequence Stratigraphy. Sequence Stratigraphic Models for Exploration and
Production. Geological Survey of Canada, p. 151-172. (RURBB_007100).
Emery, D. and K. Myers 1996. Sequence Stratigraphy. Blackwell Publishing Ltd (Wiley-Blackwell), 1-297 p. (GURBB_157986).
Posamentier, H.W., C.P. Summerhayes, B.U. Haq and G.P. Allen 1993. Sequence stratigraphy and facies associations. IAS - Special
Publication (International Association of Sedimentologists - Special Publication) no. 18, Blackwell Publishing Ltd (Wiley-Blackwell),
1-644 p. (GURBB_188660).
Schlager, W. 2005. Carbonate Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy. SEPM - Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology
no. 8, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM), 1-200 p. (GURBB_153794).
Simmons, M., K.G. Miller, D.C. Ray, A. Davies, F.S.P. van Buchem and B. Greselle 2020. Phanerozoic Eustasy. Geologic Time Scale
2020. Elsevier, p. 357-400. (XURBB_644572).
Simmons, M. 2019. Biostratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. April, p.
30‑35. (XURBB_641591).
Simmons, M. 2020. Outcrop Geology. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 52-59. (XURBB_645995).
Vail, P.R., R.M. Mitchum and S. Thompson III 1977. Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea-level, Part 4: Global Cycles of
Relative Changes of Sea Level. In C.E. Payton (Eds.), Seismic stratigraphy - applications to hydrocarbon exploration. AAPG Memoir
no. 26, p. 83-97. (MEBIB21069).
van Wagoner, J.C., H.W. Posamentier, R.M. Mitchum, P.R. Vail, J.F. Sarg, T.S. Loutit and J. Hardenbol 1988. An overview of the
fundamentals of sequence stratigraphy and key definitions. In C.K. Wilgus, B.S. Hastings, C.G. St. Kendall and H.W. Posamentier
(Eds.), Sea Level Changes: An Integrated Approach, p. 39-45. (MEBIB21129)
DISCLAIMER
proprietary client data has been used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is acknowledged. Reproduction of any
copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/or
opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
Biostratigraphy in Exploration There are a number of potential uncertainties in

Exploration
biostratigraphic correlation. These include:

» Reworking of fossils from older strata into younger
By: Mike Simmons strata
Methodology
Methodology
» Caving within wells, which introduce younger
material into older rocks
» Highly diachronous fossil inceptions and
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY IN EXPLORATION extinctions
Biostratigraphy is the subdivision and correlation of rock successions on the basis of their fossil » Endemism (i.e. fossils restricted to specific basins
content (Jones, 2011). Often, this implies an interpretation of age. In the oil and gas industry,
Handbook
or localized geography) Biostratigraphy is

the term has a broader meaning, encompassing any use of fossils (typically microfossils) within the is the subdivision
exploration, production, and drilling workflows, whether strictly stratigraphy-based or not (e.g. An experienced biostratigrapher should be able to recognize
and correlation of rock
paleoenvironments). these issues and use fossil taxa that will give the most
successions on the basis of
accurate biozonation.
their fossil content.
Biostratigraphy remains the most robust and widely
APPLICATIONS used tool for ensuring accurate correlation and age
The applications of biostratigraphy (McGowran, 2005; Jones, 2011) can be summarized as follows, calibration, although other, non-biostratigraphic tools,
and will be discussed in more detail in the subsequent sections: such as chemostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy, are
also available for correlation and age calibration. Such
» It forms the routine basis of correlations from global through regional and production
techniques are not always suitable or widely applied to
scale (Figure 1). This is linked to age determination by calibration of the biozones present,
although knowledge of age is not a prerequisite for correlation. well-based material. Lithostratigraphic correlation and, by
extension, wireline log correlation (without corresponding
» It allows paleoenvironments to be determined for facies mapping, basin modelling, biostratigraphic calibration) are often applied, but have the
reservoir modelling or paleoclimate studies (Figure 2). potential to be highly misleading due to the diachronous
» It is a component of sequence stratigraphic interpretation — correlation of surfaces and nature of many lithological bodies (see stratigraphy chapter).
identification of systems tract trends (Figure 3). Lateral or proximal-distal facies changes may be incorrectly
identified as not being contemporaneous, leading to
» It provides a practical tool at the wellsite to support key drilling decisions — for example, incorrect reservoir models or facies mapping.
setting casing, determining terminal depth (TD), and biosteering of horizontal wells.
CORRELATION AND AGE CALIBRATION METHODOLOGY

Evolution means that fossil species have discrete stratigraphic ranges through geological time.
Stratigraphic ranges of species, and associated inception, extinction, and abundance events, can be
used to define biozones. Biozones are, thus, bodies of rock defined by their fossil content. Arranged
vertically, a succession of biozones in two or more sections can rapidly identify both similar
(correlatable) and missing intervals (unconformities/sequence boundaries).
Biozones can also be calibrated to ages, since specific biozones are used to define the standard
geological timescale. However, this calibration is not always certain or precise. So, while a rock
succession may be interpreted as, for example, Kimmeridgian, what is really meant is that it
contains fossils indicative of a biozone that is interpreted as being within the Kimmeridgian
(Simmons, 2015). Nonetheless, biozones form the fundamental unit for stratigraphic correlation and
can often be of very high resolution (Figure 1).
How rocks correlate to one another is one of the fundamental and most common questions that
petroleum geologists ask. The answer to this question is important for the following reasons:
» To understand if two similar looking facies in two different wells represent the same
depositional body —for example, are two turbidite reservoir sands interconnected?
» To build up a picture of regional paleogeography for various time slices, and hence an
understanding of the areal distribution of reservoir, source and seal facies
» To relate a succession in a basin to global events — for example, to look for the Figure 1 > A biostratigraphic correlation between two wells, demonstrating that two sand bodies are not in lateral communication,
despite similarities in log character. Such insight will lead to better mapping of the distribution of each sand and better strategies
expression of an global anoxic event or sea level fall for enhanced hydrocarbon recovery.
PALEOENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINATION Models of relative sea level change can be global (eustatic » Biostratigraphy forms
Exploration
models) or localized. Regardless, the timing of relative sea the routine basis of
The diversity of life is linked to the occupation of specific environmental niches by different species. level changes will be calibrated against biostratigraphy,
It follows that a given fossil species will have a particular paleoenvironmental association. This can correlations from global,
meaning that the timing of events in new data can be through regional and
be quite broad, but can also be quite precise, especially for benthic species (i.e. those living on or related to sea level change models via biostratigraphy.
within the seafloor). A number of factors control the paleoenvironmental distribution of a species, production scale.
Methodology
Methodology
including temperature, salinity, substrate type, and oxygenation levels, but often these can be
encompassed within a concept of water depth. Species, and assemblages of species, are used to OPERATIONAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY » It allows
provide broad indicators of paleobathymetry (e.g. outer neritic or upper bathyal). Fossil species can A considerable amount of biostratigraphic work is routinely paleoenvironments
also be used to provide more precise determination of paleoenvironment — for example, various carried out at wellsite to assist time-critical drilling decisions, to be determined for
sub-environments within a delta or coastal complex (Figure 2) (Simmons et al., 1999). including: facies mapping, basin
The vast majority of fossil species that might be encountered are not alive today. Therefore, modelling, reservoir
» Enabling real-time monitoring of the stratigraphy of
modelling or paleoclimate
Handbook
comparative techniques have to be relied upon to determine their likely paleoenvironmental a well versus the prognosed pre-drill stratigraphy
distribution. These techniques include morphological similarities (e.g. modern Nautilus vs. studies
ammonites) and sedimentological associations. » Identifying the stratigraphic point at which the
objective of a well has been passed, thus reducing » It is a vital component of
Not all fossil taxa offer precise paleoenvironmental interpretation; it is often the study of unnecessary drilling and associated expenditure by sequence stratigraphic
assemblages that is most helpful. Vertical trends in assemblages can provide valuable insight into identifying TD.
relative sea level change, for example, through shallowing- or deepening-up trends.
interpretation —
» Determining casing and coring points by monitoring correlation of surfaces
the progressive biostratigraphy encountered in a and identification of
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY well versus a pre-determined biozonal schema. systems tract trends
Biostratigraphy is routinely used alongside seismic and well log interpretation to develop powerful » “Steering” ong-reach horizontal and sub-
predictive sequence stratigraphic models of basins (Figure 3). Sequence stratigraphy is the horizontal wells by referencing the biostratigraphy
sedimentary response to relative sea level change through time. Different moments within a encountered and comparing it with pre-existing
relative sea level cycle form the defining surfaces of the sequence stratigraphic framework biozonal schema. For example, to maximize
(for example, sequence boundary/correlative conformity, or maximum flooding surface). The hydrocarbon recovery, it may be desirable for a
chronostratigraphic control offered by biostratigraphy through correlation of biozones is critical horizontal well to be drilled in Formation X, which
to correlating key sequence stratigraphic surfaces. Moreover, vertical paleoenvironment trends lies just beneath the main pay horizon. The top
determined from biostratigraphy in a given location facilitate the identification of the various of Formation X is associated with Biozone C. If,
systems tracts that lie between sequence stratigraphic surfaces (Partington et al., 1993; during the course of drilling the well, it deviates into
Armentrout, 1996). Biozone B, above, or Biozone D, below, (because
of crossing a sub-seismic fault, for instance), then
recommendations can be made to the driller to
steer the ongoing well up or down, accordingly.
Wellsite biostratigraphy is a very cost-effective tool that
promotes safety at the wellsite, and can lead to greatly
enhanced recovery of hydrocarbons (Holmes, 1999; Payne
et al, 1999).
Figure 2 > Microfossil assemblages used to determine specific palaeoenvironments in a Miocene coastal plain-estuary-shelf
complex. Applying this knowledge to well samples facilitates more accurate facies mapping and reservoir models. Figure 3 > Biostratigraphic signals to assist in sequence stratigraphic interpretation.

Exploration
Biostratigraphy can be split into data collection and data interpretation.

Data collection, involving the identification of fossils from well or outcrop samples is a highly specialized
subject and is usually work for experts. Most fossils used in the oil and gas industry are microscopic, as
these can be recovered in cuttings samples from wells, but encompass a wide range of different animal and
Methodology
plant groups (Armstrong and Brasier, 2005). Typical microfossils include foraminifera, ostracods, conodonts,
spores and pollen (often referred to as palynology), dinoflagellates, diatoms, and calcareous nannoplankton.
The fossil groups employed on any particular project may depend on the broad age, depositional
environment, and lithology of the rocks being studied. Experts in fossil identification tend to specialize in one
particular fossil group, often from a specific geological period or era (Peters et al., 2014). Research into the
automated identification of fossils using image recognition algorithms is underway in academia and within
some oil and gas companies, but is still some way from being utilized on a routine basis (Gard et al., 2016).
Handbook
The interpretation of raw biostratigraphic data in terms of correlative, paleoenvironmental, or sequence

stratigraphic significance can be carried out by geologists with no formal training in how to identify fossils,
although they need to be aware of some of the pitfalls in gathering data, such as reworking. The large
digital biostratigraphic datasets that are generated from fossil identifications lend themselves to assisted
interpretation through machine learning. Initial and ongoing investigations by Halliburton have already
demonstrated the process of determining biozones and paleoenvironments from raw data. Application
of Random Forest and Naïve Bayesian algorithms achieved results comparable with standard human
interpretation, although pre-processing of the data (e.g. removal of spurious reworked or caved data) proved
beneficial (Simmons et al., 2019).
Critical to the success of the project was the close working relationship between data scientists and subject
matter experts in order to capture the nuances of biostratigraphic data and its interpretation. The work
forms a case study for application to other geoscience data types. Assisted interpretation will help to bring
biostratigraphic data to bear in a timely and effective manner, improving the workflow for the generation of
facies maps or frameworks for correlation.
REFERENCES
Armentrout, J.M. 1996. High resolution sequence biostratigraphy: examples from the Gulf of Mexico Plio-Pleistocene. In J.A. Howell and J.F. Aitken
(Eds.), High resolution sequence stratigraphy: innovations and applications. Geological Society of London - Special Publications no. 104, p. 65-86.
(KUSBB_042269).
Armstrong, H.A. and M.D. Brasier 2005. Microfossils. Blackwell Publishing, 296 p. (GURBB_156547).
Davies, A. 2019. Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28. (XURBB_641393).
Gard, G., I. Prince, J.A. Crux, J.M. Shin and B. Lee 2016. Remote wellsite biostratigraphy and advances in automated fossil analysis. AAPG Search and
Discovery Article 41930. (XURBB_641242).
Holmes, N.A., 1999, The Andrew Formation and “biosteering” – different reservoirs, different approaches: in Jones, R.W., & Simmons, M.D., (eds)
Biostratigraphy in Production and Development Geology. Geological Society of London Special Publication, no. 152, 155-166. (XURBB_479528).
Jones, R.W. 2011. Applications of palaeontology: Techniques and case studies. Cambridge University Press, 1-406 p. (XURBB_471197).
Maksymiw, P. 2019. Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 34-39. (XURBB_641247).
McGowran, B. 2005. Biostratigraphy – Microfossils and Geological Time. Cambridge University Press, 459 p. (GURBB_189431).
Partington, M.A., B.C. Mitchener, N.J. Milton and A.J. Fraser 1993. Genetic sequence stratigraphy for the North Sea Late Jurassic and Early
Cretaceous: distribution and prediction of Kimmeridgian - Late Ryazanian reservoirs in the North Sea and adjacent areas. In J.R. Parker (Eds.),
Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe: Proceedings of the 4th Conference. Geological Society of London - Petroleum Geology Conference Series
no. 4, p. 347-370. (MEBIB19206).
Payne, S., D. Ewen, and M. Bowman 1999. The role and value of ‘high-impact biostratigraphy’ in reservoir appraisal and development.in Jones, R.W.,
& Simmons, M.D., (eds) Biostratigraphy in Production and Development Geology. Geological Society of London Special Publication, no. 152, 5-22.
(XURBB_451031).
Peters, S.E., C. Zhang, M. Livny, and C. Ré 2014. A machine reading system for assembling synthetic paleontological databases. PLoS one, 9,
e113523. (XURBB_645970).
Ray, D., B. Gréselle and G. Nicoll 2019. Non-biostratigraphic Techniques in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no.
May, p. 24-31. (XURBB_641264).
Simmons, M.D. 2015. Age is an interpretation. In Cullum, A. and A.W. Martinus (Eds.), 52 Things You Should Know About Palaeontology, p. 26-27.
(XURBB_617477).
Simmons, M.D., M.D. Bidgood, P. Brenac, P.D. Crevello, J.J. Lambiase and C.K. Morley 1999. Microfossil assemblages as proxies for precise
palaeoenvironmental determination – an example from Miocene sediments of northwest Borneo. in Jones, R.W., & Simmonds, M.D., (eds)
Biostratigraphy in Production and Development Geology. Geological Society of London Special Publication, no.152, 219-241. (PIDBB_017398).
Simmons, M.D., O. Adeyemi, M.D. Bidgood, P. Maksymiw, P. Osterloff, D. Possee, I. Prince, C.M. Routledge, B. Saunders, and F.S.P. van Buchem
2019. The Power of Machine Learning in Petroleum Geoscience: Biostratigraphy as an Example. EAGE Annual Conference, London, 2019, Extended
Abstracts. DOI: 10.3997/2214-4609.201901606. (XURBB_641534).
Sutcliffe, O.E. 2019. Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July, p.
24‑32. (XURBB_641584).
DISCLAIMER
This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge created within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary
client data has been used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image
is with the permission of the copyright holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/or opinions of Halliburton
Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
Non-biostratigraphic Techniques in The second category of techniques utilizes globally traceable

Exploration
stratigraphic patterns (e.g. stable isotope stratigraphy,

magnetostratigraphy, and cyclostratigraphy), which have
Exploration been calibrated to a geologic timescale within a number of
differently age-constrained reference sections. A key feature
Methodology
of these stratigraphic patterns is that they are typically
Methodology
By: David Ray, Benjamin Gréselle, and Graeme Nicoll expressed as non-unique, repetitious patterns within the
rock record and, therefore, require a degree of initial age
constraint to avoid the inherent hazards of correlation by
pattern matching.
The final category (category three) of techniques attempts

to utilize locally traceable events (e.g. mineral content and
Handbook
“In the oil industry,

geochemistry), which may be non-unique at a regional to
NON-BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES OF CORRELATION AND DATING the ability to correlate
global scale, and are uncalibrated to the geologic timescale.
Such correlations rely on compositional changes in the
biostratigraphically
Non-biostratigraphic stratigraphy is the subdivision and correlation of rock successions on the basis impoverished successions
succession that typically relate to sediment provenance,
of certain measurable physical or chemical characteristics of the rock. Some of these enable direct offers significant rewards…”
transportation, and depositional setting. It should be
calibration to the geologic timescale (e.g. radiogenic isotope geochronology), others require indirect
noted that, while this categorization allows for an ease of
calibrations via another method (e.g. comparing local stable isotopic curves with a “standard,”
discussion, herein, it does not reflect an ordering of the
calibrated one), and still others do not necessarily require age calibration at all (e.g. heavy mineral
industrial importance of these techniques.
analysis).
Despite the diversity of geological subdisciplines and
APPLICATIONS techniques encompassed within non-biostratigraphic
stratigraphy (e.g. Dunay and Hailwood, 1995), their general
The correlation of sedimentary sequences chiefly relies on the identification of stratigraphically applications can be further summarized as follows:
significant fossils and, where possible, the calibration of their stratigraphic range to the geologic
timescale (biostratigraphy). However, a significant proportion of the sedimentary rock record » Correlations from global, through regional, to
is either devoid of such remains (e.g. Precambrian) or contains fossil assemblages where production scale. Techniques involving radiogenic
stratigraphically useful fossils are absent or rare (e.g. some terrestrial successions). In the oil isotope geochronology and astrochronology
industry, the ability to correlate biostratigraphically impoverished successions offers significant contribute to the chronometric (measured in
rewards and may be used to assess the continuity of features, such as hydrocarbon reservoirs; years) part of the geologic timescale, while stable
thereby, influencing exploration and field development decisions. isotopes (carbon, oxygen, and strontium) and
geomagnetic variations are key components of the
Non-biostratigraphic correlation techniques provide insights over a range of temporal and spatial chronostratigraphic (relative ordering of things) part
scales, and are variably applicable to marine and terrestrial settings. Broadly, these techniques can of the geologic timescale (Figure 1). This linkage
be categorized according to the ease with which they can be correlated to a geologic timescale to the geologic timescale (e.g. Gradstein et al.,
(Table 1). This will be discussed in greater detail in the following sections. 2012; Ogg et al., 2016) greatly facilitates the global
correlation of many non-biostratigraphic events;
The most superficially straightforward correlations (category one) can be made by techniques although, calibration to the geologic timescale is not
involved in radiogenic isotope geochronology, the results of which can be directly compared with a prerequisite for correlation.
the absolute age constraint of a geologic timescale.
Table 1 > Commonly used non-biostratigraphic correlation techniques, highlighting their broad environmental and temporal
applicability, as well as useful further reading. Note that the categories reflect the ease with which the results can be calibrated Figure 1 > The construction of a geologic timescale requires the calibration of many non-biostratigraphic schemes with formalized
with a geologic timescale (GTS), and not necessarily the value of the technique. definitions of geologic stages and biozones.
» Well-site stratigraphic geochemistry. This can provide lithology and bulk mineralogy For example, a better understanding of the stratigraphic “Non-biostratigraphic
Exploration
predictions and, therefore, stratigraphic control while drilling. Such information is architecture and reservoir potential of the Oligo–Miocene techniques form a mainstay
increasingly used to support key drilling decisions — setting casing, determining terminal Asmari Formation of south-western Iran has been gained by of correlations from global,
depth, and the steering of horizontal wells. Improvements in accuracy and precision, along the integration of strontium isotope stratigraphy, sequence through regional and
with continuing time and cost savings, have resulted in the widespread adoption of these stratigraphy, and biostratigraphy (Ehrenberg et al., 2007; van
production scale.”
Methodology
non-biostratigraphic techniques by industry and academia. Future technological advances Buchem et al., 2010). Rapid changes in the 87Sr/ 86Sr value
Methodology
are likely to reinforce the utility of these techniques. of dissolved strontium in the world’s oceans during the
deposition of the Asmari Formation makes strontium isotope
» Global modeling. Techniques involving temporal variations in stable isotopes (carbon,
stratigraphy ideally suited for dating and correlating strata
oxygen, and strontium) provide a wealth of additional information relating to global change;
of this age (Figure 2). However, if the Asmari Formation
thereby, aiding climate, sea level, ice volume, and tectonic modeling.
had, for example, been Eocene in age, then relatively
CORRELATION AND AGE CALIBRATION OF ABSOLUTE AGE DATA minimal variability in 87Sr/ 86Sr values at this time would have
Handbook
significantly limited the use of this technique (Figure 2).

Biostratigraphically impoverished successions often contain radiogenic accessory minerals (e.g.
zircon crystals contained in bentonites and tuffs) that may provide information on absolute age,
source-to-sink, and burial history. Here, we will focus on radiogenic isotopic geochronology, which 1 original data acquisition 2 1 original data acquisition
provides an independent temporal framework for testing correlation, assessing causal relationships thickness section biostratigraphic ranges biostratigraphic thickness biostratigraphic
(m) (m) 2 zonation
between processes and phenomena, and establishing the rates of geologic processes (Schmitz, 600
zonation
600
3
2012).
Sr87/Sr86
acquisition
Recent advances in techniques (e.g. U-Pb and Ar-Ar) and international initiatives (e.g. EARTHTIME) 500 500
have enabled age assignments with a precision of 0.1% or better. However, the technical evolution
of the accuracy and precision of the geological chronological timescale is far from complete, with 3
some stratigraphic intervals still constrained by relatively few meaningful dates (e.g. large parts of 400 400 Sr87/Sr86
acquisition
the Cambrian, the Late Triassic, and the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous). As a consequence of
these limitations to the current geologic timescale, the calibration of even high-precision dates may
not necessarily equate to precise chronostratigraphic correlation. 300 300
While radiogenic isotope geochronology is typically used as a means of correlation and age dating,
this technique can be used more broadly to address other important questions with significant 200 4 200
strontium
industrial applications. These include: values 4
correlation to
strontium values
» Detrital zircon geochronology offers a way to track sediments from source-to-sink, by 100
global standard
100 correlation to
matching detrital-zircon age populations with the crystallization ages of potential sources global standard
(Thomas, 2011).
0 0
» Thermochronology allows for the absolute dating of rocks as they cool through discrete 0.7080 0.7085 Sr87/ Sr86 0.7077 0.7080 Sr87/Sr86
temperature ranges, often in response to exhumation. In particular, rates of uplift, Age (Ma) Period Stage
10 Tortonian
Age (Ma) Period Stage
10 Tortonian
palaeogeomorphology, and detailed thermal histories can all be derived by the utilization Serravalian Serravalian
Neogene
Neogene
of this technique (Gallagher et al., 1998).
Langhian Langhian
Burdigalian Burdigalian
20.43 20 20
CORRELATION AND AGE CALIBRATION OF GLOBAL STRATIGRAPHIC 5

final age
23.03
Aquitanian Aquitanian
Chattian Chattian
PATTERNS calibration
√ 28.4
30 Rupelian
30 Rupelian
Global variations in the ratios of stable isotopes (e.g. carbon, oxygen, and strontium), switches in the 33.4
35.2
polarity of the Earth’s magnetic field, and quasi-periodic oscillations in the relative positions of the Priabonian Priabonian
Asmari Formation
Asmari Formation
Earth and the Sun (Milankovitch Cycles) are all identifiable from the rock record. The identification 40 Bartonian
40.7 40 Bartonian
Paleogene
Paleogene
of these global stratigraphic patterns can be used to address some of the more fundamental and 5 43.5
Lutetian
final age 44.4 Lutetian
common questions that petroleum geologists may ask. These can include: calibration
50
49.0 50
» Do similar looking facies represent the same age-synchronous, depositional unit? For Ypresian
52.8 Ypresian
© 2019 Halliburton
© 2019 Halliburton
example, does a regionally identifiable seal represent the same depositional unit? Thanetian Thanetian
60 60
» Do sedimentation rates change within and between sections? The rate of sedimentation Selandian Selandian
can be assessed by relative changes in the shape/slope of isotopic curves and the
Danian Danian
thickness of polarity chrons. Additionally, where curves have been calibrated to the
Figure 2 > Left: Successful application of strontium geochemistry derived from the Asmari Formation, south-western Iran
absolute ages of the geologic timescale or tuned to the Earth’s astronomical parameters (modified from van Buchem et al., 2010). Measurements of the changes in the 87Sr/ 86Sr along the stratigraphic section were
(i.e. cyclostratigraphy), precise sedimentation values can be given. This link to absolute compared with the standard Cenozoic variations in the 87Sr/ 86Sr value of dissolved strontium in the world’s oceans from
age can also be used to assess the duration of biozones and stages. McArthur et al. (2012). This allowed stratigraphic calibration of each point to the geologic timescale. Note that 87Sr/ 86Sr values
can also be used for correlation between nearby sections without calibration to a timescale. Right: Theoretical, unsuccessful
» Do successions contain stratigraphic gaps? Pronounced jumps and dislocations in application of the same proxy. The rocks in which the 87Sr/ 86Sr values were measured correspond to a time interval during which
the 87Sr/ 86Sr value of dissolved strontium in the world’s oceans was fluctuating within a narrow range. Thus, any strontium ratio
isotopic curves can indicate unconformities or hiatuses, as can missing astronomical value could potentially correspond to many positions along the standard age calibration curve, preventing robust age calibration
beats or polarity chrons. and correlation.
Such an observation highlights that the utility of correlation techniques based upon stratigraphic » A lack of primary age constraint within the study “Recent advances
Exploration
patterns is strongly influenced by the temporal variability of the stratigraphic signal and the section. Since stratigraphic patterns are typically in techniques and
stratigraphic resolution of the “standard” curve or pattern. For example, the utility of expressed as non-unique, repetitious patterns international initiatives have
magnetostratigraphy is strongly linked to the age of the ocean crust, from which the majority of the within the rock record, they require a degree of enabled age assignments
standard geomagnetic polarity timescale is constructed (i.e. Middle Jurassic to Recent). age calibration with the geologic timescale and
with a precision of 0.1% or
Methodology
Furthermore, an extended period of normal polarity within the Cretaceous (the Cretaceous Normal their age calibrated standard. Thus, poor primary
Methodology
Polarity Superchron) renders magnetostratigraphy practically unworkable as a correlation technique age constraint can result in erroneous correlations better”
for a period of 42 million years. brought about by uncalibrated pattern matching.
Other potential uncertainties in correlation and age calibration of global stratigraphic patterns that » Caving within wells. This introduces younger
must be considered prior to their use and interpretation include: material into older rocks and is particularly difficult
to identify from non-unique, repetitious patterns
» A lack of well-preserved materials for analysis. Diagenesis can overprint the original within the rock record. In addition, techniques like “…correlation of changes in
Handbook
isotopic signal, with some isotopic signals being more susceptible than others. Accordingly, magnetostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy cannot mineralogy and chemistry
the precision of the isotopic record deteriorates within progressively older geologic be applied to cuttings.
systems. Similarly, the progressive loss of ocean crust with time results in an increasingly
typically work well only over
fragmented and poorly age constrained magnetic record in the crustal basalts and a loss short distances…”
CORRELATION AND AGE CALIBRATION OF
of the isotopic record in the overlying sediments. For example, oxygen and carbon isotope
stratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy can provide chronostratigraphy at a resolution of several LOCAL STRATIGRAPHIC PATTERNS
thousands of years within the Cenozoic; but within the Mesozoic and Paleozoic, their Techniques involved in establishing stratigraphic patterns
resolution is greatly diminished (hundreds of thousands of years) and their stratigraphic in mineralogy and geochemistry are among the most
applicability is increasingly patchy. widely used of non-biostratigraphic techniques, and in
many ways can be considered as an elaboration on wireline “...a multi-proxy approach to
log correlation. However, without primary or secondary the correlation and dating
age control (i.e. an age calibrated standard), many such of the rock record can
techniques may provide facies rather than age correlation. yield far better results than
Indeed, these techniques are frequently used to address any single technique in
questions relating to diagenesis and source-to-sink, rather isolation.”
than age correlation.
Owing to the variability in mineralogy and geochemistry,

these techniques are best applied to closely spaced wells
and outcrops, where they can provide high resolution
reservoir scale correlations. In particular, the analytical
resolution (routinely below 1 ppm) and elemental variability
of many geochemical techniques (e.g. Inductively Coupled
Plasma and X-ray Fluorescence) enable the identification and
correlation of subtle changes in chemistry and mineralogy
within otherwise stratigraphically opaque successions.
For example, the Permo–Carboniferous Unayzah Group

in Saudi Arabia contains several hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoirs within a biostratigraphically impoverished
succession, which mostly comprise continental deposits
(e.g. glacial outwash, fluvial, lacustrine, aeolian and marginal
marine sediments). To improve stratigraphic resolution
within this group, chemostratigraphic techniques have
been employed to identify useful variations in elements
and elemental ratios (Craigie, 2018). These chemical
discriminators are largely associated with changes in source/
provenance, and allow for a hierarchical subdivision of the
succession (Figure 3).
While the Unayzah Group study demonstrates the use of

chemostratigraphy, it also highlights a significant limitation.
This study was not applicable to a similar study that was
undertaken some 200 km to the south-west, because the
correlation of changes in mineralogy and chemistry typically
work well only over short distances (<<100 km) (Craigie,
2018) and when regional changes in provenance and
Figure 3 > The chemostratigraphic hierarchical subdivision and correlation of the Ghazal Member sandstones (Unayzah Group) hinterland sources are understood.
according to key chemical discriminators (simplified from Craigie, 2018; figures 14 and 19).
COMBINING TECHNIQUES — A MULTI-PROXY APPROACH Gradstein, F.M., J.G. Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg 2012. The Geologic “Improvements in accuracy
Time Scale 2012. Volume 1. Elsevier, 1-435 p. (XURBB_474316).
Exploration
and precision, along with

Although the correlation of stratigraphic patterns in mineralogy and geochemistry typically provides Gradstein, F.M., J.G. Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg 2012. The Geologic continuing time and cost
relatively low stratigraphic precision and accuracy, some techniques can provide near isochronous Time Scale 2012. Volume 2. Elsevier, 437-1144 p. (XURBB_474317).
savings, will increasingly
correlation. In particular, the eruption and deposition of volcanic ash (bentonite) can provide
stratigraphic timelines over significant distances (>1,000 km for the largest events). For example,
Gradstein, F., J. Ogg and A. Smith 2004. A Geologic Time Scale 2004. bring non-biostratigraphic
Methodology
Methodology
Cambridge University Press, 1-589 p. (GURBB_148290).
the correlation of the Deicke and Millbrig bentonites within the Ordovician of North America (Huff, techniques to the fore, and
2016) has allowed for the regional correlation of reservoirs within the limestones of the Black River Grossman, E.L. 2012. Oxygen Isotope Stratigraphy. In Gradstein, F.M., J.G. may eventually provide
Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg (Eds.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
Group, and can be traced more widely over an area approaching 1.5 million km2. Volume 1, p. 181-206. (XURBB_549954). parity with biostratigraphy
as a means of age dating
Along with the mineralogical and geochemical techniques used to demonstrate the correlation of Hinnov, L.A. and F.J. Hilgen 2012. Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology. In
and correlating the rock
these bentonites, radiogenic isotope dates and biostratigraphic determinations have allowed these Gradstein, F.M., J. Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg (Eds.), The Geologic Time
Scale 2012. Volume 1, p. 63-83. (XURBB_549947). record.”
bentonites to be closely tied to the geologic timescale, resulting in these horizons being among
Handbook
the best age constrained within the rock record. Thus, a multi-proxy approach to the correlation and Huff, W.D. 2016. K-bentonites: A review. American Mineralogist, v. 101, no. 1,
dating of the rock record can yield far better results than any single technique in isolation. p. 43-70. (XURBB_640648).
Jeans, C.V. 1995. Clay mineral stratigraphy in Palaeozoic and Mesozoic red
PRACTICALITIES AND FUTURE TRENDS bed facies onshore and offshore UK. In R.E. Dunay and E.A. Hailwood (Eds.),
Non-biostratigraphical Methods of Dating and Correlation. Geological Society of
Non-biostratigraphic techniques of correlation and dating can be split into data interpretation London - Special Publications no. 89, p. 31-55. (XURBB_451711).
and data collection. The interpretation of non-biostratigraphic data, depending on the technique, Mange, M. and D. Wright 2007. Heavy Minerals in Use. Developments in
can be carried out by geologists with limited formal training (i.e. they need not necessarily be Sedimentology no. 58, Elsevier, 1-1328 p. (XURBB_480716).
able to collect the data). Furthermore, the often numeric nature of the data readily lends itself to McArthur, J.M., R.J. Howarth and G.A. Shields 2012. Strontium Isotope
quantitative assessment of uncertainty and significant automation. While such advances do offer Stratigraphy. In F.M. Gradstein, J.G. Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg (Eds.),
the potential for significant time and cost savings, the non-unique nature of many stratigraphic The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Volume 1, p. 127-144. (XURBB_549951).
patterns does caution against an overly simplistic adoption of stratigraphic pattern matching, and Ogg, J.G. 2012. Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale. In F.M. Gradstein, J.G. Ogg,
requires a multi-proxy approach. M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg (Eds.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012. Volume 1, p.
85-113. (XURBB_479285).
The extraction of physical or chemical signals from the rock record is a highly-specialized subject
Ogg J.G., G. Ogg and F.M. Gradstein 2016. A Concise Geologic Time Scale
and is usually work for experts. Furthermore, given the broad diversity of techniques, no one 2016. Elsevier, 1-240 p. (XURBB_599777).
individual can claim to be an expert in all non-biostratigraphic techniques. Rather, the variety of
techniques has resulted in the proliferation of small- to medium- sized companies offering expertise Saltzman, M.R. and E. Thomas 2012. Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy. In Gradstein,
F.M., J.G. Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg (Eds.), The Geologic Time Scale
in a range of aligned techniques.
2012. Volume 1, p. 207-232. (XURBB_550087).
Improvements in accuracy and precision, along with continuing time and cost savings, will Schmitz, M.D. 2012. Radiogenic Isotope Geochronology. In Gradstein, F.M.,
increasingly bring non-biostratigraphic techniques to the fore, and may eventually provide J.G. Ogg, M.D. Schmitz and G.M. Ogg (Eds.), The Geologic Time Scale 2012.
parity with biostratigraphy as a means of age dating and correlating the rock record. Indeed, Volume 1, p. -. (XURBB_549276).
increasingly Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) are being defined using Simmons, M. 2019. Biostratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights
non-biostratigraphic techniques of correlation as primary or secondary markers (e.g. Danian — Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. April, p. 30-35. (XURBB_641591).
geochemical anomaly, Thanetian — magnetic polarity chron, and Ypresian — carbon isotope Simmons, M.D. 2012. Sequence Stratigraphy and Sea-Level Change. In F.M.
excursion). As for which techniques will be at the future vanguard of non-biostratigraphic Gradstein, J.G. Ogg, M Schmitz and G. Ogg (Eds.), The Geologic Time Scale
correlation, this will likely be governed by the rate of technological advancement, cost, and ease of 2012. Volume 1, p. 239-267. (XURBB_526135).
use, with those techniques capable of providing real-time wellsite analysis most likely to succeed. Thomas, W.A. 2011. Detrital-zircon geochronology and sedimentary
provenance. Lithosphere (GSA), v. 3, no. 4, p. 304-308. (XURBB_463849).
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Monibi, H. Motiei, N.A.H. Pickard, A.R. Tahmasbi, V. Vedrenne and B. Vincent
Craigie, N. 2018. Principles of Elemental Chemostratigraphy: A Practical User Guide. Advances in Oil and Gas Exploration &
2010. Regional stratigraphic architecture and reservoir types of the Oligo-
Production, Springer, 1-189 p. (XURBB_639971).
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Craigie, N.W. 2018. Chemostratigraphy of the Unayzah Group, eastern Saudi Arabia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 145, p. SW Iran. In F.S.P. van Buchem, K.D. Gerdes and M. Esteban (Eds.), Mesozoic
148-169. (XURBB_639045). and Cenozoic carbonate systems of the Mediterranean and the Middle East:
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Da Silva, A.C., M.T. Whalen, J. Hladil, L. Chadimova, D. Chen, S. Spassov, F. Boulvain and X. Devleeschouwer 2015. Magnetic Special Publications no. 329, p. 219-263. (XURBB_451052).
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Dunay, R.E. and E.A. Hailwood 1995. Non-biostratigraphical Methods of Dating and Correlation. Geological Society of London - used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is
Special Publications no. 89, Geological Society of London (Geological Society Publishing House), 1-265 p. (GURBB_146306). acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder
and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/
Ehrenberg, S.N., N.A.H. Pickard, G.V. Laursen, S. Monibi, Z.K. Mossadegh, T.A. Svana, A.A.M. Aqrawi, J.M. McArthur and M.F. or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark
Graphics Corporation.
Thirlwall 2007. Strontium isotope stratigraphy of the Asmari Formation (Oligocene - Lower Miocene), SW Iran. Journal of Petroleum
Geology, v. 30, no. 2, p. 107-128. (MIRBB_147894).
Gallagher, K., R. Brown and C. Johnson 1998. Fission track analysis and its applications to geological problems. Annual Review of
Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 26, p. 519-572. (XURBB_471278).
CRETACE
K2 MFS
Zone O
EARLY K2 SB
82 | Halliburton Landmark Exploration Handbook | 83C?
K1 MFS Zone N
K1 SB
Chronostratigraphic Charts — Working in In the example in Figure 2A, the X axis shows the spatial
location and orientation of the chart. The Y axis shows J5the
MFS
Time stratigraphic range of the chronostratigraphic chart (Jurassic

and Early Cretaceous), the sequence stratigraphic scheme Zone M
C
that has been applied (J1–K3 sequences), and the biozone J5 SB

C?
Methodology
By: Sarah Laird
Methodology
constraint (Zones I–P). C?
JURASSIC
J4 MFS C?
Data Integration R
WHAT IS A CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC CHART? A range of data, both public and proprietary, mayLATE be used
J4 SB
J3 MFS
Zone LJ3 SB
in the construction of a chronostratigraphic chart. The

Sometimes termed a “Wheeler diagram,” after Wheeler (1958), a chronostratigraphic chart
availability of data is typically controlled by the maturityJ2 MFS S
depicts the stratigraphy of a play, basin, or region in geological time. It records the spatial Zone K
of exploration in the area of interest. Information may be
and temporal distribution of preserved stratigraphic packages bounded by erosional surfaces C
qualitative or quantitative, and can take the form of raw
(Figure 1).
data (e.g. well or seismic data) or derived interpretations Zone J
“Chronostratigraphic charts
Chronostratigraphic charts are tools for visualizing data in geological time, which can yield important (e.g. environmental interpretations based on lithological or can be created at different
J2 SB
insights into the exploration process. For example, correlation of sedimentary bodies is enhanced, biostratigraphic analysis). The data synthesis provides six J1 MFSkey geographic
S and temporal
and predicted sedimentary geometries can be visualized. They are, therefore, a key element in the pieces of information: lithology; depositional environment; Zone I scales, from field or
exploration workflow (Vail, 1987; Milton, 1996). ages; the locations where those rocks are found, or reservoir scale, to a seismic
J1 SB
conversely are absent through non-deposition or erosion; line or basin transect”
Reading chronostratigraphic charts can initially seem quite overwhelming, especially in cases where and whether the rocks have any known or perceived
they cover wide geographic areas or large intervals of time, but they allow users to make important petroleum significance.
initial observations within an unfamiliar basin or region. Importantly:
An example of the primary data inputs for a
» A chronostratigraphic chart typically shows a lot of white space; this is where there was chronostratigraphic chart is shown in Figure 2A. Here, six
either no deposition or no preservation of sediment. wells (A, B, C, D, E, and F) are located both geographically
» Colored or annotated units represent facies on a chronostratigraphic chart and show where and temporally, and the stratigraphy and depositional
sediments were deposited and preserved. Facies may be either diachronous or tramline, and settings encountered in those wells are marked on the
relate to variations in relative sea level. chronostratigraphic chart. In the lower part of Well A, Late
Jurassic deep-marine carbonates and organic-rich carbonates
» A chronostratigraphic chart does not record depth or thickness. Any apparent thicknesses have been penetrated, while in Well F, Late Jurassic shallow-
relate to the length of time over which the strata were deposited. Thus, a condensed interval marine carbonates have been penetrated.
will have a greater proportional representation on a chronostratigraphic chart than it will in a
well depicted with depth as a vertical scale.
» Stratigraphy is inferred between data points. A number of techniques may be used to do this,
but it is important to note where the chart is supported by data, and where an interpretation
has been inferred; alternative interpretations may be possible where the chart is not
supported by data.
» A chronostratigraphic chart typically summarizes the geology of an area, rather than providing
an exact representation of the geology along the line of section. The level of detail is typically
related to the spatial area that the chart is attempting to resolve.
» Chronostratigraphic charts provide insight into proven and potential play elements, but do not
provide insight into:
» Reservoir or seal quality
» Trap geometry
» Source rock maturity
» Ties between hydrocarbon pools and source
A number of these concepts are discussed in more detail throughout this section.
Geographic and Temporal Range

Chronostratigraphic charts can be created at different geographic and temporal scales, from field or
reservoir scale, to a seismic line or basin transect, and over a narrow or wide interval of geological
time. The X axis is typically the geographic/spatial location of the chart. The Y axis is geological time,
and may show any biostratigraphic constraint or where a sequence stratigraphic framework has been Figure 1 > A sub-section of a simplified chronostratigraphic chart. Geological time, biozones, absolute age, and a sequence
applied (Figure 1). stratigraphic model are marked on the Y axis. The locations of three wells (A, B, and C) are marked along the X axis.
Stratigraphic Hiatuses settings are similar, this interpolation is relatively

Exploration
straightforward, for example, between wells D and E,

The white space on the chronostratigraphic chart shows where there are gaps in the stratigraphic record, although there are subtle variations between the data
which can be accounted for either by non-deposition or by non-preservation. These might have been points. It is more challenging to infer the margin of the Late
long intervals of geological time with no stratigraphy, for example, where a structure has been active and Jurassic intra-shelf basin between wells C and D in the
Methodology
no sediment was deposited, or where sediment was deposited and subsequently eroded. Conversely,
Methodology
these might represent short intervals of geological time, for example, related to subaerial exposure of a
carbonate platform during a relative fall in sea level.
The primary data inputs for the chronostratigraphic chart in Figure 2A show a number of stratigraphic gaps.
A sequence stratigraphic interpretation has been added for the wells, and stratigraphic breaks have been
annotated, for example, where periodic subaerial exposure occurred on the shelf due to fluctuations in
Handbook
relative sea level. In wells A and B, Early Cretaceous carbonates were deposited on the shelf. Subaerial
exposure is interpreted at the K3 sequence boundary (SB), resulting in erosion of the underlying K2
highstand (HST), represented by the gray wavy line. This created a hiatus of short duration represented by
white space.
The surface geology, annotated spatially on the X axis of the chronostratigraphic chart in Figure 2A,
shows that the oldest sediments preserved at surface are Oligocene and Pleistocene. Thus, Late Jurassic
and Early Cretaceous sediments may have been preserved along this line of section.
Stratigraphic Infill and Play Element Prediction

To construct a chronostratigraphic chart, stratigraphy and play elements are interpolated in the
absence of data, between data points, or where data inform only part of the interpretation (for
example, seismic, which provides limited insight into lithology). It is important, therefore, when
reading a chronostratigraphic chart to understand how this interpolation may have been undertaken,
especially with respect to play element prediction. This is sometimes referred to as ‘filling in the
white space’.
A number of geological concepts can be used to enhance this interpretation, including:
» Understanding the structural evolution of the basin and the typical fill for the
structural setting. For example, the typical stratigraphic evolution of a rift basin is a
transition from continental rift sediments (potentially with syn-rift lacustrine source
rocks), to shallow-marine, and finally deep-marine sediments, deposited on passive
margin.
» Using sequence stratigraphic principles to predict lateral and temporal facies

changes across the study area. Examples might include using the presence of coarse
clastics above a subaerial sequence boundary on the shelf to support the inference of
coarse clastics during the lowstand in the basin. This interpretation might be enhanced
through the integration of seismic data, providing evidence for increased progradation of
the margin during this interval.
» Understanding regional and global events (e.g. OAEs) and undertaking

paleoclimate modeling. For example, source rock prediction might be enhanced
using a geodynamic model that shows the development of a restricted seaway, or by a
paleoclimate model suggesting the potential for upwelling along a paleo-margin.
» Utilizing appropriate analogues (neighboring or conjugate basins, or basins with a

shared or similar tectonic evolution). For example, analogues for reservoir presence might
include proven reservoirs on a conjugate margin, generated by uplift of the margin, where
Figure 2 > A) Chronostratigraphic chart framework showing the primary data before stratigraphic infill. Time defines the Y
uplift is linked to a geodynamic event that affected both margins. axis (note the labeled stages and sequence stratigraphic surfaces), while geography defines the X axis (note the orientation,
annotated wells, and surface geology). Key data points have been marked on the chart, showing information from the wells.
In the example in Figure 2B, an interpretation has been made between the primary data points B) A completed chronostratigraphic chart showing the Jurassic and Cretaceous stratigraphy of the basin. The chart shows
the stratigraphic evolution of the basin, inferring between data points, and includes annotations of important stratigraphic
shown in Figure 2A. Between closely spaced data points, where the lithologies and depositional events and key play elements.
absence of any primary data control. This interpretation may have integrated data from a number APPLICATIONS
Exploration
of other sources, such as gross depositional environment maps, lithological descriptions, outcrop
geology, and the structural evolution of the basin, and then applied the techniques, noted above, to Tectono-stratigraphic Synthesis
correlate between data points. Chronostratigraphic charts are valuable tools for petroleum
“The white space on the
geologists because they summarize the tectono-stratigraphic
chronostratigraphic chart
Methodology
If a chronostratigraphic chart has been constructed in a frontier basin, or extends into a frontier
Methodology
evolution of a basin and are predictive. Chronostratigraphic charts
petroleum province, the data control will be sparser and large parts of the stratigraphy (and shows where there are
can be used to infer:
potential play elements/plays) may have been inferred. It is important to consider when using gaps in the stratigraphic
someone else’s chronostratigraphic chart what models or analogues they may have used (if any) to » The stratigraphic fill of the basin through time record, which can be
support their interpretations, and what alternative interpretations might be possible. » The lateral and temporal extent of unconformities
accounted for either by
non-deposition or by non-
Audit Trail » The timing of key structural and stratigraphic events preservation.”
Handbook
(e.g. uplift, rifting, and subsidence)

The construction of a chronostratigraphic chart requires the integration of qualitative and
» Stratal geometries (e.g. aggradation and
quantitative data, regional geological synthesis, and the application of predictive geological progradation)
techniques to infer in the absence of data. A good audit trail is critical to help a user to understand
where a chronostratigraphic chart is data supported and where the stratigraphy has been inferred » Stacking patterns and lateral facies changes
(and how this inference has been undertaken). An audit trail might comprise annotation of the chart, » The frequency, speed, and significance of sea level
with notes or symbology, or documentation accompanying the chart in the form of notes or data changes
tables and/or a reference list. It is important to utilize these tools in order to maximize the insight » The stratigraphic arrangement of important
from a chronostratigraphic chart. petroleum systems elements over a wide area
Orientation Collation, Display, and Interpolation Between

Datasets
A chronostratigraphic chart can have a dip or strike orientation (Figure 3), with properties as
summarized below: Chronostratigraphic charts enable collation, display, and
interpolation between disparate datasets. They allow petroleum
geologists to familiarize themselves rapidly with what
Dip-oriented Strike-oriented stratigraphic information is available for a basin and where the
Chronostratigraphic Chart Chronostratigraphic Chart data gaps are. This, in turn, allows a prediction of stratigraphy
Orientation relative to between areas of data control; thereby, highlighting likely
Parallel Perpendicular subsurface stratigraphy.
systems tract
Useful for Showing Coastline Typically does not show Identification and Prediction of Play Elements and
Yes
and Shelf Slope Break shallow to deep transition Potential Plays
Stratigraphic Variation Typically Heterogenous Typically Homogenous Chronostratigraphic charts show stratigraphic information,
Depiction of Lateral Extent which is valuable in play element identification, classification,
No Yes
of Facies Along Strike prediction, and understanding how play elements relate to
Intersecting strike and dip lines can be advantageous in understanding a depositional system each other. They can be used by the petroleum geologist to
visualize sedimentary geometries and rapidly determine the
relationship between play elements, for example, whether
Figure 3 > A) A clastic depositional
system in map view at the two turbidite reservoir sands are interconnected. They also
sequence boundary (SB) and at act as inputs for generating play concepts by providing insight
the maximum flooding surface
(MFS). Note the orientation of both into stratal geometries, useful in play prediction (for example,
a strike and dip chronostratigraphic in identifying potential stratigraphic or subcrop traps).
chart line. B) A sub-section of a
chronostratigraphic chart through the
same clastic depositional system. A proven carbonate petroleum system can be seen in
The chronostratigraphic chart on Figure 2B, where coarse-grained, shallow-marine carbonates
the left follows the dip line shown
on the map views. Note continuous
overlie Late Jurassic source rocks and are sealed by Late
sedimentation within the basin, Jurassic salt. A clastic play illustrated in the depth domain and
denoted by deep‑marine sediments, on a chronostratigraphic chart can be seen in Figure 4, where a
including the development of
lowstand fans, and periodic basin floor fan has been identified. Well A, located on the shelf,
subaerial exposure, resulting in penetrated coarse clastics in the transgressive systems tract
unconformities, on the platform.
The chronostratigraphic chart on the (TST) and underlying highstand systems tract (HST). Up-dip
right follows the strike line shown on pinchouts and a fan geometry have been identified from seismic
the map views. Note discontinuous
sedimentation on the shelf, denoted line B. The inferred stratigraphic play is clearly represented on
by shallow-marine sediments, with the chronostratigraphic chart, and additional potential fan sands
periodic subaerial exposure.
are inferred basinward of our seismic control.
and lithologies) is also key. Hierarchical schemes will enable data

Exploration
(e.g. lithology) to be viewed in a scalable manner, while effective

data management and data standardization is crucial if we are to
breach data silos.
“Chronostratigraphic
Ultimately, machine learning techniques can help to leverage value charts are valuable tools
Methodology
Methodology
from our vast stratigraphic datasets with applications that could
for petroleum geologists
be used in the automation of chronostratigraphic chart workflows.
because they summarize
These include the assisted interpretation of stratigraphy from
seismic data, lithology from wireline, age and paleoenvironment the tectono-stratigraphic
from biostratigraphic data, and automated source-to-sink evolution of a basin and are
assessment. Such techniques also enable interpretative predictive”
uncertainty to be routinely determined; thereby, assisting with
Handbook
risk management, while enabling specialist techniques, such as

forward stratigraphic modeling, to become more accessible to all
geoscientists.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank Mike Simmons for his input on this
chapter and acknowledges James Scotchman, Jon Castell, and
Andrew Davies for producing the figures shown in this chapter
and their input on the concepts discussed.
Figure 4 > Top) Depth transect within a clastic basin. Below) A sub-section of a chronostratigraphic chart through the same
clastic depositional system. Note continuous sedimentation within the basin, denoted by deep-marine sediments, including the
REFERENCES
development of lowstand fans, and periodic subaerial exposure, resulting in unconformities, on the platform. Well A is located Davies, A. 2020. Paleoclimate Models in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine.
on the platform and has been used to inform the stratigraphic interpretation in the basin. Seismic line B has provided some Exploration Insights Magazine no. September, p. 24-30. (XURBB_644480).
information on the stratal geometries of the slope and suggests the presence of a basin-floor fan.
Davies, A. 2019. Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine.
Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28. (XURBB_641393).
A chronostratigraphic chart showing the stratigraphic evolution and play elements of an appropriate
Maksymiw, P. 2019. Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine.
analogue petroleum province (for example, from a conjugate margin basin or a basin with a similar Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 34-39. (XURBB_641247).
structural evolution) may be a useful input when interpreting the stratigraphy of a frontier basin. Milton, N.J. 1996. Chronostartigraphic Charts. In Emery, D. and K. Myers (Eds.),
Sequence Stratigraphy, p. 80-88. (XURBB_641459).
Correlation of Lithological Units
Nicoll, G., B. Gréselle, J. Smith and P. Helps 2020. Earth System Science: Source-to-
Biostratigraphy, chemostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, and sequence stratigraphy are all Sink. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 126-132. (XURBB_645996).
techniques that might be used when correlating lithological units. Chronostratigraphic charts provide Simmons, M. 2020. The Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow. Subsurface
a framework for visualizing lithological units and play elements in geological time, enhancing their Insights, v. November, p. 24-35. (XURBB_645951).
correlation across a defined spatial area (field, basin, or region). This correlation of lithological units Simmons, M. 2019. Biostratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Explo-
may be especially significant when crossing basinal or national boundaries, when lithostratigraphy ration Insights Magazine no. April, p. 30-35. (XURBB_641591).
is unlikely to be a reliable tool for correlation. In this instance, chronostratigraphic charts can provide Simmons, M. 2020. Outcrop Geology. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p.
52-59. (XURBB_645995).
insight into appropriate analogues.
Sutcliffe, O.E. 2019. Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Exploration. Exploration
Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July, p. 24-32. (XURBB_641584).
PRACTICALITIES AND FUTURE TRENDS Sutcliffe, O. 2020. Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in Exploration. Exploration
The insights generated by using chronostratigraphic charts to visualize stratigraphic information in Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 34-41. (XURBB_645994).
geological time, and their relevance to the exploration workflow, have been highlighted. However, Vail, PR 1987. Seismic stratigraphy interpretation using sequence stratigraphy,
part 1: seismic stratigraphy interpretation procedure. In AW Bally (Eds.), Atlas of
the reality is that building chronostratigraphic charts can be time-consuming and they are often large Seismic Stratigraphy. Studies in Geology 27. AAPG Studies in Geology no. 27, p. 1-10.
and cumbersome to use (depending on scale). The obvious solution is to automate part or all of this (MEBIB21054).
workflow within current workstation-based exploration packages. Already, some well interpretation Van Buchem, F. 2019. Forward Stratigraphic Modeling — Closing the Interpretation Loop.
packages can construct pseudo-chronostratigraphic charts between data points, facilitating correlation Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. October, p. 30-37.
(XURBB_643056).
on a local scale. However, existing workflows within workstation-based exploration packages typically
focus on depth (either actual depth or two-way travel time) and do not possess a robust framework for Wheeler, H.E. 1958. Time stratigraphy. AAPG Bulletin, v. 42, no. 5, p. 1047-1063.
(XURBB_419830).
attributing geological data with ages.
Wrobel-Daveau, J.-C. and C. Luneburg 2020. Structural Modeling in Exploration —
Stratigraphy is a common thread that can integrate disparate types of exploration data (e.g. well Reducing the Risk in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
Magazine no. June, p. 22-32. (XURBB_644269).
logs, seismic, burial models, and geodynamics), but challenges exist in its effective use. These
challenges include vast volumes of data, managing geological uncertainties, siloed applications, DISCLAIMER
data standardization, and organization and scalability. Integration tools are needed to address our This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge
data silos and manage stratigraphic information across all data types and platforms (e.g. seismic created within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been
horizons, well picks, formation tops, and biozones). For example, the use of ontologies can help the acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder
and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/
integration and contextualization of all types of stratigraphic data (e.g. rock properties, depositional or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark
environments, and petroleum character). Terminology standardization (e.g. depositional environments Graphics Corporation.
The Application of Organic geological and geophysical interpretations, to de-risk petroleum

Exploration
systems elements and processes (Sluijk and Parker, 1986).
Handbook
Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration This chapter highlights the importance of the role of organic
geochemistry in successful exploration for oil and gas. We will
Methodology
Methodology
discuss the key analyses used to collect geochemical data, as
By: Qusay Abeed well as the insights they provide.
ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY IN OIL AND GAS

EXPLORATION Above > Gas chromatography and gas
chromatography mass spectrometry
Petroleum geochemistry is the application of organic geochemistry to study the origin, accumulation,
Exploration
machines (Source: Qusay Abeed).
preservation, and transformation of organic matter in sediments (source rocks) to form hydrocarbons In petroleum exploration, geochemical data can help answer
Handbook
(Tissot and Welte, 1984; Hunt, 1995; Dembicki, 2017). It was established as an autonomous science many questions about the potential of a possible source rock
after the discovery of chlorophyll-like structures in crude oil by Albert Treibs in 1934. and the geological history of the area of interest. Geochemical
analyses provide information on three key aspects of a
By the 1950s, major oil companies had begun geochemistry-related research programs to learn more potential source rock (Figure 1):
about oil and gas, especially how it forms and migrates in the subsurface, in conventional plays. Since
then, petroleum geochemistry has advanced on all fronts. However, recently the greatest efforts have 1. Quantity: does the potential source rock contain
been directed to understanding unconventional plays (Dembicki, 2017). sufficient organic matter to generate hydrocarbons?
2. Quality: what type of organic matter does the
Misunderstandings surrounding geochemical data and their limitations can lead to risk in exploration
potential source rock contain? Is the organic matter
(Dembicki, 2009; Rudolph and Goulding, 2017). A key issue is understanding the nature of the
oil and/or gas prone, or is it inert?
petroleum system during play tests and play extensions (Rudolph and Goulding, 2017). Exploration
success depends upon the correct application of petroleum geochemistry principles, together with 3. Maturity and thermal history: has the organic
matter reached sufficient maturity levels to generate
hydrocarbons, and what geological events have
controlled this? “Misunderstandings
A source rock can be defined as a type of rock that has surrounding geochemical
sufficient organic matter (quantity), of the right type (quality), data and their limitations can
and has experienced a preferable thermal history (maturity), to lead to risk in exploration...”
generate significant quantities of hydrocarbons (Figure 1).
In unconventional plays, exploration geologists are keen to

determine the “sweet spots” in the rock layers. These are rock
volumes that yield more petroleum than surrounding rocks,
due to preferable petrophysical and fluid properties. In some
cases, source rocks act as a tight reservoir where viscous
hydrocarbons are trapped in the tiny pores of a fine-grained
sedimentary rock. Organic pore systems can dominate in
these facies, and geochemical screening tools can shed light
on the evolution of and controls on this organic porosity (Katz
and Arango, 2018).
KEY ANALYSES
Total Organic Carbon and Rock Eval Pyrolysis
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) measurement and Rock Eval Click glossary entries
Pyrolysis analysis are the most time- and cost-effective for desciptions
methods in petroleum geochemistry to answer whether or not
a source rock is present in a basin by measuring the quantity,
quality, and maturity of its organic matter content (Figure 1).
TOC analysis (wt%) measures the combined quantity of

Figure 1 > Flowchart showing the principle roles of organic geochemistry in petroleum exploration (pre-discovery). Organic soluble (bitumen) and insoluble (kerogen) organic matter
geochemistry can help answer key questions about source rock existence (organic matter quantity), type of organic matter (quality),
present in a rock; it does not represent the amount of kerogen Glossary
and maturity.
Maceral groups within kerogen — vitrinite, liptinite, and “Not all organic matter
Exploration
inertinite — can be identified petrographically, and are used is created equal; some
to characterize the generation potential of organic matter. organic matter is capable
Vitrinite and liptinite have the potential to generate gas and oil, of generating liquid
respectively, while inertinite does not generate hydrocarbons. hydrocarbons, some can
Methodology
Methodology
Additionally, vitrinite reflectance is a widely accepted method only generate gas, some
of measuring the thermal maturity of a rock (Peters et al., can generate a mixture of
2005). hydrocarbons, and some is
inert and cannot generate
Vitrinite reflectance (VRo) analysis was originally developed
anything”
to rank the maturity of coals. In source rocks, measurements
Handbook
are done on wood-like particles to rank their coalification as

an indication of thermal maturity of the organic matter. The
Figure 2 > The composition of a typical source rock. Total organic matter represents a small part of the total volume of the rock. Total oil window lies at approximately 0.6–1.3% VRo (Figure 3). In
organic matter consists of kerogen (insoluble) and bitumen (soluble in organic solvent). Kerogen and bitumen can be separated and fluorescence microscopy, vitrinite particles appear dark, while
analyzed using different geochemical methods and will show different compound distributions.
liptinitic organic matter like spores and pollens appear shiny
alone (Figure 2). The kerogen is the part of organic matter that can produce hydrocarbons upon heating. (fluorescent). Spore color can be used as a proxy for vitrinite Click glossary entries
This measurement is performed on finely ground rock samples in a combustion apparatus utilizing an reflectance (Figure 3). for desciptions
induction furnace and a thermal conductivity cell to measure evolved CO2 (Tissot and Welte, 1984).
Petrographic analyses require a high level of training
TOC analysis is a good starting point for source rock evaluation, and all good source rocks must have and experience to mitigate human errors in its different
(or have had) a high TOC (Table 1). However, exploration geoscientists should be careful to not draw a interpretations and workflows. In order to overcome such
quick and unrealistic source rock evaluation based on the initial results of this analysis, ignoring other challenges, new technologies, such as machine learning
factors like lithology, kerogen type, organic matter preservation, and maturity. Not all organic matter can be tested in the workflow to help introduce “smarter”
Glossary
is created equal; some organic matter is capable of generating liquid hydrocarbons, some can only petrographic techniques.
generate gas, some can generate
a mixture of hydrocarbons, and
some is inert and cannot generate
anything (Tissot et al., 1974;
Dembicki, 2009). Moreover, TOC
analysis is maturity-sensitive,
so TOC (wt%) decreases as
hydrocarbons are generated and
expelled, making it a misleading
indicator in mature source rocks
Table 1 > Source rock potential interpretations based on TOC (wt%) analysis and
Rock Eval parameters. After Peters 1986. (Dembicki, 2017).
Rock Eval (RE) pyrolysis analysis provides insights into the petroleum potential and the quality
of a source rock through the analysis of its S1, S2, and S3 content. It can help to determine the
phase of generated hydrocarbon through the interpretation of kerogen type and maturity (Tmax).
In unconventional systems, RE pyrolysis can answer many other questions, such as calculating the
potential for hydrocarbons to remain trapped in the source rock.
Organic Petrography
Organic petrography uses microscopes to study organic matter distribution, type (facies), preservation,
and thermal maturation. It is a classic methodology for studying organic matter and is still one of the
most reliable techniques. Early analyses of organic petrography were undertaken on coal samples using
thin sections and transmitted light illumination; however, almost all modern examinations are carried out
on polished surfaces of the rock samples under reflected light (Taylor, 1998).
Organic petrography is mainly carried out on the kerogen fraction, and not bitumen. Consequently, it is
highly recommended that this method be used side-by-side with other geochemical techniques, such
as TOC analysis and RE pyrolysis, to determine the potential of a source rock fully.
Figure 3 > Thermal maturity indicators and hydrocarbon generation window. The figure was compiled based on data and figures from
Pearson (1984); Mao et al., (1994); Cardott and Lambert (1985); and Hunt (1995).
Gas Chromatography Analyses

Exploration
Advanced gas chromatography techniques, including gas chromatography flame ionization detection
(GCFID) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS and GCMSMS), provide visual
representations of the quantities of different chemical compounds detected in a solvent extract of
Methodology
Methodology
a source rock (bitumen), or in water, oil, gas and seepage samples. Peak height or peak-area ratios
and distribution are used to identify organic matter quantity and type, predict possible depositional
environment, and determine maturity (Figure 4).
Gas chromatography (GC) analysis requires only a small sample with minimal preparation, and is less
expensive and more versatile than many other analytical methods (Peters et al., 2005). GC analysis
techniques are vital to establish source rock-oil and oil-oil correlations. Correlation studies identify
Handbook
properties in an oil, and attempt to correlate these with properties in a potential source rock, or another
oil (Figure 5). For example, indicative similarities in some organic compounds (biomarkers) can be used
to link oil with its potential source rock. Migration pathways can, thus, be identified, and other plays that
could be charged by the same source rock can be proposed. Biomarkers can also be used to determine
the origin of the organic matter and related processes, such as depositional environment conditions.
Advanced GC analysis techniques, like gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry-mass spectrometry (GCMSMS), generate a large amount of data
that represent thousands of organic chemical compounds detected in a single sample of oil or bitumen.
In order to unleash the power of such a dataset, technologies like machine learning and data science
could be applied to help enhance and accelerate related interpretations.
Figure 5 > Oil-source rock correlation using whole oil chromatograms between two source rock extracts, representing two
different stratigraphic intervals, and an oil sample from southern Iraq. Abeed et al. (2011; 2012) used the similarity of GC
chromatograms between oil sample and Yamama Formation to indicate that the Berriasian–Valanginian Sulaiy/Yamama
successions have sourced the oil of the Mishrif Formation, but not of the Zubair Formation.
Stable Carbon Isotopes Analysis “...indicative similarities in

some organic compounds
In petroleum and gas exploration, carbon isotopes provide
(biomarkers) can be used
valuable information on the generation and maturation
to link oil with its potential
processes. The carbon isotope ratio C13/C12 in organic and
source rock. Migration
inorganic matter is ~0.01 and varies by up to 10% in nature,
pathways can, thus, be
based on equilibrium exchange and kinetic fractionation
identified, and other plays
processes in the different carbon cycles (Hoefs, 1973, in Stahl,
that could be charged by the
1979). This ratio can be used for oil-source rock and oil-oil
same source rock can be
correlation by identifying the genetic relationship between
proposed.”
hydrocarbons and their precursors. Moreover, stable carbon
isotope analysis can be very useful in determining the origin Click glossary entries
of natural gas (thermal vs. biogenic). Unlike in oil, C13 values for desciptions
in natural gas are affected by primary, and sometimes by
secondary, fractionation, providing evidence of the organic
Figure 4 > A gas chromatogram of a source rock sample showing the quantity and peak interpretations of some n-alkanes and Glossary
isoprenoids. Such chromatograms are derived by gas chromatography methods. matter source and maturity level (Fuex, 1977).
PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY IN BASIN MODELING LOOKING TO THE FUTURE “A key risk in exploration is
Exploration
understanding the nature of

Basin and petroleum system models use geoscience interpretations, incorporated as mathematical Petroleum geochemistry analytical techniques generate large the hydrocarbon kitchen and/
equations, to simulate earth process like petroleum generation, expulsion, and migration as well as to amounts of data. For example, in GC analysis, a tiny sample or charge system...machine
calculate source rock maturity. These models are carried out in petroleum systems modeling software, (usually less than 1 µl) of the solvent extracted from about learning will accelerate
Methodology
Methodology
such as Permedia® petroleum systems modeling software. 5 mg of a single rock sample can generate data representing the pace, accuracy, and
the concentrations of tens of thousands of organic compounds consistency of these
Geochemical analyses of the quantity, quality, and maturity of the organic matter in a source rock can
present in the bitumen of the rock. The volumes of data analyses, further reducing
be very useful input parameters for basin modelling to calibrate and validate some of the calculated
increase still further when petroleum geochemistry is used to exploration risk.”
parameters. For example, a simulation of the burial history of sediments is adopted in basin modeling
help to identify exploration potential over large geographical
software to calculate the thermal maturity of organic matter using calculations such as Easy Ro%
areas.
(Sweeney and Burnham, 1990). Such calculations are not valid until calibrated by measured vitrinite
Handbook
reflectance or any other equivalent maturity parameters. There are vast, albeit frequently disorganized, datasets
available in the public domain. Data science could be applied
In order for the basin modeling software to predict the characteristics and the phase of generated
to better understand and process this large amount of data
hydrocarbons, as well as to model source rock generation and expulsion, geochemical input
in the space-time-depth context. Temporal and spatial
parameters, such as TOC (wt%), kerogen type, and Hydrogen Index (HI), are essential.
metadata enable further integration with other models,
MITIGATING DRY HOLES such as geodynamic and gross depositional models. The
Neftex® Organic Geochemistry offering is a spatially and
There are numerous reasons behind the historic increase in the proportion of dry petroleum exploration temporally‑enabled database of geochemical data, which
wells, which have been highlighted in recent studies (e.g. Rudolph and Goulding, 2017). Such studies can be accessed by our Advanced subscribers through the
have confirmed that one of the main issues is a misunderstanding of the nature of the kitchen and/or SourceExplorer dashboard (Figure 7).
charge system within the basin (Figure 6). In particular, there are frequent misinterpretations of source
rock potential, its precise maturity, and the mechanism of petroleum migration to the reservoirs. CONCLUSIONS
A key risk in exploration is understanding the nature of the
hydrocarbon kitchen and/or charge system. Misinterpretations
of source rock potential and maturity can occur, along with
uncertainties in modeling hydrocarbon migration to reservoirs.
The correct application of petroleum geochemistry can help
resolve such issues. There is a well-established toolkit of
analytical techniques that help to establish the quantity, quality, Click glossary entries
and maturity of potential source rocks, and which help tie for desciptions
Figure 6 > Reasons for wildcat failure by play maturity (modified after Rudolph and Goulding, 2017). Misunderstanding of the source rocks to hydrocarbon fluids. Huge databases of past
petroleum system (kitchen) is the most important cause for dry holes in conventional play tests and play extensions.
analyses can be leveraged to offer insight in both frontier and
mature basins. As in all parts of geoscience, machine learning
The application of petroleum geochemistry can reduce the risk of drilling dry holes. Sluijk and Parker will accelerate the pace, accuracy, and consistency of these
(1986) have shown a forecasting efficiency using Shell’s prospect appraisal system to compare Glossary
analyses, further reducing exploration risk.
pre‑drilling predictions with post-drilling outcomes. They have indicated that by using a combination of
geophysics and geochemistry, exploration efficiency would increase to 63%, compared with only 28%
when using geology and geophysics alone.
When samples from source rocks are unavailable (e.g. in frontier basins), exploration geoscientists try
to predict the presence and potential of the source rocks using analogues, and by building models,
including paleogeographic, paleoclimate, and basin history models. The uncertainties of such models
are high, but can be mitigated by calibration with geochemical data. This validation process helps to
de‑risk petroleum exploration.
Petroleum geochemistry provides the only tools, in the realm of oil and gas exploration, to answer
critical questions on the thermal history of the basin, source rock characteristics and the controlling
kerogen types, and fluid properties and how they control petroleum migration pathways in the
subsurface. The geochemistry of hydrocarbons and source rocks is a significant contributor to finding
oil and gas, and deserves to be recognized, so much so that it has been suggested that the field of
petroleum exploration should probably be more correctly termed as G, G, & G — Geology, Geophysics,
and Geochemistry (Dembicki, 2017)! Figure 7 > Data coverage of the Neftex® Predictions global organic geochemistry database.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GLOSSARY
Exploration
The author would like to thank Frans van Buchem, Christine Yallup, Florence Bebb, and Mike Simmons Bitumen: The soluble fraction of the organic matter. In other
for their valuable inputs. words, it represents any fluid that can be extracted from a
source rock using organic solvents.
REFERENCES
Methodology
Methodology
Abeed, Q., A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 2011. Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic -Lower Cretaceous succession in the Hydrogen Index (HI): A parameter that measures the
southern Mesopotamian Basin southern Iraq. Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 34, no. 2, p. 117-134. (XURBB_461113). hydrogen richness of kerogen. It is calculated from rock eval
Abeed, Q., D. Leythaeuser and R. Littke 2012. Geochemistry, origin and correlation of crude oils in Lower Cretaceous sedimentary
pyrolysis S2 and TOC values by S2/TOC, and is used as a proxy
sequences of the southern Mesopotamian Basin, southern Iraq. Organic Geochemistry. Organic Geochemistry no. 46, p. 113-126. for elemental H/C. The HI of organic matter can be reduced as
(XURBB_469927). a result of increasing maturity and hydrocarbon generation.
Cardott, B.J. and M.W. Lambert 1985. Thermal Maturation by Vitrinite Reflectance of Woodford Shale, Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma.
Handbook
AAPG Bulletin, v. 69, no. 11, p. 1982-1998. (XURBB_238950). Inertinite: Also known as dead carbon, this maceral group has
Dembicki Jr, H. 2009. Three common source rock evaluation errors made by geologists during prospect or play appraisals. AAPG no generation potential. It is poor in hydrogen content, rich in
Bulletin, v. 93, no. 3, p. 341-356. (XURBB_475723). carbon. It has high reflectance and, thus, appears dark under
Dembicki Jr., H. 2017. Practical Petroleum Geochemistry for Exploration and Production. Elsevier, 1-323 p. (XURBB_625657).
UV light (e.g. Fusinite).
Fuex, A.N. 1977. The use of stable carbon isotopes in hydrocarbon exploration. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 7, p.
155‑188. (XURBB_644029). Kerogen: The insoluble part of organic matter. Upon heating,
kerogen cracks and partially converts to form hydrocarbons (oil
Hunt, J.M. 1995. Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W.H. Freeman and Company (Formerly Macmillan), 1-743 p.
and gas). Examples of kerogen in sedimentary rocks are algae,
(XURBB_573343).
spores, pollen, plant debris, and foraminifera test linings.
Katz, B.J. and I. Arango 2018. Organic porosity: A geochemist’s view of the current state of understanding. Organic Geochemistry,
v. 123, p. 1-16. (XURBB_644028).
Liptinite: This maceral group represents organic matter that is
Mao, S., L.B. Eglinton, J. Whelan and L. Liu 1994. Thermal Evolution of Sediments from Leg 139, Middle Valley, Juan de Fuca
rich in lipids or in hydrogen. These macerals look fluorescent
Ridge: An Organic Petrological Study. In M.J. Mottl, E.E. Davis, A.T. Fisher and J.F. Slack (Eds.), Middle Valley, Juan de Fuca Ridge:
Covering Leg 139 of the cruises of the Drilling Vessel JOIDES Resolution, San Diego, California, to Victoria, British Columbia, (shiny) under UV light (e.g. spores and pollen).
Canada, Sites 855-858. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program: Scientific Results no. 139, p. 495-508. (XURBB_572780).
Pearson, D.L., 1984. Pollen/Spore Color Standard, Version #2. Phillips Petroleum Company, Exploration Project Section. Oil Window: Maturity zone, where source rocks are able to
Bartelsville, Oklahoma. (XURBB_644019). generate hydrocarbon due to suitable thermal conditions.
Peters, K.E. 1986. Guidelines for evaluating petroleum source rock using programmed pyrolysis. AAPG Bulletin, v. 70, no. 3, p.
318-329. (RURBB_008451). S1: Rock Eval Pyrolysis output parameter, representing the free
Peters, K.E., C.C. Walters and J.M. Moldowan 2005. The Biomarker Guide. Volume I. Biomarkers and Isotopes in the Environment hydrocarbon in a rock sample, measured in mg HC/g rock.
and Human History. Cambridge University Press, 1-492 p. (XURBB_466248).
Rudolph, K.W. and F.J. Goulding 2017. Benchmarking exploration predictions and performance using 20+ yr of drilling results: One S2: Rock Eval Pyrolysis output parameter, representing the
company’s experience. AAPG Bulletin, v. 101, no. 2, p. 161-176. (XURBB_641211). amount of hydrocarbon resulted from the pyrolysis of kerogen,
Simmons, M. 2020. The Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow. Subsurface Insights, v. November, p. 24-35. measured in mg HC/g rock.
(XURBB_645951).
Sluijk, D. and J.R. Parker 1986. Comparison of Predrilling Predictions with Postdrilling Outcomes, Using Shell’s Prospect Appraisal S3: Rock Eval Pyrolysis output parameter, representing the
System. In Dudley D. Rice (Eds.), Oil and Gas Assessment: Methods and Applications. AAPG Special Publication no. 21, p. 55-58. CO2 released during pyrolysis, measured in mg CO2 /g rock. It is
(XURBB_626896). proportional to oxygen present in kerogen.
Sweeney, J.J. and A.K. Burnham 1990. Evaluation of a simple model of vitrinite reflectance based on chemical kinetics. AAPG
Bulletin, v. 74, no. 10, p. 1559-1570. (GURBB_147447).
Total Organic Carbon (TOC): The amount of organic carbon
Stahl, W.J. 1979. Carbon isotopes in petroleum geochemistry. Generation and maturation of hydrocarbons in sedimentary basins; present in a source rock, measured in weight percent.
proceedings of the seminar. UNDP Regional Offshore Prospecting in East Asia. Bangkok, p. 274-282. (PURBB_014411).
Taylor, G.H., M Teichmuller, A. Davis, C.F.K. Diessel, R Littke and P. Robert 1998. Organic Petrology: A new handbook incorporating Tmax: A maturity parameter. In Rock Eval Pyrolysis, it is the
some revised parts of Stach’s textbook of coal petrology. Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, 1-704 p. (XURBB_587769).
oven temperature that corresponds to the maximum generation
Tissot, B., B. Durand, J. Espitale and A. Combaz 1974. Influence of the nature and diagenesis of organic matter in formation of of hydrocarbons from the S2 peak.
petroleum. AAPG Bulletin, v. 58, no. 3, p. 499-506. (XURBB_478260).
Tissot, B.P. and D.H. Welte 1984. Petroleum formation and occurrence. Springer, 1-699 p. (XURBB_476712). Vitrinite: This maceral group is derived from the lignified
tissues (e.g. trunks, branches, and leaves) of higher plants.
DISCLAIMER These macerals look dark under UV light.
views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation. Vitrinite reflectance (VRo%): A source rock maturity
parameter, measured by microscope. The amount of light
reflected from the polished surfaces of vitrinite particles
increases in a logarithmic relationship with coalification, which
results from increasing burial depth or a nearby heat resource.
Structural Modeling in Exploration — SUBSURFACE MODEL VALIDITY

Exploration
The challenge in building a subsurface model is that between

Reducing Uncertainty in Subsurface control data points (and their associated uncertainties), an
infinite number of geometrical solutions may exist. Therefore,
Models
Methodology
Methodology
the process of validation has the aim of: 1) reducing the infinite
number of potential interpretations to a limited number of
physically possible interpretations, 2) proving or disproving an
By: Jean-Christophe Wrobel-Daveau and Catalina Luneburg interpretation based on geologic principles, and 3) improving
and validating an interpretation by providing a comprehensive
description of a prospect or reservoir, and how it evolved.
Handbook
Above > Multi-decollement structural

“Recognizing that you know what you know, and recognizing that you do not know Principles of Model Validity style modeled in the Subandean zone
(Bolivia)
what you do not know, that is knowledge” Confucius
While cross-section balancing concepts emerged earlier (e.g.
Chamberlain, 1910), methods to confirm the accuracy and
A geologic interpretation of the subsurface is the basis of any exploration workflow, whether you robustness of subsurface models truly developed since the
are building a 3D framework or a geocellular model, or you are modeling a basin or estimating 1970s with the formulation of the cross-section validation “In this chapter, we will
hydrocarbon reserves. All these workflows rely on realistic and accurate interpretations in order to methods and principles (Dahlstrom, 1969; Elliott, 1983). emphasize the principles
reduce uncertainty and minimize risk on important aspects of the petroleum system, such as reservoir and validity of subsurface
architecture, seal integrity, migration pathways, and basin evolution. A cross-section can be considered as valid when it is: structural models, and
» Balanced: honors the principles of balanced
illustrate their implications
Representing the subsurface with accuracy is a challenge because available data are generally using several examples.”
incomplete, sporadic, and of variable quality (Figure 1). This becomes especially critical in areas of cross-sections in which the volume/area of the
poor or missing data, where interpolation between existing data points uses best logic and geologic ‘undeformed’ to the ‘deformed’ state is constant.
understanding, but does not necessarily apply validation and balancing rules. » Accurate: supported by and fits all the available
Despite the importance of structural modeling, explorers often focus on honoring seismic reflectors stratigraphic and structural observations (e.g. from
and well data, without really testing the geometrical and/or mechanical validity of an interpretation. wells, seismic surveys, or surface geology).
This may be due to lack of time, skills, or software to make it part of the standard workflow and best » Admissible: in agreement with observed natural
practices. Interpretation validation should be part of any QA process and incorporated into every step of cases of structural geometries (i.e. from seismic,
the workflow, from the very beginning onwards, in order to mitigate geological risk in exploration and outcrop, or sandbox modeling), and offers a
production. geologically sound interpretation where the
In this chapter, we will emphasize the principles and validity of subsurface structural models, and deformation mechanism (e.g. vertical shear or rigid
illustrate their implications using several examples. The aim is to allow first-time users some quick rotation) is reasonable, as constrained by observable
gains when interpreting their seismic data, and assist more experienced geoscientists by understanding analogues for the specific tectonic setting and rock
the advantages of balancing a cross-section and building a kinematic evolution to improve basin and mechanical behavior.
property modeling, as well as enhancing prediction of migration pathways.
» Restorable: can return to its pre-deformed state.
This leads to the establishment of a valid restoration
sequence (backward) and forward kinematic
path (forward), which satisfies constraints on the
timing of deformation if data are available (e.g.
biostratigraphy, thermochronology, or magneto-
stratigraphy).
In addition, in order to be valid, the model also needs to

account for a consistent use of the mechanical stratigraphy.
This verifies that the structural style and the depth to
decollement (i.e. thin-skinned vs. thick-skinned) used by
the interpreter is compatible with the regional or local
understanding of the mechanical behavior of the rock (i.e.
Figure 1 > Subsurface models of the Teapot Dome field (Wyoming, US) using all the available data; without support of structural ductile vs. competent units).
modeling A), in comparison with a model B) supported by a validation workflow, including: fault geometry prediction, trishear forward
modeling, and projection of stratigraphic horizons using kinematic models. (Seismic data source: U.S. Department of Energy, 2013.)
Balancing can usually be restored by more than one kinematic model.

Exploration
The geologist is required to choose the most appropriate

A balanced cross-section (Chamberlain, 1910; Dahlstrom, 1969) is not necessarily the right or unique model based on the boundary conditions (i.e. structural
answer, but it is a plausible one (Elliot, 1983), because the level of freedom of the subsurface model style, tectono-stratigraphic setting, and rheology) (Figure 2).
has been reduced to an acceptable level of uncertainty using sound geological principles. Restoration by any kinematic model is a provisional validation;
Methodology
Methodology
The concept of a balanced cross-section (see also Wilkerson and Dicken, 2001) relies on the following it shows that the structure is internally consistent, even if the
assumptions: model is not correct. Fault-related models (Figure 2) provide a
geometrical relationship between the fault and horizons, which
» The cross-section is drawn parallel to the direction of tectonic transport (i.e. direction of presents a higher level of confidence than when both features
maximum deformation). are created independently by an interpreter or a 3D subsurface
» Plane strain deformation is assumed (i.e. no movement into or out of the plane of section). geomodeling algorithm.
Handbook
» Length and/or area conservation (depending on the assumed deformation model) in the Flexural slip and vertical/oblique shear, respectively, describe
plane of section between deformation increments (or initial and final state); all units in the two end-members of fold styles, defined by Ramsay and
rock pile (i.e. stratigraphy and basement) have experienced the same amount of deformation. Huber (1987) as parallel and similar folds, with a slip system
parallel to layer boundaries and constant layer thicknesses,
Despite recognizing that the workflow of balancing a regional, crustal scale cross-section can be time
and a slip system parallel or at an angle to the fold axial plane “Kinematic models provide
consuming, balancing smaller scale, individual structures is faster and still improves the validity of a
and non-constant layer thicknesses. In addition, rigid block a set of geometric rules that
model.
displacement is used where no internal deformation occurs describe how the elements
Kinematic Models between blocks, and area balancing where geometry is of an interpretation move
unconstrained while preserving constant area. relative to each other”
In order to build an interpretation and restore a cross-section, the movement of its elements is
described by kinematic models (Figure 2). Kinematic models provide a set of geometric rules that Kinematic models offer a range of end-member geometries
describe how the elements of an interpretation move relative to each other. They are empirical models that support balancing and validation of subsurface models.
that simplify physical/mechanical processes (stress, displacement rates, and rheology) established from
natural cases (outcrop, seismic) and analogue sandbox modeling (sandbox). VALIDATION CHALLENGES IN VARIOUS
STRUCTURAL STYLES
Successful models confirm or predict the geometry of a structure to a useful level of accuracy. The
rocks do not necessarily have to deform according to the kinematic model. A valid interpretation Structural style can be defined as the (admissible) geometrical
characteristics (faulting, geometry of folds) of the structures
that relate to intrinsic components and mechanisms of
formation.
The geometry of stratigraphic layers in a sedimentary basin

is the result of their original depositional architecture and
any post-depositional deformation they suffered. Post-
depositional deformation can be related to various geological
processes, including diagenesis, halokinesis, gravity sliding, or
regional tectonic stress, which superimpose new geometrical
characteristics onto existing ones.
In sedimentary rocks, various factors can influence the

structural style, including: 1) the effect of any pre-existing
structures and their potential to be reactivated, 2) the
mechanical properties and thickness of individual stratigraphic
packages and the bulk behavior of the stacked succession (i.e.
mechanical stratigraphy), and 3) the intensity, orientation, and
duration of the tectonic stresses applied.
The combination of these factors is related to the tectono-

stratigraphic history of the basin. It is, thus, important to
illustrate some of the categories of styles found in different
settings and the challenges associated with each of them.
Figure 2 > Kinematic models most useful for restoration and balancing applied to a simple, contractional structure (modeled using
LithoTect ® software).
Exploration
Methodology
Methodology
Handbook
Fold-and-Thrust Belts In fold-and-thrust belts, a source-to-sink relationship generally Figure 3 > Balanced cross-section in
the Subandean zone of Bolivia (James
exists between sediments recycled from the internal domain and Wrobel-Daveau, 2019). Here, the
In fold-and-thrust belts, the complexity of fault linkages, repeated stratigraphy, and steep limbs on the undergoing uplift, erosion and cooling, to the foreland basin presence of multiple decollements in
flanks of the structures makes the subsurface imaging through 2D or 3D reflection seismic challenging, undergoing flexural subsidence. Thus, valid subsurface models
the sedimentary pile is the source of
the model’s complexity expressed by
and calls for a stronger reliance on structural modeling. and kinematic evolution can support the understanding of the structures, such as duplexes (lower
section) and faulted-detachment fault
The validation of the structural model necessitates, first, a good understanding of the mechanical orogenic wedge dynamic, with implications for the timing of anticlines (upper section).
stratigraphy to identify the first-order level of complexity and structural fabric (thick‑skinned vs. thin- thermal maturity versus trap formation, and the discrepancies
skinned, and possibly multiple decollements). The construction of the model is an iterative process in the distribution of resources across the belt.
using kinematic projection, fault prediction, slip-line and block restoration, correction of the restored
Extensional Settings
model, and geometry testing using forward modeling.
Extensional settings, such as rift and successor passive
The structural style is characterized by compressional structures, which can include various styles of
margins, are generally less challenging in terms of access
folds (e.g. fault bend fold, fault propagation fold, or detachment fold) and duplication of the stratigraphy
to data and imaging. However, challenges, such as volume
along reverse faults, thrusts, or duplexes (Figure 3).
estimates and migration pathways, remain of importance
and can be supported by an understanding of the trap style.
Indeed, extensional structures, such as hanging-wall rollovers
or rotated fault blocks, have implications on the play type,
reservoir closure, fault network, and existence of source rock
to reservoir connection (drain and seal) for fluid migration.
Salt-Bearing Basins
Salt tectonics is associated with unique challenges due to
the mechanical and thermal properties of salt. Futhermore,
salt provenance can be autochthonous or allochthonous,
and its original thickness is generally unknown. The style of
salt structures is unusual (e.g. diapirs, turtlebacks anticlines,
salt wings, growth faults, salt tongues, and canopies), and
seismic imaging below the salt is difficult. In addition, the “In fold-and-thrust belts, a
disconnection between minibasins (in 2D sections) and source-to-sink relationship
stratigraphic variability makes the age model and correlation generally exists between
challenging. sediments recycled
from the internal domain
This results in balancing challenges where geometries are
undergoing uplift, erosion,
unconstrained, which must often be solved using area balance
and cooling to the foreland
and vertical shear, while considering sediment decompaction,
Figure 4 > Multi-scenario testing for the restoration of mini-basins bounded by salt extrusion conduits (in grey) in the Northern Gulf of basin undergoing flexural
Mexico (modeled after seismic). Note the challenge in understanding the salt provenance (shallow vs. deep evacuation) (Rowan and isostacy, and thermal subsidence of the margin (Figure 4).
Ratcliff, 2012). subsidence.”
built (Figure 6A) associated with substantial geometrical “...geomodeling algorithms

Figure 5 > 3D model, uncertainty. The fault geometry, initially drawn by hand in the provide solutions to
including multi-Z surfaces,
based on an analogical
area of seismic noise, was not correlated with the well‑imaged, constructing single surfaces,
sandbox model of a basin hanging-wall horizons. In addition, the 3D subsurface modeling while structural modeling
inversion (IFP, GeoAnalog,
algorithm projected the interpretation of the horizons vertically, provides the interaction
Methodology
https://geoanalog.ifpen.
Methodology
fr/). The model was built which decreased the thickness of the layer in the steeper and geologic relationship
using dynamic framework
to fill in DSG 10ep.4.04
limbs of the structure. A few steps were employed to make between the stratigraphic
refinements and obtain a more valid model: surfaces and faults that build
1. A fault prediction tool was used in order to refine the the 3D framework.”
fault geometry based on the geometry of the hanging
3D SUBSURFACE GEOMODELING
wall and a given kinematic model (Geiser et al., 1988)
“Freehand” Seismic Interpretation (Figure 6B).
The quality, robustness, and admissibility of geoscientist-led interpretation is constrained by their level 2. The geometry of the footwall horizons was then
of expertise and exposure to a wide range of models (Alcalde et al., 2017), by individual bias related to extended across the fault into the hanging-wall to an
the types of geological contexts the interpreter is most familiar with (Bond et al., 2015), and possibly assumed pre-deformed position. A forward-modeling
by current trends in academic research (Butler et al., 2019). For those reasons, finishing a subsurface approach using a trishear kinematic model (Zhender
interpretation freehand (especially in a region where there is uncertainty in the data, such as seismic and Allmendinger, 2000) was used to validate the
noise) should be discouraged. Instead, completing a subsurface interpretation and generating a 3D interpretation of the horizons, and their relationship
structural geological model should require the use of subsurface geomodeling algorithms associated with the fault (Figure 6C).
with simple steps of structural validation.
3. Finally, the main horizon was projected using a
Subsurface Geomodeling Algorithms parallel projection in order to respect the stratigraphic
thickness, particularly in the overturned part of the
Subsurface geomodeling algorithms of structural surfaces have improved in recent decades and
anticline limb (Figure 6D).
now allow the results to be constrained by integrating some geological knowledge, such as realistic Figure 6 > Effect of a structural
curvatures or thickness preservation (e.g. Wellman and Caumon, 2018). Advances in subsurface Implications for Modeling Reserve Estimates validation workflow on the volume
of hydrocarbon accumulation applied
geomodeling algorithms can now be applied in complex settings (Figure 5), such as salt provinces or Modeling the valid fault trace that balanced with the hanging to the structural interpretation
fold-and-thrust belts where the presence of repeated stratigraphy along vertical lines within overturned of the Teapot Dome. A) Original
wall, resulted in a deviation of 10 degrees in fault dip. This framework, B) Fault prediction, C)
beds (Laurent et al., 2016) was, until recently, a limiting factor. This approach has the advantage of
led to a change of 20% in reserve estimate (figures 6E and Trishear (Zehnder and Allmendinger,
being accurate, since with a limited amount of user input, the model is fitted to the input data. Other 2000) forward modeling, D) Parallel
6F). The valid model reduced the uncertainty of the geologic
advantages include the rapid simulation and visualization of multiple scenarios based on the same projection, E) Initial hydrocarbon
interpretation, created geologically accurate and admissible volume, and F) Revised hydrocarbon
data input (e.g. Lallier et al., 2012; Wellman and Caumon, 2018), and the possibility to quantify the volume after model validation.
models, and resulted in a higher precision volume estimation.
uncertainty with a probabilistic approach (e.g. MacKay, 2003).
Even though ongoing developments increasingly integrate geological and physical data directly
into subsurface geomodeling algorithms, structural validation is generally, only partially automated.
Furthermore, geomodeling algorithms provide solutions to constructing surfaces independently of their
genealogical link and evolution (such as folded surface to fault correlation), while structural modeling
provides the interaction and structural relationship between the stratigraphic surfaces and faults (i.e.
kinematic model) that build the 3D framework.
Nevertheless, the interpreter should be aware of existing simple tools that can easily and rapidly
improve the validity and quality of their structural model, which can then be used as an input to create
3D structural surfaces.
Using Validation Tools

The impact of a wrong fault dip angle, a missed fault, an incorrect hanging-wall geometry, or
inconsistent stratigraphic thicknesses can over- or under-estimate the reservoir size and provide
low-confidence reserve estimates. As an example, a test was done on a subsurface model of a
fault‑related, 4-way closure anticline (Figure 6).
A Case Study of Step-by-Step Validation on Seismic
A preliminary model was created for the Teapot Dome 3D dataset (Figure 1A) based on interpreter‑led
interpretation of the main horizons of interest. This allowed first path 3D structural surfaces to be
Methodology
Methodology
Figure 8 > Subsurface model of the Covenant Field (Utah, US) showing the original (left) and revised (right) interpretation and
restoration. Note that the validation workflow has reduced the risk on the source rock (labeled “source”) migration pathways,
modeled using LithoTect ® software.
CONCLUSIONS
Structural validation workflows applied to subsurface models
include a range of simple geometrical rules that can increase
the value of data by reducing the geometrical uncertainty.
Exploration workflows rely on structural modeling to build,
validate, and test subsurface models from basin to prospect
scale, especially in areas of poor data quality or zones of
noise in the seismic imaging. Despite the value of subsurface
imaging and the advances in geomodeling algorithms, those
data and methods are associated with uncertainties.
Structural validation of subsurface models offers a

fundamental, but often overlooked, approach to minimize the
Figure 7 > Kinematic evolution of the Covenant Field (Utah, US), modeled using LithoTect ®.
risk associated with various aspects of play-based exploration
“Exploration workflows
workflows. It enables traps geometries and reserve estimates
rely on structural modeling
KINEMATIC EVOLUTION to be estimated more accurately, increases understanding
to build, validate, and test
of the reservoir sealing, and allows kinematic paths to be
The benefits of performing sequential restoration of the basin is twofold. Firstly, it further validates the subsurface models from
created for basin models and migration pathways. Robust
subsurface model by offering a restorable subsurface scenario. Secondly, it creates a valid incremental basin to prospect scale...”
structural models will save time and money by lowering
geometrical representation of the basin in question. This approach has the benefit of preserving at each
risk in exploration workflows. Structural validation offers a
time increment a consistent geometrical relationship between the elements of the section, the way
transferable set of tools and methods that can be applied to
they once were arranged. It takes into consideration the thermal state of the basin, evolution of the rock
the mining and renewable energy, and will be a key to success
properties (e.g. natural fractures), migration pathways, and any combination between those (Figure 7).
in these industries.
To that extent, it is a necessary input to any sound and rigorous basin analysis workflow, particularly in
basins that have been subject to horizontal displacement (i.e. extension or compression). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Covenant Field in Utah, US, is an exemplarily demonstration of the value of restoration and balancing The authors wish to thank Bob Ratliff for his contribution on
by its impact on the interpretation of the hydrocarbon path (Figure 8). Located in the Central Utah Thrust some of the models during his time at Halliburton-Landmark
Belt, this field is characterized by an elongate, symmetrical, northeast-trending, fault-propagation/ (Covenant Field, salt basins, and kinematic models) and
fault-bend anticlinal trap in a complex setting. While the original interpretation shows a rather complex acknowledge Kurt Ranzinger, Senior Architect at Landmark, for
hydrocarbon path along faults that were both leaking and sealing conduits, and sealing at the reservoir; his significant contribution to the development of subsurface
the revised and balanced interpretation requires a simple migration path as the source rock uplifted modeling applications, LithoTect® software in particular.
earlier in the evolution of the basin, keeping it cooler and preserving its oil-generation capability.
REFERENCES
Exploration
Alcalde, J., C.E. Bond, G. Johnson, R.W.H. Butler, M.A. Cooper and J.F. Ellis 2017. The importance of structural model availability
on seismic interpretation. Journal of Structural Geology, v. 97, p. 161-171. (XURBB_643688).
Bond, C.E., G. Johnson and J.F. Ellis 2015. Structural model creation: the impact of data type and creative space on geological
reasoning and interpretation. Geological Society of Greece - Special Publication, v. 421, no. 1, p. 83-97. (XURBB_643696).
Methodology
Butler, R.W.H., C.E. Bond, M.A. Cooper and H. Watkins 2020. Fold–thrust structures – where have all the buckles gone?.
Geological Society of Greece - Special Publication, v. 487, no. 1, p. 21-44. (XURBB_643697).
Chamberlin, R.T. 1910. The Appalachian Folds of Central Pennsylvania. The Journal of Geology, v. 18, no. 3, p. 228-251.
(XURBB_643814).
Cosgrove, J.W. 2015. The association of folds and fractures and the link between folding, fracturing and fluid flow during
the evolution of a fold–thrust belt: a brief review. Geological Society of Greece - Special Publication, v. 421, no. 1, p. 41-68.
(XURBB_643698).
Handbook
Dahlstrom, C.D.A. 1969. Balanced cross sections. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 6, no. 4, p. 743-757. (XURBB_643789).
Elliott, D. 1983. The construction of balanced cross-sections. Journal of Structural Geology, v. 5, no. 2, p. 101-101.
(XURBB_643791).
Geiser, J., P.A. Geiser, R. Kligfield, R. Ratliff and M. Rowan 1988. New Applications of Computer-Based Section Construction:
Strain Analysis, Local Balancing, and Subsurface Fault Prediction. The Mountain Geologist, v. 25, no. 2, p. 47-59. (XURBB_643837).
James, R., and J.-C. Wrobel-Daveau 2019. Is there overlooked potential in the Sub-Andean fold and thrust belt?. Exploration
Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 22-32. (XURBB_641256).
Lallier, F., G. Caumon, J. Borgomano, S. Viseur, F. Fournier, C. Antoine and T. Gentilhomme 2012. Relevance of the stochastic
stratigraphic well correlation approach for the study of complex carbonate settings: application to the Malampaya buildup
(Offshore Palawan, Philippines). In J. Garland, J.E. Neilson, S.E. Laubach and K.J. Whidden (Eds.), Advances in Carbonate
Exploration and Reservoir Analysis. Geological Society of London - Special Publications no. 370, p. 165-275. (XURBB_483209).
Laurent, G., L. Ailleres, L. Grose, G. Caumon, M. Jessell and R. Armit 2016. Implicit modeling of folds and overprinting
deformation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 456, p. 26-38. (XURBB_643699).
MacKay, D. J. C. 2003. Information theory, inference, and learning algorithms (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press, 1-628 p.
(XURBB_643700).
Ramsay, J.G. and M.I. Huber 1987. The Techniques of Modern Structural Geology: Folds and Fractures. Elsevier, 1-391 p.
(XURBB_643788).
Rowan, M.G. and R.A. Ratliff 2012. Cross-section restoration of salt-related deformation: Best practices and potential pitfalls.
Journal of Structural Geology, v. 41, p. 24-37. (XURBB_643873).
Simmons, M. 2020. The Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow. Subsurface Insights, v. November, p. 24-35.
(XURBB_645951).
U.S. Department of Energy, 2013. RMOTC Data Sets (Teapot Dome, Natrona County, Wyoming: 3-D Seismic Data Set). U.S.
Department of Energy. Digital Dataset. (XURBB_643787).
Wellmann, F. and G. Caumon 2018. 3-D Structural geological models: Concepts, methods, and uncertainties. Advances in
Geophysics. vol. 59, p. 1-121. (XURBB_643717).
Wilkerson, M.S. and C.L. Dicken 2001. Quick-look techniques for evaluating two-dimensional cross sections in detached
contractional settings. AAPG Bulletin, v. 85, no. 10, p. 1759-1770. (XURBB_643792).
Zehnder, A.T. and R.W. Allmendinger 2000. Velocity field for the trishear model. Journal of Structural Geology, v. 22, no. 8, p.
1009‑1014. (XURBB_630422).
DISCLAIMER
Plate Tectonic Models in Exploration oceans back through geological time is now a vital part of the
Exploration
exploration geologist’s toolkit. A deeper understanding of the
Handbook
relationships between geodynamic settings, natural resource
By: Craig Lang, Jean-Christophe Wrobel-Daveau, and Graeme Nicoll formation, and preservation enables plate tectonic models to
be used predictively in hydrocarbon exploration.
Methodology
Methodology
In this chapter, we explore how plate models can be used
within geoscience workflows, review what plate models are
and how they are constrained, and finally looks at how recent
“We are like a judge confronted by a defendant who declines to answer, and we must
applications and online tools are democratizing the use of plate
determine the truth from the circumstantial evidence.”
Exploration
tectonic models across the geoscientific community.
Handbook
Alfred Wegener — The Origin of Continents and Oceans, 1929

APPLICATIONS OF PLATE MODELS TO “Plate tectonics has
EXPLORATION laid the foundations for
Geoscientists want to view and understand the Earth as it was and not just as it is now (Figure 1).
a considerably better
The advent of plate tectonics in the 20th century ranks as one of the most important advancements Geoscientists endeavor to understand and explain the
understanding of the Earth’s
in geology, alongside the understanding of geological time. This advancement was possible due to evolution of Earth using geological data. Data availability varies
evolution.”
improvements in geoscience observation and surveying techniques, together with the accumulation in space and geological time; the extent to which a time period
of geoscience data, in part driven by the exploration for natural resources. Plate tectonics has laid the or region has been explored often depends on its natural
foundations for a considerably better understanding of the Earth’s evolution. It was, however, only resource endowment, accessibility, and preservation. Plate
since the late 1960s that the theory of plate tectonics has been widely accepted (as reviewed by models are valuable dynamic mapping tools, used to synthetize
Wrobel‑Daveau and Nicoll, 2019); today, we regularly build on top of this solid foundation. all available geological data, and visualize these in their original
context, to support predictions, particularly in data-poor frontier
Understanding plate tectonics allows a geoscientist to reconstruct plate motions back in time, enabling regions. Plate models allow us to:
data to be reconstructed to their original paleo-positions. The ability to reconstruct continents and
» Reconstruct data. Plate models are used to transform
data points from their present-day locations to their
positions at a given geological time. Geoscientists
use plate models to reconstruct a variety of data
types and interpretations, created on present-day
geography, back to their paleo-positions. By accounting
for the geodynamic context of formation or deposition
of natural resources (such as the individual elements
of a petroleum system), geoscientists can validate and
improve their interpretations and models.
» Map palinspastically/paleogeographically. When
combined with sedimentological and stratigraphic data,
and with an understanding of geological time provided
alongside a sequence stratigraphic model, plate
models can support the creation of palinspastic gross
depositional environment maps (or ‘palinspastic’
maps). Palinspastic maps show deposition at a given
geological time or stratigraphic sequence, modeled
over a reconstructed paleogeography or the Earth
(Figure 2).
These maps enable the geoscientist to understand the
locations of potential reservoir, source, and seal facies
(Lang and Reynald, 2016). For carbonate systems, and
other depositional systems driven by environmental
parameters (e.g. latitude and bathymetry), palinspastic
maps allow the interpreter to validate their stratigraphic
model in the plate tectonic context. Furthermore, by
Figure 1 > Understanding what the Earth looked like and how its systems operated back through time is intrinsic to geological
understanding drainage pathways and making
thinking. source‑to-sink predictions, they enable clastic systems
to be visualized in their correct geometry, at the time of formation. Without palinspastic maps, WHAT IS A PLATE MODEL? “Put simply, a plate tectonic
Exploration
source-to-sink modeling would not be possible in most cases, particularly when going further model is the foundation on
Handbook
back in time, as the Earth’s paleogeography was completely different to present day. Since the mainstream acceptance of plate tectonics, and the which a huge variety of the
recognition of its importance for the prediction of petroleum branches of geoscience can
» Find analogues. An understanding of the geodynamic context supports the appropriate use system elements, various academic and commercial plate be brought together.”
Methodology
Methodology
of analogues, enabling the prediction of common properties between regions that share a tectonic models have been developed. These models are
common context. For example, across the conjugate margins of an oceanic basin, one can effectively dynamic maps, in which the components move
predict that the early rift sediments may have been deposited in a similar context and latitude. through geological time on a spherical representation of the
They can, thus, be predicted to have similar properties. The use of analogues is particularly Earth’s surface. The models are designed to support the
important in frontier regions with limited data control. reconstruction and interpretation of geospatial data back
Exploration
through geological time (e.g. Scotese and Baker, 1975;
» Infer basin history. Plate models that provide a full, consistent global picture, and use the
Handbook
Scotese, 1976; Muller et al., 1993; Stampfli and Borel, 2002).

dual control (or dynamic plate boundaries) approach (see review in Verard et al., 2019), enable
For an in-depth description of the development of plate
the kinematic history of data-poor regions to be constrained. The kinematic history is based
tectonics as a theory within the geological community, please
on the external constraints provided by the surrounding plate motions (Wrobel-Daveau and
refer to Wrobel-Daveau and Nicoll (2019), published in the
Baines, 2015). For example, one could deduce the shortening between Europe and the Iberic
September edition of the Exploration Insights magazine.
Plate and the kinematics of the Pyrenean domain based solely on the position of Europe and an
integrated plate circuit, using the plate tectonic constraints from surrounding oceanic basins (i.e.
the North Atlantic Ocean, including Bay of Biscay).
» Interrogate basin history. Plate models are incredibly dense geological data syntheses.
As such, they contain a vast amount of geological knowledge that can be interrogated to
understand the tectonic history of a region in map view, or in new formats such as data
analytics dashboards, e.g. Neftex TectonicExplorer. These data can also be used as inputs to
workflows such as basin modeling (Wrobel-Daveau and Dowey, 2017).
» Build PDEMs. Recent advances in geoprocessing and big data analytics have added the
vertical dimension to further enhance plate models. Depth and elevation have been added to
paleogeographic maps through paleo-bathymetric and paleo-digital elevation models. These
models are critical inputs into source-to-sink studies and climate models, as they provide paleo-
morphological constraints affecting oceanic and atmospheric circulation.
» Conduct paleo-Earth systems science. An improved understanding of paleoclimates

enables the prediction of climate-sensitive facies and related paleoenvironments, such as
the occurrence of source rocks and tropical carbonate reservoirs. A potential output from
paleoclimate models is rainfall runoff, which is used to model paleodrainage. This ultimately
helps with source-to-sink modeling through a combination of source-to-sink methods and the
use of detrital geochronology datasets, as they allow one to discriminate the provenance of
clastic sediments and assess the reservoir quality in clastic basins.
» Constrain, model, and predict the locations, types, and biomes of plants and animals.
Biological data can be used to check paleo-latitude positioning in plate models, and also as
additional inputs into source-to-sink or climate models. Vegetation, or paleo-vegetation, is a
very important factor to consider when modeling paleo-climate and erosion-sedimentation
rates, both in terrestrial and marine environments. For example, the type of flora present can
provide validation of modeled climate or reconstructions, while the abundance of vegetation
partly controls the amount of material being eroded and transported from a source area.
Plate tectonic models can help constrain evolutionary pathways of fauna. Conversely, the
passage of certain fauna from one part of the globe to another, and the times at which it
occurred, can act as an additional validation of some reconstructions.
Put simply, a plate tectonic model is the foundation on which a huge variety of the branches of
geoscience can be brought together. As more data are brought to bear, the accuracy of and confidence Figure 2 > Mid-Cretaceous Neftex® plate reconstruction, palinspastic map and paleo-digital elevation model. The locations of data
constraint have been reconstructed to their paleo-positions, using the Neftex Plate Model. The stratigraphy has been modeled
in interpretations are improved. This holistic approach translates into greater predictability and an globally, even away from data constraint, including over portions of oceanic lithosphere now consumed. Source rocks for several
increase in understanding the geological risks in an exploration area. important petroleum systems (e.g. La Luna and Eagle Ford formations) were deposited at this time. The relationship between these
source rocks is clear in the paleo-geographic context of a relative oceanic restriction in the equatorial region.
In this approach, the plate model is built around reference “Each polygon component
Exploration
reconstructions. These are key time slices for which global plate of the plate model ‘map’ is
Handbook
tectonic frameworks are created, including GDU positions, plate called a geodynamic unit
boundaries, and oceanic crust (consumed and extant). Plates in (GDU). A GDU is a portion of
their entirety (continental and oceanic portions) are then moved the Earth’s lithosphere that
Methodology
Methodology
from one reference reconstruction to the next one, conserving has had a discrete evolution
a globally consistent plate boundary network, while respecting through geological time.”
the addition or consumption of lithosphere and triple junctions.
Between reference reconstructions, the evolution of the plate
boundaries has to be consistent with the motion of plates, and
Exploration
must reflect a valid geodynamic scenario that respects physical
Handbook
and geometrical rules (Fowlers, 2004; Vérard, 2019).
The integration of large datasets, allowing for absolute and

relative plate positioning methods, combined with a globally
consistent plate boundaries framework and a dual control
Figure 3 > Schematic representation of plate model components including geodynamic units, continents/terranes and plates. The
approach, are essential conditions for higher accuracy and
linework is composed of plate boundaries (e.g active margin, and mid-ocean ridge), continent-ocean boundaries (e.g. active margin, confidence in plate tectonic models. This is particularly true
and passive margin) and other important features (e.g. isochrons).
the further back you go in geological time, as data quality and
availability decreases.
THE BASIS OF A PLATE MODEL
Each polygon component of the plate model ‘map’ is called a geodynamic unit (GDU). A GDU is a
portion of the Earth’s lithosphere that has had a discrete evolution through geological time. Each GDU
is attributed with rotation poles describing its movement to its paleo-positions back through geological
time. This information can be read by plate reconstruction software, such as GPlates, PaleoGIS, and
QuickPlates® online application.
The quality of the plate model is often associated with the level of detail in the subdivision of GDUs,
and the precision of the associated poles of rotation. The quality also depends on how well the GDU
positions have been constrained, which is related to the amount, variety, and precision of the data used.
PLATE MODEL CONSTRAINTS

Plate positions can be difficult to track back using observational methods alone, so vast multi-disciplinary
datasets are synthesized and integrated, using concepts from different fields of geosciences. The challenge
for the modeler is to understand the absolute position, the relative position, and the geodynamic context of
each GDU.
Absolute position with respect to a fixed mantle frame of reference generally relies on proxies, such as paleo-
magnetic data or temperature-sensitive biostratigraphic markers. These enable an estimate to be made of the
paleo-latitude of a GDU at a certain time, but without a direct constraint on paleo-longitude (Torsvik, 2019).
Hotspots are considered as fixed mantle points (O’Neil et al., 2005; Ivanov, 2007). Subducted paleo-ocean
slabs, imaged by tomography, indicate where oceans once existed. These two methods only provide support
for absolute plate positioning as far back as the last 300 million years (van der Meer et al., 2010; 2018).
The relative plate (GDU) position and its geodynamic context are assessed using multi-disciplinary proxies
from sedimentology, stratigraphy, structural geology, geochronology, and geochemistry. These data are
integrated, while obeying plate tectonic concepts, such as plate buoyancy, mantle physics, ocean spreading,
and subduction rates, to determine the GDU positions with respect to each other, and to support the
modeling of a globally consistent and closed plate boundary network.
A globally consistent plate boundary network exists in a few plate tectonic models, including the Neftex®
Plate Model. Where present, it allows a geoscientist to go one step further into true plate modeling (as
opposed to continental drift), and impose a “dual control” on the model (e.g. Stampfli and Borel, 2002;
Hochard, 2008; Vérard et al., 2015; Vérard, 2019). Figure 4 > Building a robust plate tectonic model from data and regional knowledge is just the starting point for understanding the
wider Earth system, enabling advanced predictions of the occurrence of natural resources through time and space.
CONSUMING THE DATA

The availability and consumption of geodynamic models is changing, and access to this powerful tool
is increasing. A plate model can be consumed as individual time slices displayed as images. These can
also be collated into an animation, with jumps of millions of years related to the gaps between time slices
(Blakey, 2011). While this delivery method is the most accessible, it not very interactive, and there is a
Methodology
limited amount that can be done with global-scale static images.
To use and manipulate a plate model fully, specialized software is necessary. Software packages, such
as GPlates or the PaleoGIS extension for ArcGIS, allow geoscientists to create their own time slice
reconstructions and include their own proprietary data.
The next step to democratizing the access to plate models in exploration was provided by the Neftex
QuickPlates platform, first released in 2016. This innovative application provides an integrated, online,
browser-based plate reconstruction micro-service. It allows users to view, interact, and interrogate plate
models and a vast amount of associated data and geological knowledge. QuickPlates removes the need
for specialist software. The cloud-based approach allows more development flexibility, a better and
simpler user experience, and portability across devices. QuickPlates removes some of the key barriers
to users, and makes it fast and easy for a much wider audience to utilize the power of plate model
interpretations in their daily exploration decisions.
REFERENCES
Davies, A. 2020. Paleoclimate Models in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. September, p.
24‑30. (XURBB_644480).
Fowler, C.M.R. 2004. The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics. Cambridge University Press, 1-728 p. (XURBB_590013).
Hochard, C. 2008. GIS and Geodatabases Application to Global Scale Plate Tectonics Modelling. Institut de Geologie et Paleontologie,
Universite de Lausanne, Switzerland. (XURBB_465123).
Ivanov, A.V. 2007. Evaluation of different models for the origin of the Siberian Traps. In G.R. Foulger and D.M. Jurdy (Eds.), Plates, Plumes
and Planetary Processes. GSA - Special Paper no. 430, p. 669-691. (XURBB_421671).
Lang, C. and M. Reynald 2016. Exploration insights from global paleogeography. Neftex Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
Magazine no. December/January, p. 16-21. (XURBB_634439).
Muller, R.D., J-Y Royer and L.A. Lawyer, 1993, Revised plate motions relative to the hotspots from combined Atlantic and Indian Ocean
hot spot tracks. Geology, v. 21, no. 3, p. 275-278. (XURBB_469480).
Nicoll, G., B. Gréselle, J. Smith and P. Helps 2020. Earth System Science: Source-to-Sink. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark,
p. 126-132. (XURBB_645996).
O’Neill, C., D. Müller and B. Steinberger 2005. On the uncertainties in hot spot reconstructions and the significance of moving hot spot
reference frames. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, v. 6, no. Q04003, p. 1-35. (XURBB_477728).
Scotese, C.R. and D.W. Baker 1975. Continental Drift Reconstructions and Animation. Journal of Geological Education. Taylor and Francis
Group, p. 167-171. (XURBB_641561).
Scotese, C.R. 1976. A continental drift ‘flip book’. Computers and Geosciences, v. 2, no. 1, p. 113-116. (XURBB_641562).
Stampfli, G.M. and G.D. Borel 2002. A plate tectonic model for the Paleozoic and Mesozoic constrained by dynamic plate boundaries and
restored synthetic oceanic isochrons. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 196, no. 1-2, p. 17-33. (XURBB_463865).
Torsvik, T.H. 2019. Earth history: A journey in time and space from base to top. Tectonophysics. Tectonophysics no. 760, p. 297-313.
(XURBB_641633).
Van Der Meer, D.G., D.J.J. Van Hinsbergen and W. Spakman 2018. Atlas of the underworld: Slab remnants in the mantle, their sinking
history, and a new outlook on lower mantle viscosity. Tectonophysics, v. 723, p. 309-448. (XURBB_639346).
Van Der Meer, D.G., W. Spakman, D.J.J. Van Hinsbergen, M.L. Amaru and T.H. Torsvik 2010. Towards absolute plate motions constrained by
lower-mantle slab remnants. Nature Geoscience, v. 3, no. 1, p. 36-40. (XURBB_643585).
Vérard, C., C. Hochard, P.O. Baumgartner and G.M. Stampfli 2015. Geodynamic evolution of the Earth over the Phanerozoic: Plate tectonic
activity and palaeoclimatic indicators. Journal of Palaeogeography, v. 4, no. 2, p. 167-188. (XURBB_593333).
Vérard, C. 2019. Plate tectonic modelling: review and perspectives. Geological Magazine, v. 156, no. 2, p. 208-241. (XURBB_643522).
Wrobel-Daveau, J-C. and G. Baines 2015. Geodynamic Controls on Critical Petroleum Elements in the Caucasus-Zagros Foldbelt. Neftex
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. December/January, p. 18-25. (XURBB_634434).
Wrobel-Daveau, J-C. and N. Dowey 2017. Using plate tectonics alongside source to sink analysis and basin modelling to investigate frontier
plays, Western Black Sea. Neftex Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 5-12. (XURBB_634407).
Wrobel-Daveau, J-C., and G. Nicoll 2019. The Drift Towards Plate Tectonic Theory. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
Magazine no. September, p. 10-15. (XURBB_643054).
DISCLAIMER
Paleoclimate Models in Exploration sedimentary systems and, in turn, many aspects of petroleum
Exploration
systems. The information paleoclimate models provide can,
Handbook
therefore, be used to predict whether source rocks, reservoirs,
By: Andrew Davies and seals are likely to have been deposited at a given location
and time. As an example, consider oolitic limestones; these
Methodology
Methodology
comprise some of the world’s most important reservoirs
and only form in shallow, tropical waters where clastic input
is limited. Paleoclimate models can tell us where these
conditions occurred back through geological time (e.g. Davies Above > An example paleoclimate
simulation — as shown under the tear.
WHAT ARE PALEOCLIMATE MODELS? et al., 2019; Michel et al., 2019) (Figure 3).
Exploration
These can be used to better understand
exploration potential.
Handbook
Climate models are 4-dimensional computer simulators capable of reproducing the Earth system, To generate a climate simulation, climate models need to be
including the atmosphere (e.g. wind strength), hydrosphere (e.g. ocean currents), biosphere (e.g. land given a set of input data, also known as boundary conditions.
plant productivity), cryosphere (e.g. sea ice concentration), and lithosphere (e.g. soils) (Figure 1). They The most important are the bathymetry of the seas and
do this by identifying and solving equations that describe the basic physical laws that govern how the oceans, the topography of the land, and the position of the
Earth system behaves. The resulting climate simulations have a high degree of reliability and accuracy coastline. Climate models also require information on the
(Figure 2). location of major lakes, the routes of major river systems,
the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, and the level of
Climate models were originally developed to predict the weather and the impact of future climate incoming solar radiation (Figure 1). For paleoclimate studies,
change, but they can also be used to simulate past conditions. In this context, they are known as the generation of reliable boundary conditions requires
paleoclimate models, even though the underlying climate simulator is the same. significant effort, involving the compilation and interpretation
of large sets of diverse data to develop a plate tectonic model,
Paleoclimate models have revolutionized our understanding of the Earth system (Haywood et al.,
paleogeographic maps, and paleo digital elevation models.
2019). When applied to exploration, they allow us to use a robust, physics-based approach to test our
Luckily, this is what Neftex® has been undertaking for the past
conceptual exploration models (e.g. Barron, 1985). This is because climate has a strong influence on Definitions
two decades!
Paleoclimate models
PALEOCLIMATE MODELING CONCEPTS are numerical simulators
There are many different types of climate models. The capable of reproducing the
simplest models are only able to simulate a single aspect climate.
of the climate system. For example, atmospheric general
Paleoclimate simulations
are the outputs of climate
models.
Boundary conditions are

the inputs prescribed by
the modeler. Examples
include bathymetry,
elevation, incoming solar
radiation, and composition
of the atmosphere.
Figure 2 > Comparison between observed sea surface temperatures (SST)

in the modern ocean and those simulated by the climate model HadCM3.
Although there are discrepancies, overall, the model is doing an excellent job of
Figure 1 > Diagrammatic representation of a fully coupled atmosphere and ocean general circulation model. Modified from Dippe et reproducing the ocean temperature. (n=41088).
al., 2018.
circulation models consist of a three-dimensional representation of the atmosphere coupled to the land summer and cold winter. This also applies to wind and ocean “Unfortunately, it is
Exploration
surface. As atmospheric models are unable to model ocean processes they need to be provided with currents, which tend to follow a distinct seasonal pattern. Of impossible to measure
Handbook
these data. course, in some years, summers may be cooler than normal many of the simulated
and winters warmer, but climate is the 30-year average of parameters, such as sea
There are also ocean model counterparts to atmospheric models. The most complex models couple temperature, directly
weather and, as such, is more predictable.
Methodology
Methodology
both atmospheric and ocean models, so that the whole system is considered. These represent the in the geological past
“flagship” models used in paleoclimate studies, and many are also able to simulate additional features, Like all models, paleoclimate models are a simplification of and we must, therefore,
such as vegetation coverage and type. Even the most sophisticated models do not incorporate reality. Model resolution may result in an over-simplification of rely on a variety of
all aspects of the Earth’s systems. These other features, such as tides, need to be modeled certain aspects of the Earth system. For instance, the width of paleoclimate proxies.
independently. ocean upwelling zones, important for source rock formation, These proxies range from
Exploration
may be broader than they were in reality, or rain shadows sophisticated geochemical
The choice of model depends on how the simulations will be used and is normally a pragmatic decision
Handbook
may be missed due to an averaging of the topography. Some paleotemperature estimates

that reflects the best trade-off between resolution and sophistication, and computational cost and the
processes may not be able to be resolved by a model, such to the simple occurrence of
time taken to run the simulation. The most sophisticated climate models have geographic cells sizes
as the rate of precipitation from clouds. In these instances, climatically controlled facies,
of several kilometers and contain over a hundred vertical levels. Some models have a cell size of many
a value is assigned within the model, which may be an over- such as coral reefs.”
hundreds of kilometers and contain a small number of vertical layers. The most sophisticated models
simplification as in reality this value may change spatially.
may only be able to simulate 0.5 years in 24 hours, even using supercomputing facilities, while other
There are also uncertainties in the boundary conditions, such
models can simulate several thousand years in the same time.
as the paleogeography, topography, and bathymetry, and
Why is this important? Climate is defined as the 30-year average of the weather. Therefore, at least the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. This is why it is
30 years of simulation are needed to model climate. However, it is not as simple as this. For a climate important to run several simulations to explore the range of
simulation to be reliable, it is imperative that the climate has reached equilibrium. For instance, if CO2 possible scenarios, rather than relying on a single simulation.
levels are changed in a model, the climate is perturbed and becomes unbalanced. The climate must
The true test of the ability of a climate model to predict past
warm or cool to reach a new equilibrium consistent with the new CO2 level.
conditions is to compare simulations with data. Unfortunately,
When paleoclimate simulations are generated, it is not only atmospheric CO2 levels that are changed, it is impossible to measure many of the simulated parameters,
but also many other boundary conditions, such as the land elevation and the bathymetry of the ocean. such as sea temperature, directly in the geological past
It is, therefore, necessary to simulate thousands of years for robust results. To ensure the most and we must, therefore, rely on a variety of paleoclimate
sophisticated models are providing robust simulations, they would need to be left running for several proxies. These proxies range from sophisticated geochemical
years! This is not practical for most applications, least of all hydrocarbon exploration. This is further paleotemperature estimates to the simple occurrence of
compounded, as it is good practice to run several simulations with different boundary conditions, due climatically controlled facies, such as coral reefs. In general,
to uncertainties in the boundary conditions (such CO2 levels). there is very good correspondence between climate
simulations and climatically controlled facies (Figure 3), but
CAN WE REALLY MODEL CLIMATE? this is not always the case for more complex geochemical
Is it possible to model past climates accurately? After all, meteorologists are often unable to predict proxies. These proxies may possess uncertainties from
the weather a few days in advance! It is important not to confuse weather with climate. Weather is the a range of sources, including diagenesis, calibration, and
phenomenon that happens every day. It is extremely dynamic (often chaotic) and is, therefore, often seasonal bias (e.g. Davies et al., 2019), so they must be used
hard to predict. However, it is possible to predict, with a high degree of certainty, that it will be warm in with care.
Figure 3 > A) Distribution of modern-day tropical carbonates versus cold month mean sea surface temperature. Most corals are bound by the 18°C cold month temperatures; whereas, larger benthic foraminifera can tolerate conditions as low as 14°C. B) Comparison
of an early Eocene simulation against carbonate distribution. Notice the high level of correspondence.
APPLICATIONS OF PALEOCLIMATE MODELS Figure 5 > A snapshot of upwelling

Exploration
Handbook
predicted for a time-slice within the
Why are paleoclimate models useful in exploration? Climate models, themselves, do not make Early Jurassic.
petroleum systems elements predictions. However, paleoclimate simulations provide insights into
a range of physical processes,
Methodology
Methodology
such as wind strength, ocean
temperatures, and rainfall patterns.
These physical processes have a
strong influence on sedimentary
systems and, in turn, many aspects
Exploration
of petroleum systems, such as
The digital revolution poses many exciting new avenues for utilizing
Handbook
source rock, reservoir, and seal.

paleoclimate simulations within exploration. It may be possible
To make paleoclimate simulations
to use techniques, such as machine learning, to make better
relevant to petroleum exploration, it
predictions of petroleum systems elements. Such techniques even
is necessary to combine a range of
hold the promise of actually creating climate simulations without
simulated parameters provided by
the need for a model, enabling simulations to be obtained more
the model. Some features, such as
efficiently, allowing a greater range of uncertainties to be assessed.
tropical carbonates, are controlled by Figure 4 > Boxplot showing the distribution of modern day, grouped by total
Data science techniques may also allow high-resolution simulations,
a small number of parameters. Other organic carbon (TOC) content, versus vertical velocity of the ocean. The vertical
bars represent the median value for each group. This shows that higher TOC akin to those created by the most sophisticated climate models, to
features, such as source rocks, are sediments are more likely to occur where there is a greater positive vertical
be generated from low-resolution models (e.g. Rasp et al., 2018),
more complex. velocity (known as upwelling). “Paleoclimate models
providing greater insights into the distribution of petroleum systems
provide an independent,
Paleoclimate models provide an independent, physics-based sense check of exploration concepts and elements.
physics-based sense check
have several direct applications for assisting successful hydrocarbon exploration. Examples include: The digital revolution also makes a truly quantitative approach to of exploration concepts
» Simulated ocean currents and oxygen values provide insights into the distribution of potential stratigraphy and sedimentology possible. Paleoclimate simulations and have several direct
source rocks (figures 4 and 5). are the only means to understand many of the processes controlling applications for assisting
depositional systems and, as such, will be central to such an successful hydrocarbon
» Vegetation modeling provides insights into the distribution of continent-derived organic exploration.”
approach. The seamless use of paleoclimate simulations to better
matter.
constrain forward stratigraphic models and, thus, generate enhanced
» Information on ocean temperatures and clastic sediment flux enables the distribution of insights into play fairway extents and reservoir heterogeneity, is an
tropical carbonate factories to be predicted, providing better insights into carbonate play obvious avenue to pursue.
extents (Figure 3).
REFERENCES
» Modeled precipitation patterns provide insights into source-to-sink relationships, helping to Barron, E.J. 1985. Numerical Climate Modeling, A Frontier in Petroleum Source Rock Prediction:
refine understanding of deep-water play extents. Results Based on Cretaceous Simulations. AAPG Bulletin, v. 69, p. 448-459. (XURBB_643882).
Chen, X., X. Huang, C. Jiao, M.G. Flanner, T. Raeker and B. Palen 2017. Running climate model on
» Evaporation and relative humidity can help evaluate the distribution of evaporite seals. a commercial cloud computing environment: A case study using Community Earth System Model
(CESM) on Amazon AWS. Computers and Geosciences, v. 98, p. 21-25. (XURBB_629106).
» Simulated seabed energy conditions (e.g. tidal currents) enable areas with potential for Davies, A., S.J. Hunter, B. Gréselle, A.M. Haywood and C. Robson 2019. Evidence for seasonality
in early Eocene high latitude sea-surface temperatures. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 519,
enhanced reservoir quality to be identified. p. 274-283. (XURBB_643856).
Dippe, T., M. Krebs, J. Harlaß and J.F. Lübbecke 2018. Can Climate Models Simulate the Observed
» Paleoclimate simulations can provide inputs into forward stratigraphic models. Strong Summer Surface Cooling in the Equatorial Atlantic?. YOUMARES 8 – Oceans Across
Boundaries: Learning from each other. Springer, p. 7-23. (XURBB_644392).
FUTURE TRENDS
Haywood, A.M., P.J. Valdes, T. Aze, N. Barlow, A. Burke, A.M. Dolan, A.S. von der Heydt,
D.J. Hill, S.S.R. Jamieson, B.L. Otto-Bliesner, U. Salzmann, E. Saupe and J. Voss 2019.
Until recently, paleoclimate models were mainly developed by individual government bodies, such as What can Palaeoclimate Modelling do for you?. Earth System and Environment, v. 3, p. 1-18.
(XURBB_644361).
the UK Met Office, the Japan Meteorological Agency, and the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Michel, J., M. Laugié, A. Pohl, C. Lanteaume, J. Masse, Y. Donnadieu and J. Borgomano 2019.
Administration Office. In recent years, there has been growing use of community-driven models Marine carbonate factories: a global model of carbonate platform distribution. International
Journal of Earth Sciences (Formerly Geologische Rundschau), v. 108, no. 6, p. 1773-1792.
developed by the wider research community, such as the Community Climate System Model (CCSM) (XURBB_644364).
and the Community Earth System Model (CESM). This may enable faster model development in the Rasp, S., M.S. Pritchard and P. Gentine 2018. Deep learning to represent subgrid processes in
future, allowing additional parameters to be simulated. Such models may also allow climate simulations climate models. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, v. 115, no.
39, p. 9684-9689. (XURBB_644362).
to be more easily generated.
DISCLAIMER
Simulating the climate is extremely computationally demanding and, as such, paleoclimate models are This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge created
within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been used in its
usually run on supercomputing facilities. However, the advent of powerful and easily accessible, cloud- preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is acknowledged.
Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright holder and is
based computing resources may allow simulations to be generated more easily and at a lower cost acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect the views and/or opinions
of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not limited to Landmark Graphics
(Chen et al., 2017). Corporation.
Earth System Science: Source-to-Sink Earth systems science can also play an important role in
Exploration
predicting source rock deposition, through investigating the

primary controls on organic productivity and the process that
By: Graeme Nicoll, Benjamin Gréselle, Joss Smith, and Paul Helps control preservation of organic matter. This is discussed in the
chapter concerning paleoclimate.
Methodology
Methodology
INTRODUCTION APPLICATIONS
21 century geology has seen the advent of Earth system science. This takes a holistic approach to
st
Source-to-sink studies are important in exploration because
integrate the disparate strands of both geoscience and other scientific disciplines, such as chemistry, Above > Godley River, New Zealand by
they:
physics, biology, and mathematics to treat the Earth as an integrated system. Such an approach Ulrich Lange, Bochum, Germany —
Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://
has a number of applications, including an understanding of key controls on depositional process » Provide insight on the composition of sediment commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.
Handbook
through geological history (Figure 1), and the evolution of life on this planet. It is also used to predict, within potential reservoir facies, and thus help php?curid=56407836
for example, the effects of future climate change. Fundamental to the success of an Earth systems high-grade basins, or areas within a basin in terms
approach have been advances in global processes, such as eustasy, and the increasing sophistication of likely reservoir quality. This is achieved through
and integration of a range of physics-based models. Forward stratigraphic modeling is an application hinterland screening.
of this approach, that allows depositional systems and sedimentary architecture in the subsurface to be
» Provide insight on the likely size of sedimentary
reconstructed using knowledge on sediment transport, sea-level fluctuations (sequence stratigraphy),
bodies being deposited within a sedimentary
paleoclimate, and the changing nature of carbonate producers.
systems, especially the terminal sediments
Of particular interest to the exploration geologist is a “source-to-sink” approach that investigates (e.g. submarine fans). This is achieved through
sedimentary systems in their totality, from erosion of sediment (and its provenance) in the hinterland, investigation of sedimentary scaling relationships.
through its transportation through fluvial and marine depositional systems, to its ultimate deposition
These applications and approaches are discussed in following
as, for example, deltaic systems or submarine fans (Allen, 2008; 2017). Numerical modeling of past
sections.
topography and climate allows sediment flux (the amount of sediment passing through the river
mouth to the sink in a given time) to be estimated, in turn providing insight into the likely areal extent Hinterland Screening
and thickness of potential reservoir facies, alongside an assessment of reservoir quality in terms of
mineralogy and heterogeneity. Fundamental questions are: “Where has this package of sediment come A key first step in the exploration application of source-to-
from?” and “How did it get here?”. Even if detailed answers are not always available, the questions sink studies is hinterland screening (e.g. Heins et al., 2008).
should always be asked by explorationists. Traditional provenance, heavy mineral, and detrital studies,
as well as thermochronology, are powerful components of “Fundamental questions
this process, as proofs of ideas and confirmation of hinterland are: “Where has this
exposure. “Where did my sediment package come from?” and package of sediment come
“What original lithologies sourced my sediment package?” from?” and “How did it
are two fundamental questions to be answered. The exact get here?”. Even if detailed
sediment source, by its very definition, has been eroded and answers are not always
removed. However, present-day outcropping and sub-cropping available, the questions
regional geology can help us make informed predictions about should always be asked by
likely lithologies and the nature of the exposed hinterland at explorationists.”
the time of erosion. Hinterland datasets that are temporally and
spatially well constrained can be used for this task, including
geological maps, geochronology, mineral deposits and
geochemistry (Figure 2).
Figure 1 >
Schematic
The hinterland composition in areas of high erosion is the
representation most important factor in determining the nature of sediments
of a holistic
Earth system
ultimately delivered to the basin (Garzanti et al., 2016; Garzanti,
science approach, 2017; Wells et al., 2017). Therefore, knowledge of hinterland
including source-to‑
sink concepts. The
lithology can be used to predict the quality of sediments
whole geological delivered to the basin by point-sourced river systems; Rees
tectono-sedimentary
system is considered from
et al. (2018) used such an approach to high-grade sediment
sediment source to its sources supplying sands entering the Western Black Sea
ultimate destination in a basin,
with a variety of Earth systems during the Oligocene–Early Miocene, and forming potential
factors controlling this. This can be turbiditic reservoirs.
highly predictive, and can be used to
de-risk play concepts.
Exploration
Methodology
Methodology
Figure 3 >
The source-
to-sink system. The
four segments (catchment,
shelf, slope, and basin floor)
Handbook
are genetically related and display

important scaling relationships. Adapted
from Somme et al. (2009).
“In the last decade, great

The use of fan-scaling provides a prediction for the most likely
strides have been made
extent of submarine fans, and identifies spatial trends. While
in understanding the
the results should be treated as hypotheses to be tested, related segments of the
rather than definitive answers, they are extremely useful source-to-sink system.
insights for exploration geologists. They can inform gross Key among these has
depositional environment maps and common risk segment been the identification
(CRS) maps, and give context to the interpretation of undefined of morphological scaling
geobodies in seismic data. relationships...”
Figure 2 > Example of hinterland screening applied to an assessment of Late Cenozoic reservoirs in the offshore Makran and Indus RECREATING ANCIENT SOURCE-TO-SINK
basins. Data from geochronology and mineral deposit datasets in the Zagros, Makran and Western Himalayan hinterland were
evaluated in terms of quartz content, yielding an interpretation of likely quartz content of reservoirs in the respective depositional
SYSTEMS
basins, after sediment transport.
The modern-day relationships derived by Somme et al.
A matrix can be created comparing lithology type with the potential amount of quartz that lithology (2009) and Nyberg et al. (2018) help to develop a predictive
could produce on erosion and subsequent transport. These data are grouped into categories, ranging framework. But can we reliably apply them to ancient
from high (relatively good potential reservoir) to low (relatively poor potential reservoir) in regard to the systems? To answer this question, Snedden et al. (2018)
quartz potential on erosion for the original source material (Figure 2). For example, granitic rocks have a focused on the Cenozoic record of the Gulf of Mexico. The
high quartz potential, while basaltic rocks have a very low quartz potential. This methodology produces
a rapid, first-pass assessment of the potential quality of sediments being derived from eroding
hinterland within each drainage basin, at any discrete time interval.
Sediment Scaling Relationships

Submarine fans represent the largest sediment accumulations on Earth. These deep-water deposits
commonly accumulate at the ends of major river systems and often represent the final ‘sink’ for
land‑derived sediment. As well as housing a wealth of information relating to ancient climates and lost
landscapes, they also act as prolific reservoirs. Deep-marine turbidite plays have a rich exploration
history, and turbidite-related discoveries are among the largest and most productive. Thanks to some
major recent successes (e.g. Tortue, Mauritania; and Liza, Guyana), they remain a potential target in
areas including West Africa, South America, and the Gulf of Mexico. As such, predictive insights into
the location and extent of submarine fans are of great interest to exploration geologists.
In the last decade, great strides have been made in understanding the related segments of the
source‑to-sink system. Key among these has been the identification of morphological scaling
relationships (Somme et al., 2009; Nyberg et al., 2018). Somme et al. (2009) analyzed the segments of Figure 4 > A first-order scaling relationship
exists between the maximum river length
modern source-to-sink systems — catchment, shelf, slope, and basin floor (Figure 3) — and identified within a catchment and the length of the
quantitative relationships between them. Intriguingly, the study highlighted a first-order scaling resulting submarine fan (Somme et al.,
2009; Nyberg et al., 2018). Such empirical
relationship between the size of the catchment and the size of the linked submarine fan (Figure 4). In
relationships make it possible to estimate the
theory, this scaling relationship has potential to be used as a predictive tool in subsurface systems, unknown dimensions of one segment from the
where information from one segment can be used to predict the morphology of another. measurement of another.
area has been extensively researched, both on- and offshore, and the excellent constraints have Bathymetry is also an important consideration. Active
Exploration
facilitated reconstructions of numerous coeval source-to-sink systems throughout the Cenozoic. structures within basins can have an overriding control on the
This allowed Snedden et al. (2018) to test the robustness of the scaling relationships on 24 ancient distribution of sediment. In areas with a strong tectonic control,
catchments and linked submarine fans. Encouragingly, the dataset shows a strong correlation between such as syn-rift settings, scaling relationships are, thus, likely
river and submarine fan dimensions, and validates the first-order relationships outlined by Somme et al. to have less relevance.
Methodology
Methodology
(2009).
Understanding of the geological context is key. One way to
The validation of the fan-scaling relationships in the Cenozoic of the Gulf of Mexico suggests that the augment fan-scaling prediction is by incorporating paleoclimate
methodology has application as a predictive tool. However, application to ancient systems still faces and sediment flux predictions. A sediment flux prediction can
significant hurdles; primarily, a reliable reconstruction of the catchment is required to gain insight into be generated for every modeled catchment by combining
the submarine fan dimensions. This is challenging because paleo-catchments are rarely preserved, and the catchment area, catchment relief (from the PDEM), and
Handbook
require a multi-faceted approach to reconstruct them successfully. paleoclimate variables (e.g. Syvitski and Milliman, 2007). These
authors developed the BQART analytical model that accounts “Source-to-sink may
By combining plate models, understanding of broad depositional setting, and data related to uplift (e.g. be as important to the
for drainage area, relief and (paleo)temperature to determine
apatite fission track data), or elevation or bathymetry (e.g. paleontology), it is possible to create Paleo
sediment flux. This approach allowed Rees et al. (2018) to exploration industry in the
Digital Elevation Models (PDEM) that digitally recreate ancient landscapes and bathymetry. These
model an Oligocene–Early Miocene sediment fan with a length
21st century as sequence
global PDEMs have two key uses. Firstly, understanding paleo-topography enables the identification stratigraphy was in the 20th.
in excess of 150 km and area approaching 20,000 km2 in the
of sediment source areas and continental drainage divides, and facilitates modeling of paleo-drainage We cannot simply look at
Western Black Sea, sourced by the paleo-Kamchia river. This
pathways and catchments. Secondly, the PDEMs serve as inputs to global paleoclimate models, which the sediments in a basin in
river would have would have drained, in part, a quartz-rich
provide information on a wide range of useful parameters, including temperature and precipitation. isolation anymore to realize
hinterland.
economic success.”
This holistic Earth system science approach provides the framework for reliable source-to-sink analysis
(Figure 5), and allows the utilization of the fan-scaling method in conjunction with a range of other SUMMARY
predictive insights derived from paleoclimate and drainage modeling (e.g. sediment flux). Source-to-sink may be as important to the exploration
industry in the 21st century as sequence stratigraphy was in
Fan-scaling methods help predict the size of theoretical submarine fan systems; they do not assume to
the 20th. We cannot simply look at the sediments in a basin
predict their actual existence. The delivery of terrigenous sediment to the basin floor is not ubiquitous
in isolation anymore to realize economic success. Source-to-
and occurs preferentially under certain conditions. During major transgressions, the extensive flooding
sink is at the cutting edge of integrated geoscience research.
of shelves can disconnect fluvial inputs from their shelf edge conduits, rendering the submarine fans
It is a cross‑domain Earth systems science approach for
inactive. In areas of aridity or low hinterland elevation, sediment supply may be insufficient to support
understanding the entire expanded sedimentary system
a submarine fan, even during low sea levels. In such settings, carbonates or evaporates may dominate
(Figure 1), enabling better prediction and assessment
and the existence of terrigenous submarine fans should be questioned.
of reservoir quality, and reducing uncertainty in frontier
exploration, asset development, and even production.
The emerging science of source-to-sink scaling relationships
has significant potential as a predictive tool in frontier
exploration. In conjunction with regional context, such as sea
level, tectonic setting, paleogeography, and paleoclimatic
information, it can form part of a powerful and robust
assessment that acts as an input into gross depositional
environment maps and common risk segment maps, and can
inform seismic interpretation.
REFERENCES
Allen, P.A. 2008. From landscapes into geological history. Nature, v. 451, no.
7176, p. 274-276. (XURBB_640311).
Allen, P.A. 2017. Sediment Routing Systems: The Fate of Sediment from
Source to Sink. Cambridge University Press, 422pp. (XURBB_644700).
Davies, A. 2019. Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration In-
sights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28.
(XURBB_641393).
Davies, A. 2020. Paleoclimate Models in Exploration. Exploration Insights
Figure 5 > Flow chart illustrating the steps that Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. September, p. 24-30.
enable large-scale source-to-sink predictions to (XURBB_644480).
be derived from data and data-supported models.
Garzanti, E., A.I. Al-Juboury, Y. Zoleikhaei, P. Vermeesch, J. Jotheri, D.B. Akkoca, A.K. Obaid, M.B. Allen, S. Andó, M. Limonta, M.
Padoan, A. Resentini, M. Rittner and G. Vezzoli 2016. The Euphrates-Tigris-Karun river system: Provenance, recycling and dispersal
Exploration
of quartz-poor foreland-basin sediments in arid climate. Earth-Science Reviews, v. 162, p. 107‑128. (XURBB_616353).
Garzanti, E. 2017. The Maturity Myth In Sedimentology and Provenance Analysis. Journal of Sedimentary Research (Formerly
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology), v. 87, no. 4, p. 353-365. (XURBB_626926).
Heins, B., D. O’Grady and C. Ardic 2008. Integrated Genetic Analysis of Sediment Generation and Evolution to Predict Basin-
Methodology
Scale Clastic Reservoir/Seal Distribution and Character. International Petroleum Technology Conference. International Petroleum
Technology Conference, p. -. (XURBB_643416).
Nyberg, B., W. Helland-Hansen, R.L. Gawthorpe, P. Sandbakken, C.H. Eide, T. Sømme, F. Hadler-Jacobsen and S. Leiknes 2018.
Revisiting morphological relationships of modern source-to-sink segments as a first-order approach to scale ancient sedimentary
systems. Sedimentary Geology, v. 373, p. 111-133. (XURBB_641664).
Rees, E.V.L., Simmons, M.D. & Wilson, J.W.P. 2018. Deep-water plays in the western Black Sea: insights into sediment supply
within the Maykop depositional system. In: Simmons, M.D., Tari, G.C. & Okay, A.I. (eds) Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea.
Handbook
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 464, 247-265. (XURBB_629275).

Snedden, J.W., W.E. Galloway, K.T. Milliken, J. Xu, T. Whitaker and M.D. Blum 2018. Validation of empirical source-to-sink scaling
relationships in a continental-scale system: The Gulf of Mexico basin Cenozoic record. Geosphere, v. 14, no. 2, p. 768-784.
(XURBB_641662).
Somme, T.O., W. Helland-Hansen, O.J. Martinsen and J.B. Thurmond 2009. Relationships between morphological and
sedimentological parameters in source-to-sink systems: A basis for predicting semi-quantitative characteristics in subsurface
systems. Basin Research, v. 21, no. 4, p. 361-387. (XURBB_259789).
Syvitski, J. P. M., and J. D. Milliman 2007. Geology, Geography, and Humans Battle for Dominance over the Delivery of Fluvial
Sediment to the Coastal Ocean. The Journal of Geology, v. 115, p. 1-19. (XURBB_619861).
Van Buchem, F. 2019. Forward Stratigraphic Modeling — Closing the Interpretation Loop. Exploration Insights Magazine.
Exploration Insights Magazine no. October, p. 30-37. (XURBB_643056).
Wells, M., Morton, A. and Frei, D., 2017. Provenance of Lower Cretaceous clastic reservoirs in the Middle East. Journal of the
Geological Society, 174, pp.1048-1061. (XURBB_627869).
DISCLAIMER
Forward Stratigraphic Modeling — Closing » Geometrical models mimic the response to the
Exploration
sediment-filling processes. They are mainly based
Handbook
on static, two-dimensional equilibria or depositional
the Interpretation Loop profiles, defined by geometrical or empirical rules
(e.g. Kendall et al., 1991). These profiles define
Methodology
Methodology
accommodation, which is filled-in with available
By: Frans van Buchem sediment up to the geometric profile surface, using
area calculations (Figure 1). This approach deals with
both basin and prospect scale, but only in 2D, and the
dynamics of sediment transport are not considered.
Exploration
» Process-based models are three-dimensional and
Handbook
The accurate prediction of the stratigraphic architecture of sedimentary basin fill is one of the Impedance
attempt to simulate basin filling, using algorithms that
simulate sediment transport. These models come in
main challenges for petroleum geologists, working both at the exploration and production scale. “The accurate prediction of
two different types (Figure 2):
Seismic reflection model (3D)
Generally speaking, they use seismic data, wells, conceptual geological models, and regional
context to come up with what can often be highly model-driven interpretations, although will » Fluid-flow process models use physical equations
Facies and architecture (3D)
the stratigraphic architecture
of sedimentary basin fill is
honor data where available. To realize a less biased view, they, therefore, require tools that can to simulate the movement of depositional bodies one of the main challenges © 2019 Halliburton
help generate representations of the stratigraphic organization of the subsurface (at any scale), or sediment particles in 3D (e.g. Martinez and for petroleum geologists,
constrained by the physical behavior of sediments at the time of deposition. Harbaugh, 1993). These methods are applied, for working both at the
instance, in coastal engineering, where study exploration and production
Stratigraphic architecture is the result of the complex interplay of the geological parameters that
areas are relatively limited, and where high scale.”
influence sediment supply and accommodation. Since similar arrangements of strata can occur
accuracy of the transportation process is required
as a result of the interaction of different parameter sets and values, many stratal geometries
for short time intervals. This type of modeling is
can be regarded as non-unique. Consequently, there are usually several geologically reasonable
difficult to condition on real well or seismic data.
interpretations of a given stratigraphic architecture. Numerical stratigraphic forward modeling
is a very powerful way to choose between these possible interpretations in an unbiased way. A » Dynamic-slope or diffusion process models
numerical forward model reconstructs the geological processes in a sequence of time steps, using + Diagenetic overprint
are intermediate (3D)
between the geometrical
physical laws to quantify the stratigraphic response. The outcomes for different scenarios can assist
the interpreter in choosing the most robust interpretation, while understanding the uncertainties
involved.
30 30
Numerical forward stratigraphic models provide 3D representations of the subsurface, filling in the
Relative Sea
Relative Sea
Level (m)
Level (m)
space away from control points (wells and 2D seismic lines), and/or adding higher resolution detail
(e.g. in 3D seismic surveys). This information about the facies distribution can be used to inform
basin models, to guide migration pathways, and to provide a framework for property assignment at
the reservoir scale, such as diagenesis, reservoir properties, and seismic forward modeling.
-30 -30
0 Time (ky) 50 0 Time (ky) 50
Stratigraphic forward modeling can also be used to perform sensitivity tests for different controlling 50 50
parameters in conceptual models. This helps the interpreter to predict stratigraphic patterns in
Height (m)
Height (m)
data-poor frontier areas, for example, through a better understanding of the influence of different
climatic conditions on run off, type of sediment production, and dominant transport mechanisms. Non Marine Non Marine
Coarse Marine Coarse Marine
When integrated properly into the interpretation workflow, forward stratigraphic modeling has the
Fine Marine Fine Marine
potential to bring together different types of data (sedimentological, stratigraphic, tectonic, and -150 -150
geochemical), as well as contextual information and concepts, in a consistent and robust model. 0 Distance (km) 20 0 Distance (km) 20
This may help in communicating the strengths and weaknesses of a given geological interpretation, 50 50
providing visual and unbiased support to explain these messages.
Time (ky)
Time (ky)
FORWARD STRATIGRAPHIC MODELING — DIFFERENT APPROACHES
In the 1970s, the introduction and formalization of sequence stratigraphic and sedimentological © 2019 Halliburton
concepts, and the development of quantitative models for basin subsidence, paved the way for a 0 0
0 Distance (km) 20 0 Distance (km) 20
more quantitative approach to sedimentary geology and the prediction of basin fill (for review, see
AA BB
Paola, 2000).
Since then, various numerical forward stratigraphic models have been introduced, which can be Figure 1 > Two-dimensional geometrical forward modeling results showing the effect of different amplitudes and frequencies of
divided into the following types (Rivenaes, 1992): sea level change on the stratigraphic expression. (http://nm2.rhul.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/DeltaModel3.html)
and fluid flow models. They simulate landscape (topography) evolution, and use mass
Exploration
conservation combined with empirical transport laws, expressed by diffusion algorithms,
Handbook
that average over several processes to simulate the sediment transport in 3D (Rivenaes,
1992). The diffusion algorithm transports and erodes sediment as a function of the evolving
(dynamic) slope. It does not simulate in detail the processes at the grain and sedimentary
Stratigraphic Architecture
Methodology
Methodology
body scale, but defines belts where specific processes operate (e.g. the fluvial, coastal, and 20 km
shelf margin domains), and provides average geometries and facies content as an output. 500 m 3 cm
The simplicity of this method allows the user to fit the model outputs to real data, and it is 100 m
Permeability
applicable at the basin and prospect scale (Granjeon and Joseph, 1999). It also covers larger Low
High
time spans and is, thus, capable of modeling stratal patterns and stratigraphic architecture 5 km 5 cm
500 km 25 km
Exploration
in 3D. Plays and Play Fairways
Handbook
Prospects and Reservoirs

Each type of model has advantages and shortcomings, which make it suitable for a particular field
1st/2nd order sequences 3rd/4th order sequences 5th/6th order sequences
of application. In petroleum geology, it is important to predict facies distributions and stratigraphic
Basin scale: Depositional systems scale: Facies scale: Layer and grainsize scale:
architecture over large areas and long time spans; whereas, in coastal engineering and process Tectonic framework and Stacking pattern and facies Layering and geobodies Texture (grainsize, maturity)
distribution of depositional systems belts and mineralogical composition
sedimentology, the focus is more on the short-term dynamics of transportation at the grain level
(Figure 2).
© 2019 Halliburton
Regardless of methodology, there is one important common point of interest, which is the capacity
to run many scenarios. This allows the interpreter to test the sensitivity of the system to certain
Process-based Forward Modeling

parameters. The numerous outcomes can also be used to add a statistical element to the choice of the Sil
icic
las
tic
s
best set of parameters, thus, reducing the interpretation bias. nat

es
rbo
Ca
APPLICATION AT THE EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION SCALES

The three modeling types summarized in the previous section all make specific contributions to our
understanding of the physical parameters that control sedimentation and stratigraphic architecture. Gross depositional
environments
Fluvial system Point bar
Their main differences in modeling approach, data input, and calibration capacity are illustrated in the
following sections.
Diffusion process modeling Fluid-flow process modeling and geostatistical modeling
2D Geometrical Models
• Data conditioned • Limited data conditioning
• Long time span, large area • Short time span, small area
The 2D geometrical model is the simplest form of forward stratigraphic modeling. It was developed
initially to quantify and test the concepts and principles proposed by sequence stratigraphy, based
on the interaction between accommodation and sediment supply (e.g. Bowman and Vail, 1999). Its Figure 2 > The hierarchical organization of the stratigraphic record at different orders of sequences forms the basis for a nested
stratigraphic forward modeling approach. Diffusion process modeling is most applicable at the higher order sequence scales (2nd
merit lies in simplicity and a capacity to produce reasonable stratal patterns. It is also an effective to 4th), whereas fluid-flow process modeling and geostatistical modeling are more applicable at the lower order (5th, 6th and layer)
communication tool to explain the fundamentals of stratigraphic processes and resulting architecture. scale. Combined, these are capable of dealing with different scales of heterogeneities. The solution at each higher level provides
boundary conditions for a more detailed solution at the lower level. Ideally, the lower-level solution can also feed information back
up to higher levels. References for case study examples are provided in the text.
Figure 1 illustrates the impact of different types of sea level fluctuations on sequence stacking
patterns, facies distribution, and heterogeneity. These are key factors that influence the distribution
of petroleum system elements within a basin, as well as the connectivity and size of reservoir units. models run over time intervals long enough to display the
The accompanying chronostratigraphic diagram shows the shift in depocenters and the presence and stacking of depositional elements, such as in fluvial and
longevity of stratigraphic breaks, due to non-deposition and/or erosion. These factors are important, turbidite channel systems (Figure 2).
for instance, in carbonate systems, where long-lasting exposures can dramatically influence reservoir
This type of modeling is, thus, effective at the production “Forward stratigraphic
quality.
scale in the prediction of smaller scale heterogeneities in the modeling has the potential
Although useful from a conceptual point of view, this modeling approach cannot be calibrated to hard sedimentary system, which is information that can be applied to close the loop in the
data, nor can it illustrate 3D complexity. The input data are, as a consequence, relatively simple (i.e. a to the property population within depositional elements in subsurface interpretation
starting depositional profile, sediment input rate, and relative sea level fluctuations), which is one of a reservoir model. The data input for this approach require workflow.”
the advantages of this approach. a good understanding of the underlying basic physical laws,
as well as a notion of the expected realizations. A software
Fluid Flow-Process Models challenge for this type of modeling is the considerable
calculation capacities that are required.
The fluid flow-process model focuses on the dynamics of sediment transport at the scale of grains
and depositional units (e.g. meander belts, braided river bars, and tidal shoals). It involves fluid Dynamic-Profile or Diffusion Process Models
flow physics, and is often backed up by process-focused sedimentological studies. This can include
experimental setups with flume tanks and/or present-day depositional environment analytical data to The dynamic-profile, or diffusion process, model is the only
quantify the controlling parameters of transportation, such as friction, cohesion, and density. Some type of forward stratigraphic models that can effectively deal
with both the long time intervals (up to tens of millions of years) and the complexity of spatial facies
Exploration
variation at the basin scale (tens of thousands of square kilometers). They have been successfully
Handbook
PRESENT DAY EROSION
applied in a number of petroleum geological and sedimentological/stratigraphic case studies, covering

MULTI MARLS
DATUM-2
siliciclastic and carbonate systems, as well as organic-rich deposits, ranging from the production to
the exploration scale (Figure 2). In the majority of case studies, the forward stratigraphic modeling
Methodology
Methodology
was used to distinguish between the relative influence of tectonism, eustasy, sediment flux, and DATUM-2
transportation pathways. Seismic
Conceptual model (2D/3D) Accommodation
Forward modeling of siliciclastic systems can, for instance, help to determine the timing, location, and Sediment flux
volume of potential turbidite reservoirs (e.g. Csato et al., 2012; Gvirtzman et al., 2014), or demonstrate Outcrop Wells of concep Sediment transport
t i on t ua
different sand trap mechanisms along a source-to-sink trajectory, and sensitivity to the grain size of the uc l
Exploration
r
source sediments (e.g. Sangster et al., 2017). In carbonate systems, which act fundamentally different Data (1D/2D/3D) Processes
m
t
Handbook
ns
od
than siliciclastic systems, much attention is paid to the correct modeling of changes in the depositional
Co
el
environment (e.g. wave action, water turbidity, substratum morphology, nutrient availability, water
temperature, and salinity), and their ability to consolidate early on in the sedimentation process by
diagenesis. Successful modeling of reservoir scale facies heterogeneities in carbonate buildups,
Subsurface iterative interpretation workflow
platforms, and lacustrine settings have been presented by a number of workers (e.g. Warrlich et al.,
2008; Liechoscki et al., 2017).
More recently, forward modeling of organic-rich sediment distribution has also been successfully
applied to improve understanding of controlling parameters and basin-scale heterogeneities in
resource plays, as, for instance, illustrated for Triassic deposits in the Western Canadian Sedimentary
Basin by Crombez et al. (2017).
The capacity of diffusion process models to handle the three-dimensional variation in a basin-fill
succession makes it very suitable for both the exploration and the reservoir domains, and guarantees Impedance
alignment of different scales of studies executed in the same basin (Figure 2). Seismic reflection model (3D) Facies and architecture (3D)
© 2019 Halliburton
Due to the large time interval and wider areal coverage, these models need to deal with more
geological complexity and, thus, require more detailed input information. The best results are
obtained when the input dataset is comprehensive, including conceptual stratigraphic and structural
+ Diagenetic overprint (3D)
models, accommodation and bathymetry maps, gross depositional environment maps, and a
chronostratigraphic chart with a sea level curve. The availability of more circumstantial data, such as
climate, hinterland size, and rock composition, can substantially add to the precision and value of the Figure 3 > Forward stratigraphic modeling closes the loop in the subsurface interpretation workflow (after Granjeon et al.,
2019). The subsurface tectono-stratigraphic conceptual model and analysis of the controlling parameters provide the input for
model. the numerical stratigraphic forward modeling. Subsequently, the proposed subsurface interpretations are tested using physical
constraints, and a 3D volume informed with depositional facies and geometries, modified by early and burial diagenetic overprints
Combining Different Modeling Approaches — Hybrid and Nested is created. This can subsequently be translated into an impedance and seismic reflection model to be compared with the original
seismic volume, thus completing the interpretation loop.
In practice, there is often a need for the combination of different modeling approaches, either at the
same scale to deal with the complexity of the modeling challenge (hybrid approach), or to deal in an Future Developments
efficient way with the heterogeneity characterization at different scales in space and time (nested
approach). Forward stratigraphic modeling has the potential to close the “Forward stratigraphic
loop in the subsurface interpretation workflow, where seismic, modeling helps in
An example of a hybrid approach is the work by Yan et al. (2017), who studied the evolution of well, and context-based interpretation is the first step, establishing a more
fluvial meander bends to predict point-bar lithofacies and architecture. They combined a dominantly followed by 3D numerical forward stratigraphic modeling, accurate evaluation of
geometric modeling approach with process-based and stochastic model components, constrained which forms the basis for a forward seismic model that geological uncertainty by
by quantified sedimentological data derived from modern point bars and ancient successions that can then be compared to the original seismic and well log contributing to a more
represent suitable analogues. The resulting model is used to predict heterogeneity in this type of interpretations (Figure 3). For this to happen, a simplification robust and less biased
depositional element. of the data input and the creation of catalogs for the physical subsurface interpretation,
parameters of sediment influx and production, will be a great based on running
A nested approach uses different modeling techniques to deal with the different scales of
help. numerous scenarios testing
heterogeneities in the sedimentary system. This can be visualized as follows: the diffusion-based
models provide an understanding at the large scale of the distribution of the main depositional Forward stratigraphic modeling can also form the starting the impact of different
environments; at the medium scale, the process-based models can provide a more precise insight into point for diagenetic modeling, which predicts the impact physical parameters.”
the heterogeneities within these environments through the representation of the actual sedimentary of dissolution and precipitation on different sedimentary
bodies and their stacking patterns; and at the smallest scale, property attribution can be achieved by facies, factors that notably have a large impact on carbonate
using geostatistical modeling techniques (e.g. deterministic and stochastic) (Figure 2). reservoirs. At a different scale, forward stratigraphic modeling
outcomes are a valuable input for basin models, by providing 3D facies distribution and architecture
Exploration
that will influence migration pathways (e.g. Arab et al., 2016), as well as the potential presence and
heterogeneity of source rock facies.
Finally, forward stratigraphic modeling helps in establishing a more accurate evaluation of geological
Methodology
uncertainty by contributing to a more robust and less biased subsurface interpretation, based on
running numerous scenarios testing the impact of different physical parameters.
Although it is currently occupying an expert niche, it is expected that with increasing digitization of
E&P databases and simplification of workflows, stratigraphic forward models will have a significant
part to play in the daily work of the subsurface interpreter.
Handbook
REFERENCES
Arab, M., Belhai, D., Granjeon, D., Roure, F., Arbeaumont, A., Rabineau, M., Bracene, R., Lassal, A., Sulzer, C., and Deverchere, J.
2016 Coupling stratigraphic and petroleum system modeling tools in complex tectonic domains: case study in the North Algerian
Offshore. Arab J. Geoscience. (XURBB_601761).
Bowman, S., and Vail, P., 1999 Interpreting the stratigraphy of the Baltimore Canyon section offshore New Jersey with PHIL, a
stratigraphic simulator. Numerical Experiments in Stratigraphy - Recent Advances in Stratigraphic and Sedimentologic Computer
Simulation, SEPM Special Publication no. 62. (XURBB_641806).
Crombez, V., Rohais, S., Baudin, F., Chauveau, B., Euzen, T., and Granjeon, D. 2017 Controlling factors on source rock development:
implications from 3D stratigraphic modeling of Triassic deposits in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. BSGF – Earth
Sciences Bulletin, no. 188, 30 (18 pages). (XURBB_641807).
Csato, I., Granjeon, D., Catuneanu, O., Baum, G.R. 2012 A three-dimensional stratigraphic model for the Messinian crisis in the
Pannonian Basin, eastern Hungary. Basin Research, 1-28. (XURBB_485272).
22-28. (XURBB_641393).
Granjeon, D., and Joseph, P., 1999, Concepts and applications of a 3-D multi-lithology, diffusive model in stratigraphic modelling.
SEPM Spec. Publ., 62, 197-210. (XURBB_641809).
Granjeon, D., van Buchem, F., Marfisi, E., and Gravestock, C., 2019, Stratigraphic and early diagenetic and seismic forward
modelling applied to the Natih Formation carbonates in Oman – an integrated approach to reduce uncertainty. Geological Society
of London Conference ‘Hydrocarbons in Space and Time’, 9-10 April 2019, London, Abstract, p.63. (XURBB_641810).
Gvirtzman, Z., Csato, I., and Granjeon, D., 2014 Constraining sediment transport to deep marine basins through submarine
channels: The Levant margin in the Late Cenozoic. Marine Geology, vol. 347, p. 12-26. (XURBB_512807).
Hassanpour, M.M., Pyrcz, M.J., and Deutsch, C.V. 2013 Improved geostatistical models of inclined heterolithic strata for
McMurray Formation, Alberta, Canada. AAPG Bull., v.97, pp. 1209-1224. (XURBB_486957).
Kendall, C.G.St.C., Moure, P., Strobel, J., Cannon, R., Perlmutter, M., Bezdek, J., Biswas, G., 1991 Simulation of the sedimentary
basin fill. Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin, v. 233, p. 9-30. (XURBB_641811).
Liechoscki de Paula Faria, D., Tadeu dos Reis, A., Gomes de Souza Jr., O. 2017 Three-dimensional stratigraphic-sedimentological
forward modeling of an Aptian carbonate reservoir deposited during the sag stage in the Santos basin, Brazil. Marine and
Petroleum Geology, vol. 88, 676-695. (XURBB_634219).
Martinez, P.A., and Harbaugh, J.W. 1993 Simulating nearshore environments. New York, Pergamon Press, 265 p.
(XURBB_641813).
Paola, C, 2000, Quantitative models of sedimentary basin filling. Sedimentology, 47 (Suppl. 1), 121-178. (XURBB_623168).
Rivenaes, J.C. 1992 Application of dual-lithology, depth-dependent diffusion equation in stratigraphic simulation. Basin Research,
no. 4, 133-146. (XURBB_641814).
Sangster, C., Piper, D.J.W., Hawie, N., Pe-Piper, G., and Sant-Ange, F. 2017 Forward stratigraphic modelling of sediment pathways
and depocentres in salt-influenced passive-margin basins: Lower Cretaceous, central Scotian Basin. Basin Research, vol. 31,
728‑753. (XURBB_641815).
Simmons, M. 2020. The Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow. Subsurface Insights, v. November, p. 24-35.
(XURBB_645951).
Warrlich, G.M.D., Bosence, D.W.J., Waltham, D.A., Wood, C., Boylan, A., Badenas, B. 2008 3D stratigraphic forward modeling
for analysis and prediction of carbonate platform stratigraphies in exploration and production. Mar. Petrol. Geol., 25, 25-58.
(XURBB_641816).
Yan, N., Mountney, N.P., Colombera, L., Dorrell, R.M. 2017, A 3D forward stratigraphic model of fluvial meander-bend evolution for
prediction of point-bar lithofacies architecture. Computers & Geosciences, 105, 65-80. (XURBB_627103).
DISCLAIMER
Subsurface Mapping: Understanding the CONTOUR MAP TYPES

Exploration
Subsurface contour maps come in a variety of formats, and

Subsurface Structural Disposition each map depicts something different about the subsurface
structure and stratigraphy. Examples include:
Methodology
Methodology
By: Georgina Wright » Structure Contour Maps feature lines of equal depth
or elevation to a specific horizon or formation in the
subsurface. The common reference datum for structure
contour maps is mean sea level.
WHAT IS A SUBSURFACE MAP?
» Topographic Maps are quantitative representations of
A subsurface map is a plane surface representation of geological features beneath the Earth’s surface, surface relief. They demonstrate contour lines of equal
Handbook
typically in plan view or a horizontal projection. These maps detail the depth, thickness, distribution, and elevation from mean sea level.
structure of rock layers in the subsurface.
» Isopach Maps comprise lines of equal thickness,
One of the most common types of subsurface map is contour maps. These can be constructed representing the true stratigraphic thickness of a
in depth, where each contour line represents a point of equal elevation or depth, above or below a formation or rock layer.
reference datum. Alternatively, they may be represented in seismic two-way travel time, which can be » Isochore Maps feature lines of equal thickness,
used as a proxy for depth. Other map types, such as isopachs and isochrons, are described in more representing the true vertical thickness of a formation or
detail in the next section of this chapter. rock layer.
» Isochron Maps are the seismic equivalent of isochore
An example of a highly simplified, subsurface depth contour map is shown in Figure 1.
maps, featuring lines of equal seismic travel-time to
transit a formation or rock layer.
“A subsurface map
APPLICATIONS OF SUBSURFACE CONTOUR is a plane surface
MAPS representation of geological
Subsurface contour maps are critical for the evaluation of
features beneath the
Earth’s surface, typically in
complex subsurface features. They allow geoscientists to create
plan view or a horizontal
and share information about the subsurface, making them some
projection.”
of the most important tools used to explore for hydrocarbons,
and develop proven reserves (Tearpock and Bischke, 2002).
They help geoscientists answer questions, such as:
» Where are the major depocenters?

» Is a prospective source rock buried deeply enough to be
thermally mature?
» At what depths are the reservoir targets? Are porosity
and permeability likely to be preserved?
Contour maps, therefore, have a number of different uses:
» To define subsurface structures and outline their extents

» To provide depth predictions of key geological horizons
or intervals of interest, such as top reservoir
» To screen the prospectivity of an area objectively,
through play fairway evaluation, by assessing,
for example, source rock maturity and reservoir
effectiveness
» To provide inputs to basin models to help understand
the subsurface thermal regime
» To assist with the calculation of gross rock volume
(GRV) for use in estimating stock tank oil initially in place
Figure 1 > Schematic cross section and structure contour map showing present-day subsurface stratigraphy. Contours represent (STOIIP)
depths below mean sea level to the top of the reservoir unit.
Exploration
Methodology
Methodology
Handbook
“Increasingly, contour maps

are being supplemented
Figure 2 > Workflow highlighting the decision gates within the exploration and production lifecycle, where subsurface contour maps are critical inputs. by additional subsurface
data, such as well formation
The critical importance of subsurface contour maps in the decision-making process is highlighted in Data Digitization and Interpretation tops, to create secondary
Figure 2. contour maps from 3D
All of the gathered data need to conform to particular models or frameworks.
GENERATING A SUBSURFACE CONTOUR MAP standards in order for this information to be consumed within These models provide a
any software platform. Commonly, a geoscientist will first digital representation of
Information on subsurface features is derived in its raw form by conducting subsurface studies or
spatially reference the data, and convert them into a collection the subsurface and can
surveys. This can include gravity surveys, magnetic or electromagnetic surveys, or, more commonly,
of points. Each point will have a unique longitude (x-coordinate) comprise several surfaces
seismic imaging. Contour generation from seismic volumes requires a user to interpret or pick an event
and latitude (y-coordinate), as well as a value of depth or time or maps for different rock
or subsurface feature along its full extent, by analyzing subsurface reflections and their amplitudes,
(z-value). formations.”
while identifying and interpreting major faults to help establish the structural style. This process is
repeated for each horizon of interest across a survey. From a full set of seismic section interpretations,
values of equal time or depth can be tied together to produce one or more contour maps.
Increasingly, though, contour maps are being supplemented by additional subsurface data, such as
well formation tops, to create secondary contour maps from 3D models or frameworks. These models
provide a digital representation of the subsurface and can comprise several surfaces or maps for
different rock formations. Modeling the subsurface in this manner allows geoscientists to maintain an
evergreen depiction of the unseen structures and geology. In the following section we will discuss how
to generate these secondary contour maps from 3D frameworks.
Map Creation Using Modeling Software

The methodology used to develop a comprehensive subsurface model is reliant upon the integration of
numerous geological and geophysical datasets. While there are several ways to generate a subsurface
map, depending on the software platform being used, the overall methodology is similar. The steps
involved in this process are summarized below.
Project Initiation
Maps are generally created in areas of exploration interest, and the selected time interval or surface to
be mapped is determined by the presence of prospective source rock and reservoir horizons.
Data Collection
Initial data collection involves conducting a focused data search for the time interval and area of interest.
These data may be proprietary and include pre-processed datasets, or the data may have come from
published and publicly available sources, where the data has to be carefully extracted from images (with
appropriate permissions, as required). Captured data types include structural cross‑sections, well data,
contour maps, and seismic data (Figure 3).
Figure 3 > Examples of the data captured to generate a contour map through subsurface modeling.
Model Generation
Exploration
Following import of these standardized data, the geoscientist can begin building the subsurface model,
using the software’s bespoke modeling engine or application. This process of modeling permits one or
more surfaces, or maps, to be generated simultaneously.
Methodology
Methodology
Surface specific data are then sequentially added to the application, where the user can apply a series
of geological rules and algorithms, as well as defining an appropriate cell size or gridding resolution.
If the raw data are in two-way travel time, but the user wishes to build a depth model, velocity models
can be constructed to perform the conversion. These velocity models describe the lateral and vertical
changes in seismic velocity; however, to create these, time-depth data or an estimation of velocities
Handbook
based on the rock type present is first required.
Map Generation
Once a robust subsurface framework model has been constructed, contour maps are often
automatically generated (Figure 4). These maps may be rebuilt as and when new data become
Figure 5 > An example of subsurface structure contours maps from basin-, through regional-, up to global-scale from the Neftex®
available. However, a few software modeling applications are dynamic and, therefore, with the addition Depth Analysis offering, built in DecisionSpace® Geosciences software.
of new data, the resulting contour maps are immediately updated to provide the most current, informed
geological insights.
SUBSURFACE MAP SCALABILITY
Details of the Neftex® subsurface modeling and mapping process are discussed in the September 2017
Subsurface consulting and mapping are commonly carried out
edition of the Exploration Insights magazine, in Mega-regional Depth Grids — A Powerful Tool for
at basin to prospect scales. However, technological advances
Basin Screening in Regions of Minimal Data (Wright, 2017).
now make it possible to generate subsurface maps at much
greater scales. Over recent years, susbsurface contour maps
for key geological events have been generated as part of the
Neftex Predictions portfolio, at a continent or regional scale, as
well as more recently at a global scale (Figure 5). These large-
“Subsurface consulting and
scale subsurface contour maps provide essential geological
mapping are commonly
context, and enable geoscientists to high-grade areas with
carried out at basin to
exploration potential rapidly, over large geographical areas,
prospect scales. However,
through screening. technological advances now
It is these technological advances, coupled with the availability make it possible to generate
of subsurface data globally and an ability to organize, store, subsurface maps at much
and manage these data, that now enable geoscientists to greater scales.”
visualize, interact with, and utilize subsurface maps within a
single environment. Explorationists can, therefore, perform
subsurface assessments from planet to pore, without
compromising on scale or resolution.
REFERENCES
Sutcliffe, O. 2020. Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in Exploration.
Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 34-41. (XURBB_645994).
Tearpock, D.J. and R.E. Bischke 2002. Applied Subsurface Geological Mapping
with Structural Methods. Prentice Hall, Inc (Pearson Education, Inc), 1-384 p.
(XURBB_599276).
Figure 4 > A subsurface Wright, G. 2017. Mega-regional Depth Grids — A Powerful Tool for Basin
model of the US, viewed Screening in Regions of Minimal Data. Neftex Exploration Insights Magazine.
in DecisionSpace® Exploration Insights Magazine no. September, p. 20-24. (XURBB_634819).
Geosciences software, and
built from published and DISCLAIMER
publicly available depth and
time data. A) A subsurface created within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been
framework model in used in its preparation. If client data has been used, permission will have been obtained and is
3D, B) a depth contour acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright
map, and C) an isochore holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect
map depicting sediment the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not
thickness. limited to Landmark Graphics Corporation.
Petroleum Systems and Basin KEY INPUTS

Exploration
The key inputs to the early (calibration) stages of any modeling

Modeling study are:
Calibration Well Column(s), with Good Lithological Control

Methodology
Methodology
By: Duncan Macgregor » Rock properties for each lithology input (such as
thermal conductivity, porosity, permeability, density, and
compressibility) — These properties control how the
The objective of petroleum systems modeling (also known as basin modeling) is to predict source rock rock compacts through time, and its ability to transmit
maturity through geological time, and thus assess when, if, and how hydrocarbons were generated and heat and fluids. Permedia petroleum systems modeling
Handbook
migrated. This aspect will be emphasized in this chapter, although it should be noted that a range of software delivers lithology files that provide default
other physical parameters can also be modeled, including pressure and reservoir quality. relationships of the properties with pressure and depth.
These can be edited and, where critical, should at least
Petroleum systems modeling may be performed in 1D, 2D, or 3D, plus the extra dimension of time, be reviewed and calibrated to measurements, such as
but should begin with the calibration of a data-rich well in 1D. A program of 1D modeling of wells pressure and porosity.
and pseudo wells (predicted lithological columns) can give a quick, but necessarily rough, view of a
» Source rock properties (particularly kerogen type) —
petroleum system. 3D modeling provides a fuller set of products, incorporating the effects of lateral Different kerogen types generate hydrocarbons in
heat and fluid flow, and a pressure-driven prediction of hydrocarbon migration, but is far more time different temperature ranges, so modeling results of
consuming. 2D modeling is the intermediate approach, between 1D and 3D, in terms of resource the proportions of oil and gas produced are strongly
requirements and the range of products created. The illustrations of each type of modeling given in this dependent on source rock type.
chapter were produced in Permedia® petroleum systems modeling software.
The Structural, Thermal, and Volcanic History of the Basin
“The objective of most
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT FLOW This forms the basis of the prediction of the thermal history.
petroleum systems
Most extensional basins are assumed to have experienced their
Temperature is a key control on oil generation, and calibration is crucial. This involves determining the modeling projects is to
highest heat flows at the time of rifting or continental break-up,
thermal history and rock properties that honor temperature and maturity data from calibration wells. If provide a prediction of
and to have cooled exponentially, thereafter; a model loosely source rock maturity
calibration well data are unavailable, the geodynamic setting can inform the likely heat flow and history,
known as the ‘Mckenzie model’ (Mckenzie, 1978; Hantschel and through geological time”
and pseudo wells can be created. If the thermal history or the nature of the crust is uncertain, several
Kauerauf, 2009). There are many cases, however, of significant
different models can be run; however, this increases uncertainty.
departures from this model, where other controls, such as
Geothermal gradient, as measured over a section of a well, changes according to the ability of different mantle heating, can be demonstrated (e.g. Macgregor, 2019).
rock types to transfer heat. Heat flow can more readily be applied between sites of different geology, Upper thermal boundary conditions, such as seabed depth and
so geothermal gradient is converted to heat flow, by multiplying by the thermal conductivity, estimated temperature, are usually predicted from plate and paleoclimate
over the well section (Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009). reconstructions.
This relationship is expressed as: » Geochemical maturity data — Vitrinite reflectance acts
as a paleothermometer, responding to the maximum
q=K(dT/dZ) (Fourier’s Law) temperature that the rock has been subjected to
throughout its history. If these data suggest that the
where, q = Heat Flow, K = thermal conductivity, and dT/dZ = geothermal gradient.
thermal regime has been hotter in the past than at
Heat flow, measured in this way in well columns, can vary substantially. For example, over the African present day, then additional data or analyses are needed
continent, it range between 40 and 200 mW/m2 (Macgregor, 2019), resulting in the depth of the onset to assess when this period of higher maturity occurred.
of the oil window ranging between 1.5 and 8 km. Modeling requires the input of a ‘basal heat flow’, » Temperature data for these calibration wells — The
which will be slightly lower than these calculations, due to the removal of the small contribution of most accurate temperatures are derived from drill stem
heat from the sedimentary column. The determination of the basal heat flow in any given setting is, test (DST) data, with less accurate data obtained by
therefore, critical, not only at present day, but also at key stages in the geological past. The estimation statistical extrapolations of the temperatures measured
of basal heat flow history through time is probably the main uncertainty encountered in petroleum from downhole logs. The geothermal gradients
systems modeling studies and is the cause of many mispredictions (e.g. Baudino et al, 2018). measured by the latter technique may differ from the
true gradients by 10% or more (Goutorbe et al, 2007).
As illustrated by Fourier’s Law, thermal conductivity is a critical factor. Unfortunately, the sparse
literature on this property, and the use of different thermal conductivity models across academia The Timing and Amount of Erosion on Unconformities
and the industry, means that different workers may calculate very different heat flows for the same
These may be derived from examination of regional
temperature data. It is, thus, difficult to apply previous workers’ heat flow calculations directly into
cross‑sections, and can be adjusted to fit the vitrinite
models.
reflectance profiles in the control well.
1D MODELING: CALIBRATION WELLS AND PSEUDO WELLS

Exploration
Handbook
The first stage of any modeling project is the calibration well. A combination of the key controlling
inputs listed above is sought that provides a good fit to the data available in the well, the structural
history of the basin, and known observations on any petroleum systems present (e.g. age of effective
Methodology
Methodology
traps). Close collaboration among regional specialists, structural geologists, and modelers is vital.
Many thermal histories in passive margin settings are fortunately relatively simple. However, more
complex thermal histories do occur. A complex heat flow history, involving several short periods of
very high heat flow related to mantle/volcanic activity, was necessary to honor the various types of
data from the calibration well shown in Figure 1.
Exploration
Handbook
Figure 2 > Location of two calibration and four pseudo well models on a play cross-section in the Red Sea. Results are illustrated
by the 0.6, 0.8, 1.35, and 2.0 Ro lines, which depict how the depth to the oil and gas windows changes along the transect, due to
variations in (thermally conductive) salt thickness, overburden, and heat flow. For further details of this model, see Stanton et al.,
(2019) and the February 2020 issue of the Exploration Insights magazine.
2D MODELING: SECTIONS
2D modeling is more time consuming than 1D modeling. “1D modeling is relatively

A cross-section is constructed, and lithology polygons are simple and quick, often
assigned properties that honor expected lateral facies changes.
enabling ten or more 1D
pseudo wells to be created
The line of section needs to intersect, or be close to, 1D
in the time it would take to
calibration wells and representative kitchen locations.
construct a 2D model.”
2D modeling enables lateral movements of heat and fluids to
be evaluated, and should be considered in complex regions,
Figure 1 > Modeled temperature history of a well in a gas-bearing structure in Algeria. The region is currently experiencing a high such as salt basins (Figure 3), where heat transfer may be
heat flow of around 100 mW/m2 related to a mantle plume. Ro (vitrinite reflectance) and apatite and zircon fission track data (Logan focused laterally into, then up, salt diapirs. Pressure predictions
and Duddy, 1998) suggest that the region experienced spikes of even greater heat flow in the past, represented by the rise of the
red and yellow isotherms. If such data were integrated into the model, the resulting thermal history and any subsequent modeling are also possible, as is 2D modeling of oil and gas migration.
results would have been wrong.
Once the initial 1D model has been calibrated, a series of pseudo wells can be created elsewhere
in the basin, as in the example shown in Figure 2. Depth-controlled or converted seismic data are
the main methods of obtaining these columns. The calibrated thermal history is projected to these
locations of interest, which are not data-controlled. A prediction of temperature, and thus maturity,
through time is made at the predicted source level. Petroleum systems charts can readily be produced
for each model.
1D modeling is relatively simple and quick, often enabling ten or more 1D pseudo wells to be created
in the time it would take to construct a 2D model. It is also easy and quick to run sensitivities to test
the impact of varying inputs, such as changing the kerogen type or varying heat flow history. The
main limitation of 1D modeling is that it is difficult to extrapolate predictions any significant distance
away from the pseudo well location, and the possible effects of lateral heat or fluid flows cannot be Figure 3 > A 2D model produced over a section in a Mexican salt basin. Note how the modeled oil window is lower below the
modeled. region of thick, thermally conductive salt on the left-hand side of the section. For further details of this model, refer to Yallup (2019),
published in the May edition of the Exploration Insights magazine.
3D MODELING: GRIDS AND CELLS The greatest danger associated with petroleum systems
Exploration
modeling is overconfidence in the results of a single run of

It is now becoming common to proceed directly from 1D calibration to 3D modeling, due to the the model, particularly in data-poor frontier areas. For this
increased availability of depth grids and geological modeling software. Depth grids are imported from reason, several sensitivities need to be run to test the impact
other software, and are populated with layers and cells assigned with predicted lithologies and rock of varying the inputs, in order to identify which have greatest
Methodology
Methodology
properties. A series of digitized depositional environment (GDE) maps is useful in the compilation of influence on the final results.
3D models. Particular attention must be paid to source rock and to reservoir geometries, with the latter
exerting a strong control on resulting migration pathways. Recent well results that have encountered more gas than oil
suggest a tendency to under-predict the level of maturity of
3D modeling can produce an impressive set of products, including 3D images showing the sequential source rocks, and the largest single cause of this may lie in
development of the petroleum system through time (Figure 4), source rock volumetrics and pressure the difficulties in predicting past heat flows. The accuracy of
Handbook
models, and modeled migration pathways and hydrocarbon accumulations. The migration patterns that the predictions obtained from petroleum systems modeling
a model produces are dependent on the rock properties and geometries input, the pressure gradients programs is dependent on the level of certainty in the key
modeled, the type of fluid flow assumed, and (sometimes poorly) calibrated assumptions on migration inputs listed in this chapter.
losses. These parameters should be subject to a calibration exercise, similar to that discussed for
temperature above. REFERENCES
Abeed, Q. 2020. The Application of Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum Explo-
ration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July/
August, p. 20-29. (XURBB_644265).
Baudino, R., M. Pontet, M. Manas, A. Herra, C. Sanders, M. Badali, R. Tocco,
S. Martinez, J. Tritlla, R. Lomar, A. Carrasco, S. Padron and S. Mora 2018.
Modelling Petroleum Systems of Hyperextended Margins: the Angola Case
Study. Global Analogues for the Atlantic Margin, AAPG European Regional
Conference, 2-3 May 2018, Lisbon, Portugal. Presentation. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG). (XURBB_639579).
Butt, A.J. and Gould, K. 2018. 3D source-rock modelling in frontier basins: a
case study from the Zambezi Delta Depression. In Macgregor, D., Argent, J.
and Sansom, P. (Eds.), Thematic set: Tectonics and petroleum systems of East
Africa. Petroleum Geoscience no. 24, p. 277-286. (XURBB_639744).
Goutorbe, B., F. Lucazeau and A. Bonneville 2007. Comparison of several
BHT correction methods: a case study on an Australian data set. Geophysical
Journal International, v. 170, no. 2, p. 913-322. (XURBB_533127).
Hantschel, T. and A.I. Kauerauf 2009. Fundamentals of Basin and Petroleum
Systems Modeling. Springer, 1-476 p. (XURBB_424165).
Logan, P. and I. Duddy 1998. An investigation of the thermal history of the
Ahnet and Reggane Basins, Central Algeria, and the consequences for
hydrocarbon generation and accumulation. In D.S. MacGregor, R.T.J. Moody
and D.D. Clark-Lowes (Eds.), Petroleum Geology of North Africa. Geological
Society of London - Special Publications no. 132, p. 131-156. (NABIB4281).
Figure 4 > Images produced by 3D modeling of three different potential source rock levels in the Zambezi Delta, East Africa. The
grey high below the ‘ZDD’ label can now be seen to be a focus for migration. Reproduced from Halliburton paper published by the Macgregor, D. 2019. Comparative Geothermal Gradients and Heat Flows
Geological Society of London, © Geological Society, with permission. For further details of this model, see Butt and Gould, 2018. across African Basins derived from deep wells. Africa E&P Conference 2019:
The 18th PESGB / HGS Conference on African E&P, p. -. (XURBB_643388).
McKenzie, D. 1978. Some remarks on the development of sedimentary basins.
A considerable amount of additional work is necessary to assemble the grids, cells, and properties Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 40, no. 1, p. 25-32. (XURBB_394592).
needed for 3D modeling, and this needs to be factored into project plans. The high processing Stanton, S., N. Dowey and D. Macgregor 2019. The Egyptian Red Sea:
demands means that a single run of a 3D model often takes several hours. If sufficient time is available, Overlooked Potential in a Young Rift. Africa E&P Conference 2019: The 18th
PESGB / HGS Conference on African E&P, p. -. (XURBB_643389).
then optimistic, realistic, and pessimistic runs of the model can be run (e.g. switching on or off different
source rocks, and varying the rates of assumed migration loss), and the range of outcomes thus Wright, G. 2020. Subsurface Mapping: Understanding the Subsurface
Structural Disposition. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
obtained can be translated directly into common risk segment mapping. Magazine no. February, p. 24-29. (XURBB_643148).
SUMMARY » More Literature On This

Chapter
Petroleum systems modeling is an established technique in the oil and gas industry, although the
DISCLAIMER
workflow for any specific project will vary with the data and timeframe available. Increasing processing
power, along with the application of machine learning techniques, will likely improve efficiency created within Halliburton. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, no proprietary client data has been
in running such workflows. As with seismic interpretation, modeling can now be performed by acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright
generalists, rather than only by specialists. holder and is acknowledged. The opinions found in the chapters may not necessarily reflect
the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not
Reservoir Properties and Petrophysics In order to conduct basin screening, common risk maps
Exploration
(CRMs) are created for each component in the petroleum
in Exploration: From New Ventures to system (source/charge, reservoir, structure, and seal/trap). The
purpose of these maps is to identify the main areas where
Prospect Analysis
each play element is likely to be geologically successful,
Methodology
Methodology
along with associated geological risks. A combined
common risk map (CCRM) is produced by integrating all the
CRMs, delivering a visual play fairway analysis. This allows
By: Lawrie Cowliff and Jose Montero geoscientists to communicate the areas of lower risk and,
thereby, make exploration recommendations (Milkov, 2015).
Handbook
THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING RESERVOIRS Two main factors are usually considered in order to create
a reservoir CRM: 1) presence (lithology and thickness); and
Reservoir properties impact the volume of recoverable hydrocarbons in place and can, thus, determine
2) effectiveness (porosity, permeability, and heterogeneity).
the economic viability of a play or a prospect. Once a plausible charge is established, the next step is to
These two factors determine the viability of a reservoir and
assess the presence and effectiveness of potential reservoirs that could store and flow hydrocarbons at
are assessed throughout the exploration process, from new
commercial rates.
ventures to prospect recognition and analysis. Various direct
The importance of reservoirs in exploration is shown by Figure 1. Rudolph and Goulding (2017) or analogous data can be used to assess the factors, and a
compared drilling predictions with drilling results for ExxonMobil wells, between 1994 and 2015. Just basic array of parameters can be explored to aid predictions.
under a quarter of the wells failed due to issues relating to reservoir presence and/or quality (Figure 1A). The data and processes used to assess reservoirs also
Even though this is lower than the proportion of failures that happened due to petroleum system and range from the regional scale to the pore scale. Key items to
trap/seal issues, it is worth noting that that the proportion of failures ascribed to reservoir issues does consider when analyzing reservoirs are discussed below.
not change significantly across the exploration spectrum from play test to proven play (Figure 1B). This “Reservoir is a critical play
Lithology, Depositional Environment and Facies
relates to the varied nature of reservoirs, and highlights the need for their detailed understanding. and petroleum system
Primary (depositional) and secondary (diagenetic) factors play element, whose properties
a role in determining the presence and effectiveness of both impact the volume of
carbonate and siliciclastic reservoirs. In the initial phases of recoverable hydrocarbons
exploration, primary factors tend to dominate. Diagenetic in place, and can, thus,
factors can vary significantly at higher resolutions and are, determine the economic
therefore, more difficult to assess at a regional scale. viability of a play or a
prospect”
The lithology and sedimentology of a reservoir are the
dominant controls on its effectiveness, as they largely
determine reservoir characteristics, such as porosity and
permeability. The texture of the reservoir plays a key role in
this; siliciclastic textural parameters include sorting, grain
Figure 1 > Well failure reasons by play element and play maturity. Modified after Rudolph and Goulding, 2017. size, and roundness; while in carbonates, depositional
textures, such as the presence of intergranular micrite,
Regional geoscience interpretations from the Neftex® Play Analysis offering, which can be viewed in are important. Mineralogical composition affects reservoir
the PlayFinder dashboard, indicate that reservoirs are a consistent contributor to geoscience risk in quality in both siliciclastic and carbonate reservoirs; the
plays globally, for both frontier and proven plays. Reservoir-related risks (quality, presence, thickness, mineralogical maturity of a sandstone affects primary and
or geometry/communication) were identified in 65% of the 4,136 plays in the database, highlighting the secondary reservoir effectiveness, while calcitic and dolomitic
importance of reservoir studies in exploration. This chapter outlines the main geoscience processes carbonates can have very different properties (Ehrenberg and
used to assess reservoirs, from frontier exploration to prospect analysis. As with all petroleum system Nadeau, 2005).
elements, any analysis of the reservoir undertaken during exploration can, and should, be used to
The depositional environment of a reservoir controls the
provide additional understanding further down the lifecycle (e.g. at a prospect scale and beyond).
distribution of suitable reservoir lithologies. Interpreting an
NEW VENTURES AND BASIN SCREENING environment and applying a model, therefore, provides an
assessment of the architecture, geometry, and connectivity
In the initial stages of exploration (e.g. new ventures, or new country acreage), quick regional- to
of a reservoir. This becomes more important at the
basin-scale analyses are needed in order to narrow down the area of interest to a specific basin, play
prospect scale and for calculations of reserves/recoverable
fairway, or selection of license blocks. These large-scale, basin-screening analyses involve looking at
hydrocarbons, such as STOOIP (stock-tank oil initially in place),
regional trends, modeling, and the interpretation of areas with sparse data control (e.g. no/few well
which is discussed later in this chapter.
penetrations). Analogue information can prove to be very important in these instances.
Combining lithology and environment enables geoscientists to generate facies or gross depositional If sufficient well data are available for a particular formation, “Once the likely reservoir
Exploration
environment (GDE) maps that can be linked to reservoir presence and effectiveness. The resolution of cut-off values can be determined to help differentiate among lithology, environment,
Handbook
the facies can also be modified for the task at hand. In early exploration, low resolution schemes (i.e. probabilities in chance maps. For example, a ‘low risk’ polygon and facies have been
clastics vs. carbonates, and coarse- vs. fine-grained clastics) are required in order to make screening may be drawn on a reservoir CCM for areas with <0.5 Vclay determined, petrophysicists
workflows efficient. In near field exploration, much more detail can be included about the different and PHIE >0.1. Cut-offs can be selected in different ways and working in new ventures
Methodology
Methodology
lithological textures and biological components, such as the specific carbonate facies present. following different methodologies, such as using petrophysical teams perform log analysis
cross-plots, studying the statistical variation in sensitivity on well data available in the
Sequence Stratigraphy and Source-to-Sink area of investigation”
analyses, and using analogue data. They can vary depending
Sequence stratigraphy provides predictions of reservoir facies away from data control. For example, on a company’s criteria and standards. They can also be
observations of incised fluvial depositional systems up-dip may indicate that deep-marine siliciclastic adapted for different geological scenarios and targets, such as
Exploration
fans are present down-dip, transported to the basin during sea-level lowstand. gas vs. oil plays, or conventional vs. unconventional targets.
Handbook
In carbonate systems, transgressive facies are often more mud-prone, while lowstand and highstand Petrophysical data can also be used to condition with basin
facies are typically more grain-supported. Furthermore, reservoir quality enhancement can take place models, and to create contours over chance maps that
through subaerial exposure during lowstand. The concepts of sequence stratigraphy can be employed describe the spatial variability of reservoir properties and their
within standard interpretation workflows, or within specialized forward stratigraphic modeling software uncertainties.
packages (e.g. Sangster et al., 2019).
Analogue Data
Earth systems science and source-to-sink methodologies can also greatly assist with understanding
Reservoirs analogues can be drawn from relatively low-
the presence and effectiveness of reservoir facies. The understanding of interactions between
resolution models, such as depth cut-offs, sequence
sediment source areas, transport routes (e.g. river length), paleoclimate, and related sedimentary
stratigraphy, and source-to-sink, alongside higher resolution
processes can provide predictions of the likely presence and mineralogy of reservoir lithologies (e.g.
models, such as petrophysical interpretations on nearby
probable extent and composition of submarine fans).
wells. These interpretations can include estimates of reservoir
Initial Petrophysical Interpretations
Once the likely reservoir lithology, environment, and facies have been determined, petrophysicists
working in new ventures teams perform log analysis on well data available in the area of investigation.
This petrophysical interpretation likely represents the only quantitative data available at this early stage
of exploration, and the most reliable in terms of reservoir characterization. However, caution should be
placed on estimates of the horizontal extent and distribution of the petrophysical parameters away from
primary data.
The petrophysical interpretation can provide important deterministic data (Table 1). For example, a
petrophysical study can confirm the presence or absence of hydrocarbons, by evaluating the water
and oil saturation (Sw and So) in the pore volume for different formations, allowing geologists to define
suitable targets (Figure 2, column 9).
Figure 2 > Basic petrophysical input data and interpretations. Petrophysical inputs are located on the left-hand side and interpretative
outputs on the right-hand side (the porosity track onwards). Core porosity and permeability data may not always be available,
Table 1 > Common petrophysical interpretation outputs. dependent on the phase of exploration and the availability and speed of conventional core analysis processes.
effectiveness (porosity, permeability), presence and thickness (gross, net, and pay), alongside ‘raw’
Exploration
petrophysical measurements that can help geoscientists understand the nature of their reservoir
Handbook
interval (Table 1).
In early stage exploration, for example, likely effectiveness can be understood using analogue
Methodology
Methodology
reservoir property datasets from the global, regional, or basin scale, depending on play status and data
availability. After deciding on the filtered analogue dataset, simple reservoir effectiveness depth cut-
offs can be generated by constructing porosity-permeability and porosity-depth plots (Figure 3). This is
undertaken, as follows:
1. The minimum permeability needed for the reservoir is specified. This is applied to the
Exploration
porosity-permeability plot to generate a corresponding porosity.
Handbook
2. The porosity value is applied to the porosity-depth plot, to generate a maximum depth
threshold of likely effective reservoir. If permeability data are limited, a minimum porosity can
be defined instead and a maximum depth threshold generated in the same way.
Figure 4 > Basin and burial modeling can provide critical inputs into assessing reservoir effectiveness, such as maximum
temperature, uplift and charge history. Just as important is the geological timescales these processes occur over.
1998), so understanding the relative timings of potential charge

events, using basin modeling, can aid reservoir effectiveness
predictions.
As illustrated by Fourier’s Law, thermal conductivity is a critical

factor. Unfortunately, the sparse literature on this property,
and the use of different thermal conductivity models across
academia and the industry, means that different workers may
Figure 3 > Generating reservoir effectiveness cut-offs. In this example, the analogue data used are limited to a single basin, calculate very different heat flows for the same temperature
geological epoch, and lithology. A specified permeability of 10 mD corresponds to a porosity of 17%, and an effective depth
threshold of 2,200 m. Areas outlined in blue show the effect that varying primary (e.g. lithological composition) and secondary (e.g. data. It is, thus, difficult to apply previous workers’ heat flow
overpressure) elements can have on basin-scale trends.
calculations directly into models.
This method makes the assumption that porosity and permeability typically decrease with depth. In PROSPECT RECOGNITION AND PROSPECT
areas of diagenetic dissolution or overpressure, this method may underestimate the potential reservoir ANALYSIS
effectiveness at depth. Other key diagenetic considerations include dolomitization and dissolution
For an exploration block to be granted, an operator might
in carbonates, and quartz overgrowths and cementation in sandstones. Clay transformations in
commit to the acquisition of 2D or 3D seismic and the drilling
the reservoir of surrounding stratigraphy can have significant implications for potential reservoir
of one or more exploration wells. Once the acquisition of
effectiveness, blocking pore throats and generating excessive overpressure.
seismic data is concluded, prospect identification can take
Basin Modeling place.
Basin modeling is commonly used to assess the charge risk of an exploration area by aiding the Prospects are ranked in terms of their chance of success.
understanding of burial histories. Reservoir effectiveness is affected by secondary/diagenetic These analyses include trap specific features, and an estimate
processes, which are related to the temperatures and pressures experienced by the reservoir over of the gross rock volume for the reservoir within the trap.
geological timescales (Figure 4). Basin modeling provides information about the burial and temperature Prospect ranking involves an assessment of risk versus
history of a reservoir, thus, aiding reservoir quality prediction. Understanding the subsurface fluid reward. For example, a prospect estimated to contain a larger
properties is also critical in understanding the reservoir, both in terms of diagenetic and hydrocarbon volume of recoverable hydrocarbons, but with higher risks may
charge effects. Early oil charge, for example, can inhibit negative diagenetic effects (Worden et al., be judged as more prospective than a smaller volume prospect
with lower risk. Hence, at the prospect stage estimates of STOOIP (stock tank original oil/gas in place) CONCLUSIONS
Exploration
and recovery factors become paramount. The STOOIP equation is as follows:

The reservoir is a critical play and petroleum system element.
Typically, at a global to basinal scale, reservoir properties
Gross rock volume x Net to gross ratio x Porosity x Hydrocarbon saturation
are used analogously in order to determine broad patterns
Formation volume factor
Methodology
Methodology
to be used in predictive workflows, helping to narrow down
prospective areas for further study. Once prospects have been
To evaluate a prospect in terms of commercial viability, a static model is built with the aim of evaluating identified, a more detailed study of the potential reservoirs can
STOOIP and likely recovery. This evaluation requires the study of all the qualitative and quantitative be undertaken, using direct datasets, such as well logs and
data obtained at different scales (regional- to well-scale), by applying the concepts of upscaling and core samples. These petrophysical data are key inputs into the
downscaling. STOOIP equation, and control prospect potential. Reservoir
Handbook
assessments are conducted over a wide range of scales,

A structural framework is constructed from the key depth horizons, and the distribution of faults. A
from basin to pore. The interpretation of basic geological and
geocellular static model is built over this structural framework, incorporating a facies model and a
petrophysical information can be greatly enhanced, by applying
property model (Figure 5). The facies model describes the depositional environment that needs to be
sequence stratigraphic and source-to-sink methods, as well
simulated, and determines the stochastic method that can be best adapted for that specific geological
as forward stratigraphic modeling and an understanding of the
input; for example, an object-based method works well for a fluvial system.
wider geological context.
Although the prospect is undrilled at this stage and no conditional data can be utilized, different
pseudowells can be created to control the facies model. This model will subsequently be populated REFERENCES
with rock properties. Assumptions can be made using parameters from offset wells previously Davies, A. 2019. Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights
interpreted by the petrophysicists for PHI, Sw, and net-to-gross factors. These parameters can also Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28. (XURBB_641393).
be derived from analogue data, which may include analogous fields or outcrops. A volumetric model Ehrenberg, S.N. and P.H. Nadeau 2005. Sandstone Vs. Carbonate Petroleum
is produced using the STOOIP equation, where Monte Carlo simulations are run to deliver valuable Reservoirs: A Global Perspective On Porosity-Depth And Porosity-Permeability
Relationships. AAPG Bulletin, v. 89, no. 4, p. 435-445. (RURBB_004297).
uncertainty information, given uncertainties and range in the input parameters.
Helps, P. and G. Nicoll 2019. Hinterland screening in frontier regions using
source-to-sink relationships. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration
Insights Magazine no. March, p. 4-13. (XURBB_640943).
Macgregor, D. 2020. Petroleum Systems and Basin Modeling. Exploration

Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 30-35.
(XURBB_643555).
Nicoll, G., B. Gréselle, J. Smith and P. Helps 2020. Earth System Science:
Source-to-Sink. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 126-132.
(XURBB_645996).
Rudolph, K.W. and F.J. Goulding 2017. Benchmarking exploration predictions

and performance using 20+ yr of drilling results: One company’s experience.
AAPG Bulletin, v. 101, no. 2, p. 161-176. (XURBB_641211).
Sangster, C., D.J.W. Piper, N. Hawie, G. Pe-Piper and F. Saint-Ange 2019.

Forward stratigraphic modelling of sediment pathways and depocentres in salt-
influenced passive-margin basins: Lower Cretaceous, central Scotian Basin.
Basin Research. Wiley, p. 728-753. (XURBB_641815).
Milkov, A.V. 2015. Risk tables for less biased and more consistent estimation
Figure 5 > In the left-hand image, a facies model is built over a previously built structural framework. Different facies can be of probability of geological success (PoS) for segments with conventional oil
differentiated in the area of investigation, where the horizontal continuity of certain facies can be identified. The right-hand image and gas prospective resources. Earth-Science Reviews, v. 150, p. 453-476.
shows how a property model uses the structural and facies model as constraints for the propagation of TOC values. The structural, (XURBB_587501).
facies, and property models make up the static or geological model.
Sutcliffe, O.E. 2019. Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Exploration.
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July, p.
A reservoir engineer builds a dynamic model from this static model with the aim of evaluating the likely 24‑32. (XURBB_641584).
production from the reservoir, and designing the development of the potential oil/gas field (e.g. well Worden, R.H., N.H. Oxtoby and P.C. Smalley 1998. Can oil emplacement
spacing and well path design). Permeability data and the nature of the potential fluids present are, thus, prevent quartz cementation in sandstones?. Petroleum Geoscience, v. 4, no. 2,
p. 129-137. (XURBB_643382).
required. The petrophysical evaluation of offset wells located in the area of investigation can deliver the
permeability data required. The nature of the potential fluids can be provided by production tests and DISCLAIMER
fluid samples from nearby wells, as well as subsurface and outcrop analogues. This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge
Once a decision is made to drill a prospect, drillers and operation geologists need to plan the acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright
engineering of the exploration well (e.g. drilling parameters and casing points), requiring a prediction of the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not
the likely lithologies, pore pressures, and drilling hazards that will be encountered.
Play Cross Sections — Visualizing Play » To provide rapid familiarization of a basin’s evolution,
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both structural and stratigraphic
Concepts
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» To provide insight into potential risks associated with
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untested plays as a first pass assessment on reservoir
quality and charge
By: Emily Firth » To aid frontier play analysis by providing a framework
for assessing analogue basins and play types
» To help evaluate the likely generation of hydrocarbons

WHAT ARE PLAY CROSS SECTIONS?
through burial depth of source rocks and an
A play cross section, or schematic play concept diagram, is a simplified geological cross section that assessment of thresholds, such as the oil and gas
Handbook
illustrates the stratigraphic and structural context of one or several plays along a particular transect. windows
Resolution can vary, but representation is typically on the basin, field, or prospect scale. The Z-axis is » As an input for basin modeling by providing information
presented as either depth or seismically derived two-way travel time. “Play cross sections help
on basin evolution and fill, including the depth of burial,
thickness, and lithology of play elements
evaluate the likely generation
Play cross sections can be depicted as simplistic cartoons, derived from a basic regional of hydrocarbons through
understanding, in order to illustrate the presence or relationship of certain play elements. More » To provide a framework for capturing available data and burial depth of source rocks
detailed transects are typically based on structures identified from seismic lines or regional cross key uncertainties within a basin and an assessment of
sections. A detailed depiction of the stratigraphy is made from well data, chronostratigraphic charts, » To illustrate sequence stratigraphic concepts and
thresholds, such as the oil
and gross depositional environment (GDE) maps. highlight the tectono-stratigraphic evolution, aiding and gas windows.”
prediction of stratigraphy where data are sparse
An example of a highly simplified Neftex® Predictions Play Cross Section can be seen in Figure 1,
illustrating play concepts within Cyprus and Lebanon.
BUILDING A PLAY CROSS SECTION
Play cross sections are built from a wide array of geological
data (Figure 2). There are no widely accepted standards for
producing play cross sections, but some of the data and
concepts that can be used in their construction are described
in the following sections overleaf.
Figure 1 > A highly simplified example of a Neftex ® Predictions Play Cross Section from Cyprus and Lebanon.
APPLICATIONS OF PLAY CROSS SECTIONS

Play cross sections have a number of different uses:
» To show the geographic and subsurface distribution of tested and untested plays
» To illustrate play concepts as simple reservoir, charge, seal, and trap combinations
» To highlight the approximate position, stratigraphic thickness, and depth of burial of key play
elements
Figure 2 >The building blocks of a play cross section. The structural framework is provided by a seismic line. The stratigraphy is
» To help determine the prospectivity of an area by capturing proven play information, as well as filled in using well data and an understanding of the regional geology through gross depositional environment (GDE) maps and
untested play potential chronostratigraphic charts. Where available, other data are incorporated to provide further constraint on the interpretation.
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Handbook
Figure 3 > The tectonic regime has a direct impact on the structural framework of the basin and, consequently, affects where play
elements might be deposited and preserved.
Basin Familiarization
The first step is to familiarize yourself with the area of interest. What exploration has occurred in the
area, what was targeted, and was there any success or failure? What data are available to improve
the understanding of the geology, and can they be used to construct the play cross section? This will
help when assessing what features the play cross section should depict (i.e. dip or strike line) and the
resolution of the diagram, both geographically (e.g. basin, field, or lead) and stratigraphically (e.g. bulk
lithology or high-resolution facies).
The positioning of the section transect must also be considered. Is the section representative of
the basin as a whole or is it placed to intersect certain features, such as a rift basin that has syn-rift
source rock potential or a structural feature that provides potential trap geometries? In most cases,
it is advisable to cover the deepest stratigraphy (to capture the widest stratigraphic interval) and
focus the section where data are available to validate and constrain insight.
Figure 4 > Different tectonic evolutions produce different basin types, in terms
of their structure and stratigraphic fill. The difference is clear, looking at: A)
Structural Framework a fold and thrust belt, where thick-skinned and thin-skinned thrust packages
affect the distribution of stratigraphy; compared with B) a tectonically simple
At the most basic level, a play cross section summarizes the tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the foreland basin.
study area and helps to define the type of basin (extensional, compressional, or transtensional) and,
therefore, what structural style is expected by the geologist. For example, a transect through a sag Infilling the Stratigraphy “At the most basic level,
basin is structurally very different from a passive margin or foreland basin (Figure 3), with implications a play cross section
Filling in the stratigraphy of the section is largely
for the stratigraphic response and prospectivity alike (Gluyas and Swarbrick, 2004). summarizes the tectono-
accomplished using well and outcrop data. These provide
stratigraphic evolution of
It is important to note whether the seismic dataset is represented in two-way travel time or has been specific stratigraphic data, such as the depths to particular
the study area and helps to
converted into depth. The representation of units in two-way travel time is not directly proportional to horizons or play elements, thicknesses of units, and
define the type of basin...”
true stratigraphic thickness due to seismic velocity changes. For example, velocities tend to increase lithofacies. Data to infill the remaining tectono-stratigraphic
with depth due to compaction, so deeply buried beds may appear thinner than their true thicknesses. packages are derived from chronostratigraphic charts, GDE
Seismic velocity changes through the section may also create false geometries, such as the pull up maps, and stratigraphic information in text and facies maps.
effect seen below salt caused by its low velocity. If the line has been depth-converted, it is important The principles of sequence stratigraphy can be employed
to consider what model was applied, in order to test the validity of the depth information provided. to make predictions of the likely stratigraphic response to
base level change away from areas of data constraint. The
Integration of tectonic element maps, surface geology maps, depth maps, isopach maps, and 3D Neftex Predictions portfolio includes a proprietary sequence
depth data also constrains the structural framework. Wells and well tops can be used, but bear in stratigraphic model that allows predictions to be made at a
mind that wells are preferentially drilled on highs and, therefore, may not be representative of deeper high degree of temporal resolution.
stratigraphy. In frontier basins, where data are sparse, a basic structural framework can be gained
from an understanding of the plate-scale evolution of the region (Figure 4). In the absence of well data, we can use our understanding
of the tectonic regimes to give insight into the stratigraphic
Tectono-stratigraphic phases need to be identified, in order to begin to understand the fill of any basin. fill associated with each tectonic phase. Certain tectonic
These phases will vary depending on the tectonic regime. In a rift-basin, they can broadly be grouped regimes give rise to predictable stratigraphic responses
as pre-rift, syn-rift, and post-rift elements; and if relevant, any other main tectonic phases can also be that result in the deposition of certain petroleum system
identified, such as inversion. They can be defined from geometries identified on seismic and in cross elements. For example, syn-rift tectonics and facies vary
sections, and typically have a predictable stratigraphic response. from those deposited once a post-rift tectonic regime is
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Figure 6 > Predicting play elements. A) Lacustrine source rocks within syn‑rift
graben. B) Deep-marine reservoir prediction in a pro-delta setting. Well data
help to constrain the occurrence of coarse clastics, but using sequence
stratigraphy and understanding the tectono-stratigraphy of the basin can be
Figure 5 > Stratigraphy has a close relationship to tectonic regime. In this example, the phase of crustal extension (orange) relates predictive of other coarse clastics in the deeper basin.
to the formation of graben filled with typical syn-rift stratigraphy, while the passive margin phases (green) comprise classic marine
stratigraphy transitioning from shallow to deep facies. “For accurate play
prediction, it is vital
Play cross sections depict the spatial distribution of likely
established. Syn-rift facies are often characterized at their commencement by continental and to understand the
source rocks, highlighting whether they are laterally
lacustrine sediments. If rifting continues and a passive margin is established, shallow-marine facies stratigraphic fill of a basin”
extensive, or perhaps restricted to graben, and also indicate
will be deposited (Figure 5). A sequence stratigraphic model can be overlain on top of the major the approximate burial depth. For reservoirs, we can assess
tectono-stratigraphic phases to give a higher degree of temporal resolution when considering the composition of packages from wells and use this to
different events. predict the reservoir composition, from more proximal to
distal areas. For seals, the play cross section can highlight
Global and regional events can also be used to influence the interpreted stratigraphy. For example,
areas where the thickness of sealing units, or the intensity
could oceanic anoxic events have resulted in organic enrichment in the area, and when were there
of faulting and folding, may be favorable or detrimental to
periods of hinterland uplift that might have delivered coarse clastics into the basin and created
seal capacity.
potential reservoirs? Paleoclimate can be used to determine when the hinterland experienced the
most intense weathering and where permeable carbonates may have been deposited. Through the representation of the structural framework of
the area, the play cross section can identify structures that
Accurately defining periods of rifting, uplift, and tectonic quiescence in a basin is important, in order
configure trap geometries, such as tilted fault blocks or
to provide a thorough understanding of the development, distribution, and preservation of key play
anticlines. Through the stratigraphic fill, it can highlight more
elements.
subtle trapping mechanisms, including stratigraphic traps
Evaluating Play Elements where reservoir facies pinch out in sealing facies.
For accurate play prediction, it is vital to understand the stratigraphic fill of a basin, as discussed Identifying play elements allows us to assess the potential
above. Once this is established, it is possible to consider where the various play elements could of certain plays, by considering key criteria that affect the
exist within the tectono-stratigraphic framework. Play cross sections allow these concepts to be ability of a system to produce and store hydrocarbons,
illustrated through the depiction of key play elements: source rocks; reservoirs; seals; and traps including charge, composition, trapping mechanism, and
(Figure 6). seal capability.
Defining the Oil and Gas Window Assessing Petroleum Potential and Critical Risks “Play cross sections
Exploration
provide insight into some of

To assess the play potential of the area, it is important to consider whether possible source rocks Play cross sections provide insight into some of the factors that
the factors that determine
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determine the success or failure of a play, helping to highlight
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are likely to generate hydrocarbons, and what the likely hydrocarbon phase will be. Important the success or failure of a
thresholds to define on a play cross section are the oil generation threshold (OGT), base oil window those plays that require further evaluation. On a Neftex Play
play”
(BOW), base biogenic gas, and thermos-sulphate reduction threshold — although not all will be Cross Section, an assessment of the likely hydrocarbon phase
relevant in every situation. It is also important to consider whether the source rocks are generating and critical risk for each play is shown in a table. The critical
at present-day, typically indicating they are at maximum burial, and in most (but not all) instances, risk field is populated for both unproven and proven plays,
maximum overburden. highlighting any factors that may heavily influence the success
of similar future plays. Risks will vary for each play and may
Hydrocarbon phase thresholds can be assessed using data, including temperature data (bottom- include:
hole temperatures from wells and geothermal gradients), maturity data (vitrinite reflectance and
Handbook
spore color index), and an understanding of the burial history of the basin. An understanding of » The presence or absence of play elements and their
the structures and lithologies present in the area, which may affect heat flow, such as salt and relationship to each other
volcanics (Figure 7), is also required. » The thickness of source, reservoir, and seal
» The quality of play elements, assessed through metrics,
Defining Plays such as TOC, porosity, and permeability
Plays need to be defined in a standard manner to enable the comparison of individual play » Migration pathways and features that may help (faults)
elements or plays as a whole. Classification can be made based on a number of different factors, or hinder (carbonate baffles) flow
such as age (whether it is sequence stratigraphic, by stage, or by biozone) or reservoir type (e.g. » Potential for trap development, both structural and
carbonate or clastic). The classification scheme should be defined by the needs of the user to best stratigraphic
identify trends and groupings in their data. Neftex plays are classified by reservoir age, reservoir » The potential closure and breach of traps (in 2D only)
depositional environment, and the trap type, for example: Aptian shallow marine carbonates in » The potential maturity and charge of the system
thrust anticlines.
Understanding these criteria provides a first pass screening
Additional information for each play can also be recorded, including the critical exploration risk, likely process of the play potential in the area. This can be assessed
hydrocarbon phase, trap size, or exploration status. Assessment of these factors can help to guide through the number of potential plays listed, how many are
understanding of the play concepts and their hydrocarbon prospectivity. proven and how many are frontier, and the likely hydrocarbon
phase and critical exploration risks. While this assessment
To assess plays easily, defining data can be tabulated alongside the diagrammatic depiction of the
provides an indication of hydrocarbon potential, it is important to
play cross section. This also aids comparison at the play level in each basin and across different play
note that the plays illustrated on a play cross section are often
cross sections.
conceptual and do not allude to volumes. They simply represent
reservoir, charge, seal, and trap combinations that may work,
have worked here, or have worked in analogous basins.
Data Uncertainties
Understanding how a play cross section is constructed

allows for an assessment of data uncertainty. This should be
considered if using a published play cross section or while
creating your own. Knowing where the diagram is data-driven
enables validation, and it can help increase confidence in the
assessment of the plays it represents.
The amount of data incorporated during the construction of a

play cross section varies depending on the exploration maturity
of the basin (whether data are available) and the quality of the
data. These data can be validated in isolation, but also indicate
the reliability of the inferred insight. Where data constraint is
poor, it is important to consider what model has been applied
to make the predictions and interpretations of the geology. This
may be a geodynamic or sequence stratigraphic model, or it
may involve the use of analogues. In each case, the applicability
of the model and its resultant interpretation needs to be
Figure 7 > The effect of lithology on geothermal gradients. A) The high thermal conductivity of salt changes the geothermal assessed.
gradient. B) Volcanics have a local effect and increase the geothermal gradient.
» Extending distally — If a play is proven in the

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proximal setting, could it be extended into the

deeper basin? If there are proven reservoir
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quality sands in the shoreface, the application of
sequence stratigraphy suggests that associated
deep-marine turbidites could also be prospective.
» Finding new play elements — From wider
regional understanding or through use of
analogues, can any other potential play elements
be identified that are yet to be tested in the area?
Handbook
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sarah Laird, Mike Simmons, and Rebecca Head are thanked
for their contributions to this chapter.
REFERENCES
Abeed, Q. 2020. The Application of Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum Explo-
Figure 8 > The predictive power of play cross sections. By understanding the areas with data control and validation of working ration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July/
petroleum systems, the play cross sections can be predictive. Generation of new play concepts comes from the extension of August, p. 20-29. (XURBB_644265).
existing plays from within the basin or analogous basins. These may extend plays deeper, laterally, or distally. The play cross Davies, A. 2020. Paleoclimate Models in Exploration. Exploration Insights
section can also help to generate new play ideas through the suggestion of untested source rock, reservoir, seal, and trap Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. September, p. 24-30.
combinations. (XURBB_644480).

Play cross sections are built as schematic representations of the area and, therefore, might not Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28. (XURBB_641393).
have a detailed enough resolution to truly assess certain play elements, such as composition and
Gluyas, J. and R. Swarbrick 2004. Petroleum Geoscience. Blackwell Publishing
trap geometries. Ltd (Wiley-Blackwell), 1-359 p. (GURBB_234804).
Lang, C., J.-C. Wrobel-Daveau and G. Nicoll 2020. Plate Tectonic Models in
INSIGHTS FROM PLAY CROSS SECTIONS Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no.
May, p. 20-27. (XURBB_644270).
Analogues
Laird, S. 2019. Chronostratigraphic Charts — Working in Time. Exploration
Application of knowledge from proven plays aids the identification of analogues in frontier basins. Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. August, p. 30-37.
(XURBB_641588).
The use of analogues helps to define play concepts and decrease exploration risk. For example,
if an analogous basin along the margin has a proven play consisting of deep-marine clastic Macgregor, D. 2020. Petroleum Systems and Basin Modeling. Exploration
Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 30-35.
turbidites, we may expect to see the same play potential in the basin of interest if they are tectono- (XURBB_643555).
stratigraphically similar.
Simmons, M. 2020. Introduction: The Role of Geology in Frontier
Hydrocarbon Exploration. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p.
Analogues can be local, regional, or global and can encompass a range of factors, such as: 6-16. (XURBB_645992).
Simmons, M. 2020. The Elements of the Frontier Exploration Workflow.
» Similarities in the architectural framework and the type of basin Subsurface Insights, v. November, p. 24-35. (XURBB_645951).
» The same reservoir observed in different trapping mechanisms
Sutcliffe, O.E. 2019. Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in Exploration.
» Similar reservoirs in adjacent basins where a working source rock has been identified
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July, p.
» Correlation to the conjugate margin 24‑32. (XURBB_641584).
Wright, G. 2020. Subsurface Mapping: Understanding the Subsurface
Predicting New Plays Structural Disposition. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights
Magazine no. February, p. 24-29. (XURBB_643148).
Understanding the exploration history of an area identifies successful, failed, and target plays. This
Wrobel-Daveau, J.-C. and C. Luneburg 2020. Structural Modeling in Exploration
can be used to generate new play concepts by extending working plays or identifying new ideas — Reducing the Risk in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration
(Figure 8). Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-32. (XURBB_644269).
In Figure 8, known data from wells and proven plays depict the working elements of the system. DISCLAIMER
From this, plays can be predicted by: This chapter is a synthesis based upon published data and information, and derived knowledge
» Going deeper — In a basin with working petroleum systems, are there deeper plays acknowledged. Reproduction of any copyrighted image is with the permission of the copyright
related to older source rocks that might be present, which are yet to be tested? the views and/or opinions of Halliburton Energy Services, Inc. and its affiliates including but not
» Extending laterally — Are there other areas along strike of the working feature that
could be exploration targets? For example, if shoreface sands are prospective in one
basin along a margin, do the other basins along the margin have the same potential?
Unconventional Plays and Exploration

Exploration
Handbook
Concepts
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By: Alex Bromhead
Above > Sweetspot identification in

unconventional plays is key
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Handbook
WHAT IS AN UNCONVENTIONAL PLAY?

The term ‘unconventional’ refers to the extraction of hydrocarbons from the subsurface using
techniques that differ from traditional or conventional mechanisms, in which hydrocarbons flow to the
surface through vertical wells at economic rates, due to the natural pressure difference between the
surface and subsurface. While the industry mostly uses this term to refer to shale oil and shale gas,
it does encompass a wider variety of non-traditional play types (Table 1 and Figure 1). Typically, some
form of artificial stimulation is needed for the economic extraction of hydrocarbons from unconventional
systems.
This chapter will focus on shale and tight plays, which are by far the most common and economically
significant unconventional play types. Shale and tight plays can be differentiated from conventional
plays by the following criteria:
1. A continuous hydrocarbon resource across a large aerial extent with diffuse play
boundaries
2. Pervasive hydrocarbon saturation across the play extent without the need for trapping
mechanisms
3. Intrinsically low porosity and low permeability (tight) reservoirs (typically <0.1 mD)
Table 1 > Summary of Unconventional Play Types.
The development of shale and tight plays is only possible

because of technological advancements in hydraulic fracturing
(commonly referred to as ‘fracking’) and directional drilling,
defined as follows:
» Hydraulic fracturing — a mechanism of artificially

fracturing a rock unit to stimulate the flow of
hydrocarbons and enhance production. Fractures are
induced by pumping large quantities of fluid at high
pressure down the wellbore. Proppants, typically
sand or ceramic pellets, are used to hold open the
fractures, which can extend for tens of meters from
the wellbore.
» Directional drilling — used to maximize contact
between the wellbore and the reservoir zone. A “...‘unconventional’
vertical well is drilled to the depth of the reservoir refers to the extraction of
zone before deviating sharply to follow a ‘landing zone’ hydrocarbons from the
within the reservoir unit, which is typically horizontal subsurface using techniques
or sub-horizontal. The deviated section of the wellbore that differ from traditional or
can extend for thousands of meters, following the conventional mechanisms, in
landing zone within the reservoir unit. Hydraulic which hydrocarbons flow to
fracturing is initiated at numerous stages along the the surface through vertical
Figure 1 > This schematic figure depicts unconventional play types and differentiates between conventional and unconventional
plays. length of the deviated wellbore. wells...”
EMERGENCE OF UNCONVENTIONAL PLAYS success in bad rock”, certainly applies. The geological “Experience gained
Exploration
diversity of unconventional plays is also important when from North America
Handbook
The development of unconventional resource plays in North America over the last two decades has forecasting by comparing production rates of different plays. clearly demonstrates that
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revolutionized the oil and gas industry. Unconventional plays are now firmly established as an integral Many of the geological parameters influencing production unconventional plays are
component of global hydrocarbon production. In 2019, unconventional plays accounted for 63% of total rate have different sensitivities in different plays, which relate geologically diverse. They
US oil production, and enabled the US to overtake Russia and Saudi Arabia as the largest producer of to the stratigraphic make-up of the play. For this reason, vary considerably in lithology,
crude oil globally (EIA, 2020). The emergence of unconventionals has had a profound impact on the direct transfer of technology between plays with different mineralogy, stratigraphic
industry, influencing worldwide oversupply, geopolitics, and market conditions. geologies does not result in repeatable outcomes. Informed organization, and internal
Although unconventional plays are considered a relatively recent phenomenon, the concept of decision-making is only achieved through collaboration heterogeneity within the
producing hydrocarbons from tight shale units is not new. The first significant production from shale between geoscientists and reservoir engineers, melding an reservoir unit, and can
Exploration
reservoirs occurred as early as 1921, with gas production from large open fractures in the Huron Shale, understanding of the geological make-up of the play with the occur across a wide range
Handbook
Big Sandy Field in the Appalachian Basin, US (Zagorski et al., 2017). However, it was not until the 1980s most effective completion strategy. of geological ages, tectonic
that horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing were pioneered in the Barnett Shale, by Mitchell Energy. settings, depositional
ANALOGUES AND THE VALUE OF
The company’s founder, George P. Mitchell, is considered ‘the father of fracking’ for his innovative environments, thermal
UNCONVENTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
approach to oil extraction within the Barnett Shale over a 20-year period (Hinton, 2012). maturities, and pressure
When exploring for frontier or emerging unconventional plays, regimes.”
Advances in technology, combined with the discovery of vast hydrocarbon accumulations within both it is important to apply knowledge from well-understood,
shale and tight plays across North America, provided the platform for the rapid and largely unexpected data-rich areas to poorly understood, data-poor areas.
expansion of unconventionals during the 2000s. The focus of North American shale operators has However, identifying appropriate analogues is not necessarily
continuously shifted as new unconventional plays were discovered and subsequently developed. The straightforward, given the range of geological variability
current focus area in the US is the Permian Basin, which contains multiple stacked unconventional observed within the established North American plays. A
plays, including the prolific Wolfcamp shale play. useful approach is to classify the geological variability within
THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THE GEOLOGY shale and tight plays systematically. Sequence stratigraphy
is a valuable tool in this respect, as it provides a robust and
Within the hydrocarbon industry, there is sometimes a misconception that success in unconventional consistent framework, with which to characterize stratigraphic
plays is principally driven by technology, and that production rates are largely determined by completion organization in unconventional plays.
strategy and implementation. Such misconceptions can result in the geological framework being
neglected, with subsurface risks condensed down into a few simple geological criteria, and the The Neftex® unconventional classification schema can be
false impression that ‘all shale is the same’. This underestimates the impact geology and subsurface used to compare unconventional plays and identify pertinent
heterogeneity can have on well performance within unconventional plays. exploration analogues (Figure 2). Within the schema, shale and
tight plays are subdivided, based on the geometric relationship
Experience gained from North America clearly demonstrates that unconventional plays are geologically between the source unit and the reservoir unit within the play.
diverse. They vary considerably in lithology, mineralogy, stratigraphic organization, and internal From Figure 2, it is apparent that the major US unconventional
heterogeneity within the reservoir unit, and can occur across a wide range of geological ages, tectonic plays vary in their stratigraphic organization, which in turn,
settings, depositional environments, thermal maturities, and pressure regimes. Even within a single influences the choice of landing zone.
unconventional play, geological parameters can vary significantly. For this reason, each play contains
a ‘sweet spot’, an area corresponding to the ideal combination of geological conditions that enhance COMPARING PLAYS — EAGLE FORD
production. The sweet spot is typically only a small proportion of the total play area and production VERSUS BAKKEN
rates tend to drop off outside of the sweet spot. In this respect, the old adage, “You can’t engineer The geological diversity of unconventional plays can be clearly
illustrated by comparing two of the most prolific plays in the
US — the Eagle Ford and the Bakken (Figure 3, overleaf), both
of which are commonly regarded simply as ‘shale’.
In the Eagle Ford, the target unit is within organic-rich

carbonate mudstone facies of the Lower Eagle Ford Formation
(Bowman, 2015), which have sourced, reservoired, and
sealed hydrocarbons in-situ. The organic-rich mudstones are
rhythmically interbedded with organic-lean carbonates and,
thus, the Eagle Ford is classified as an interbedded source
shale play (Figure 2).
In contrast, the target unit in the Bakken is within organic‑lean

Figure 2 > Simplified version of the Neftex classification scheme, differentiating play type and stratigraphic organization within
® sandstones, siltstones, and carbonates found in the Middle
unconventional resource plays.
WORKFLOWS IN THE UNCONVENTIONAL “Although tight plays have

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EXPLORATION TO PRODUCTION LIFECYCLE pervasive hydrocarbon
Handbook
saturation across the play
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A robust geological framework is paramount to the successful extent, sweet spots in
and cost-effective development of unconventional plays. tight plays ... occur where
A comprehensive characterization workflow should, thus, migrated hydrocarbons are
be followed from exploration through to well planning and trapped against structural
completion. or stratigraphic surfaces,
Exploration leading to increased
hydrocarbon saturation and
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The first part of the exploration workflow involves a lower water cut during
Handbook
identifying a suitable rock unit that may be prospective as an production.”

unconventional play. The vast majority of established shale
plays are proven source rocks that have charged conventional
reservoirs, while established tight plays are closely associated
with proven source rocks within established hydrocarbon
provinces. Analogues can indicate whether the rock unit under
assessment is likely to constitute a prospective play based
on geological criteria, such as lithology, mineralogy, thermal
maturity, hydrocarbon migration, depositional setting, and
tectonic history.
Once unconventional potential is recognized, a screening

workflow can be used to ascertain the viable aerial extent
of the play. The unconventional screening workflow used
by Neftex considers four key components that control the
Figure 3 > A) A comparison of the Eagle Ford shale play and the Bakken tight play, highlighting differences in stratigraphic extent of an unconventional play: organic-content, maturity,
architecture. B) Vertical log through each unconventional play with an interpreted lithofacies column. The typical landing zone for
horizontal well placement and the induced fracture network developed within each play is shown schematically. thickness, and depth (Figure 4). Screening criteria are applied
for each component within a common chance mapping (CCM)
workflow, an adaptation of the common risk segment (CRS)
Bakken Member. Hydrocarbons reservoired in this interval were not generated in-situ, but have
mapping workflow used in conventional play fairway analysis.
migrated from organic-rich source units within the underlying Lower Bakken Member and overlying
The final output of the CCM workflow is a map broken down
the Upper Bakken Member (Sonnenberg, 2017). Hence, the Bakken is classified as a between source
into different chance segments. These segments indicate the
tight play (Figure 2).
viable play area and the risk factors associated with different
The different classifications of the Eagle Ford and the Bakken plays are significant when exploring for sectors of the play (Bromhead, 2016, Exploration Insights).
sweet spots. While some geological parameters, such as reservoir thickness, reservoir pressure, and
thermal maturity, are important in all play types, the importance of other parameters depends on the
play type. Therefore, these intrinsic differences between plays require careful consideration, as the
geological criteria that define the sweet spot are likely to change between different plays (Figure 3).
In the Eagle Ford shale play, production rate is sensitive to the brittleness and the total organic carbon
(TOC) content of the target unit (Clarke et al., 2016). Brittleness is influenced by the mineralogy of the
organic-rich mudstone and the degree of intercalation with organic-lean carbonates. The TOC content
determines the amount of organic-hosted porosity generated during the maturation of kerogen, which
provides the majority of the hydrocarbon storage capacity in shale plays.
In contrast, the production rate from the Middle Bakken tight play is sensitive to the degree of
structural or stratigraphic trapping. Although tight plays have pervasive hydrocarbon saturation across
the play extent, sweet spots in tight plays like the Bakken occur where migrated hydrocarbons are
trapped against structural or stratigraphic surfaces, leading to increased hydrocarbon saturation and a
lower water cut during production (Theloy and Sonnenberg, 2013). In this respect, tight plays can be
enhanced by the same trapping mechanisms that generate hydrocarbon accumulations in conventional
plays. Figure 4 > Unconventional screening workflow to identify the viable play extent. Each geological component can be assessed using
regional datasets and geological models.
the induced artificial fracture network developed following “There is a world of

Exploration
completion. Ideally, the deviated well trajectory will follow the opportunity to develop
unconventional reservoir zone with the optimum geological unconventional plays in
Realizing Potential
Realizing Potential
properties, with the development of a complex artificial many of the prolific, mature
fracture network that will give a large stimulated rock volume. hydrocarbon provinces, or
A wide variety of data and inputs from geological, geophysical, ‘super basins’. Although
and geomechanical models are incorporated into a reservoir market conditions are
simulation, along with anticipated completion metrics, such currently challenging, there
as lateral length, number of fracture stages, and proppant are huge opportunities for
volume, to model production scenarios. The completion design explorationists. A robust
may be modified depending on the strategy of the operator. geological framework and
Handbook
For instance, some operators may want to achieve high initial the identification of pertinent
production to prove the value of an asset, while others may analogues will be critical to
look at achieving more sustained production in the long term. success in these frontier and
emerging plays, globally.”
WHERE NEXT FOR UNCONVENTIONALS?
Figure 5 > Geocellular Earth Models constructed for the Wolfcamp play in the Permian Basin, using DecisionSpace® Geosciences.
A) Lithofacies model and B) rock property model for total organic carbon (TOC). The development of unconventional plays in North America
has provided an opportunity to explore for similar play
Appraisal concepts in other basins worldwide. The geological conditions
Appraisal is concerned with characterizing the geological properties of the unconventional play within required to facilitate a prospective resource play are certainly
the viable play area identified from the screening workflow. It includes techniques, such as seismic not unique to this continent. However, excluding a few
interpretation and attribute analysis, well interpretation and petrophysics, core analysis, basin modeling, exceptions, such as those discussed below, North America
and earth modeling (Figure 5), with the aim of either directly measuring or modeling geological remains the only continent where market and fiscal conditions
properties of the subsurface. Geological appraisal may occur in several phases, with the area of for developing unconventionals have been economically viable.
investigation progressively reduced from basin-scale to asset-scale. During each phase, more data are The Vaca Muerta play in the Neuquén Basin, Argentina,
acquired, integrated, and interpreted at increasing resolution. is certainly the top emerging unconventional play outside
North America. This play has huge potential, as it has a very
Well Planning and Completion
large in-place hydrocarbon resource and all the geological
This phase follows the geological appraisal of the unconventional asset. Geophysical models and prerequisites for success based on comparison with North
geomechanical models are used to determine the landing zone for a deviated well, and to simulate American analogues (Bromhead, 2020, Exploration Insights)
(Figure 6). Understanding of this play has been accelerated by
a cooperative culture among operators, where knowledge is
shared for mutual benefit (Gonzalez et al., 2016). This type of
strategy could be a benchmark for what is required to develop
unconventional plays efficiently outside North America.
There is also vast unconventional potential in the Middle
East (Bromhead, 2016, Exploration Insights), a mature
hydrocarbon province with many world-class source rocks that
have charged the Earth’s most prolific conventional petroleum
systems. Appraisal and initial development of unconventional
plays, such as the Jurassic Tuwaiq Mountain (Almubarak et al.,
2017), the Silurian Qusaiba (Abouelresh et al., 2020), and the
Cretaceous Shilaif (Van Laer et al., 2019), are already underway
and have shown considerable promise.
There is a world of opportunity to develop unconventional
plays in many of the prolific, mature hydrocarbon provinces,
or ‘super basins’. Although market conditions are currently
challenging, there are huge opportunities for explorationists. A
robust geological framework and the identification of pertinent
Figure 6 > Snapshot from the Neftex® ShaleExplorer dashboard demonstrating how properties of emerging plays, such as the Vaca analogues will be critical to success in these frontier and
Muerta, can be compared with established plays in North America. This facilitates the identification of analogous areas, which can
accelerate our understanding of emerging plays. emerging plays, globally.
REFERENCES
Exploration
Realizing Potential
Abouelresh, M., L. Babalola, A. Bokhari, M. Omer, T. Koithan and D. Boyde 2020. Sedimentology, geochemistry and reservoir
potential of the organic-rich Qusaiba Shale, Tabuk Basin, NW Saudi Arabia. Marine and Petroleum Geology, v. 111, p. 240-260.
(XURBB_641857).
Almubarak, A., A. Hakami, I. Leyva and C. Kurison 2017. Saudi Arabia’s Unconventional Program in the Jafurah Basin: Transforming
an Idea to Reality With the Jurassic Tuwaiq Mountain Formation. 22nd World Petroleum Congress, 9-13 July, Istanbul, Turkey, 2017.
World Petroleum Congress, p. 1-16. (XURBB_639479).
Bowman, T. 2015. Eaglebine Activity. Adapted from presentation at the first AAPG DPA Playmaker Forum, “From Prospect to
Discovery,” January 24, 2013, Houston, Texas. AAPG Search and Discovery no. 110187, p. 1-25. (XURBB_634187).
Bromhead, A. 2016. The Architecture and Stratigraphic Variability of an Unconventional Resource Play: Screening the Jurassic
Handbook
Hanifa Interval in the Middle East. Neftex Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. July, p. 4-11.
(XURBB_634469).
Bromhead, A., D. Weeks and O. Sutcliffe 2020. Lessons Learned from Established Unconventional Plays: Application to the
Middle–Late Jurassic Resource Interval of the Middle East. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no.
March, p. 6-11. (XURBB_643424).
22-28. (XURBB_641393).
EIA 2020. International Energy Statistics: Total oil (petroleum and other liquids) production. Energy Information Administration
(EIA). (XURBB_644423).
Gonzalez, G., Desjardins, P., Vallejo, M.D., Tomassini, F.G., Kietzman, D., Rivarola, L.G., Marchal, D., Dominguez, R.F. 2016.
Transecta Regional de la Formacion Vaca Muerta: Integracion de sismica, registros de pozos, coronas y afloramientos (Regional
transect of the Vaca Muerta Formation: Integration of seismic, well logs, crowns and outcrops). IAPG, Instituto Argentino del
Petróleo y del Gas, 1-244 p. (XURBB_620145).
Hinton, D.D. 2012. The Seventeen-Year Overnight Wonder: George Mitchell and Unlocking the Barnett Shale. Journal of American
History, v. 99, no. 1, p. 229-235. (XURBB_644422).
Theloy, C. and S.A. Sonnenberg 2013. Integrating Geology and Engineering: Implications for Production in the Bakken Play,
Williston Basin. SPE Conference Paper, v. 1596247, p. 1-12. (XURBB_540221).
Sonnenberg, S.A. 2017. Sequence Stratigraphy of the Bakken and Three Forks Formations, Williston Basin, USA. AAPG Search and
Discovery, v. 10990, p. -. (XURBB_635040).
Van Laer, P., K. Leyrer, M. Povstyanova, M.Z. Baig, G. Makarychev and H. Al-Marzooqi 2019. Cenomanian Shilaif Unconventional
Shale Oil Potential in Onshore Abu Dhabi, UAE. Proceedings of the 7th Unconventional Resources Technology Conference. AAPG
Datapages Miscellaneous Series no. 526, p. 1-17. (XURBB_643413).
Wright, G. 2020. Subsurface Mapping: Understanding the Subsurface Structural Disposition. Exploration Insights Magazine.
Exploration Insights Magazine no. February, p. 24-29. (XURBB_643148).
Zagorski, W.A., M. Emery and J.L. Ventura 2017. The Marcellus Shale Play: Its Discovery and Emergence as a Major Global
Hydrocarbon Accumulation. In R.K. Merrill and C.A. Sternbach (Eds.), Giant fields of the decade 2000–2010. AAPG Memoir no.
113, p. 55-90. (XURBB_639304).
DISCLAIMER
Elements of the Frontier Exploration

Exploration
Workflow
Realizing Potential
Realizing Potential
By: Mike Simmons
The introduction to this handbook highlighted that modern frontier exploration workflows for
conventional resources (Figure 1) are focused around:
Handbook
1. The development of play concepts, drawing on the creativity of the exploration

geoscientist, informed by appropriate geological analogues
2. The mapping of various play elements within a play concept using common risk segment
(CRS) mapping techniques (Grant et al., 1996; Longley and Brown, 2016). At their
most basic, these are ‘traffic light’ assessments of risk based on: reservoir presence
and effectiveness; source rock presence and maturity; the migration limits of the
hydrocarbons generated; and seal presence and effectiveness (Figure 2). They can be
informed by analysis of successful and dry wells in the basin being assessed, and the
likely limits of trap distribution.
3. The definition of a high-graded play fairway in which prospects can be sought.
4. The calculation of the likely yet-to-find volumes of hydrocarbons within a play within a Figure 2 > Common risk segment mapping. Converting geological data and interpretations into an assessment of risk, ultimately
high-grading a region in which a play is thought more likely to work — the play fairway.
basin. This can be predicted from the size and number of prospects, allowing prospective
plays and basins to be ranked.
To do so, the explorationist needs to draw on a variety of
Exploration for unconventional resources follows a similar type of screening process. data types and specialist interpretation techniques that are “The workflow requires the
featured within this Exploration Handbook. In this chapter we exploration geoscientist
The workflow requires the exploration geoscientist to evaluate the geological history of the basin highlight how these techniques come together to provide an to evaluate the geological
or region they are studying, beginning with tectonostratigraphy, and culminating in a detailed assessment of exploration potential, prior to prospect definition history of the basin or region
understanding of depositional history and the subsequent burial history of the sediments deposited. and drilling of wildcat wells. they are studying...”
Figure 1 > The generalized frontier exploration workflow.

* Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal, and Environmental
WHERE TO EXPLORE Given all the possible reasons to review exploration, it is not
Exploration
surprising that the work of a new ventures team never ends!

Most oil companies engaged in exploration have a new ventures team. The role of this team is to There are always play concepts to generate or revisit, and new
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Realizing Potential
identify the areas in which the company should focus its exploration efforts. Several approaches, some geography or stratigraphy to consider (Figure 3).
proactive, others reactive, may guide the work of this team:
Although there are few completely unexplored basins on
1. Creating completely new concepts Earth, some are relatively underexplored (“frontier basins”).
» Are there new combinations of source rock, reservoir, seal, and trap (plays) that can be For example, the Black Sea Basin occupies c. 423,000 km2,
envisaged for a basin? yet only 20 or so deep-water wells have been drilled there
(Simmons et al., 2018).
2. Building on success
There are many basins that have been extensively drilled
Handbook
» Can play concepts that have been successful in a basin be applied to other basins?
in shallow stratigraphy, but deeper stratigraphy remains
» Can a successful play concept in a basin be extended to other parts of that basin? relatively unexplored (“frontier plays”). Stratigraphic traps,
3. Understanding past failure such as subcrops, pinch-outs, and isolated reefs, are relatively “Most oil companies
underexplored, and plays associated with these are likely engaged in exploration have
» Should a play concept be written off because of previous failures?
grown in importance. a new ventures team. The
» Will re-examining aspects of the play (e.g. migration) open up the possibility of the play role of this team is to identify
Even in the Middle East, where simple structural closures
working in other parts of the basin, or in other regions? the areas in which the
have yielded immense volumes of hydrocarbons, attention is
4. Being driven by opportunity now turning to stratigraphic traps (Cousins et al., 2019). Put company should focus its
simply, there is a still a great deal of the subsurface to be fully exploration efforts.”
» Availability of a licensing round. Not all potentially prospective basins have acreage
available to license. A licensing round may require rapid evaluation of the opportunities evaluated for its hydrocarbon potential (Figure 4). How then,
available. do geologists evaluate this potential?
» Farm-in offers from another company. Most large companies will keep a running
inventory of their view of the potential of basins. Even so, an invitation from another
company to participate in an exploration venture may require reassessment of that
potential.
» Geopolitical considerations. Changing political circumstances may open up basins for
assessment, or, especially for government-owned companies, exploration focus may be
driven by wider considerations of that company or nation’s activities.
» Technological considerations. The ability to drill wells in deeper water, in challenging
environments, or to greater depths, may open up new basins, or parts of basins for
assessment.
Figure 4 > Onshore and offshore sedimentary basins that are the focus for hydrocarbon exploration. A number of basins are relatively
Figure 3 > Evolution of play concepts in a hypothetical basin. unexplored.
HOW TO EXPLORE » Geodynamics. High-resolution plate tectonic models “Recognition of globally

Exploration
are now available without the need for specialist significant sequences ...
Fundamentals software or powerful computing facilities (e.g. provides additional predictive
Realizing Potential
Realizing Potential
Successful exploration requires a good understanding of geological risk. This in turn requires an QuickPlates®). They allow the tectonic history of a capabilities in determining
understanding of the geological history of the basin or region being evaluated, the likely sedimentary basin to be evaluated and conjugate margins to be the likely sedimentary fill of
succession present, and its hydrocarbon potential. Predictions of the subsurface need to be made located, facilitating the selection of play analogues. a basin and its hydrocarbon
away from data constraint. To carry out these predictions effectively, the geologist will need to utilize a potential...”
» Earth systems science. Developments in
number of fundamental techniques: geodynamics have facilitated the use of the broader
» Data search and capture. In frontier basins, every piece of data a geologist can find may discipline of Earth systems science in exploration.
prove important. Access to available wells and seismic data is vital, but outcrops on the The complete geological tectono-sedimentary
Handbook
margin of the basin may also prove insightful. Likewise, the results of specialist analysis such system is considered from sediment source to its
as organic geochemistry, sedimentology and biostratigraphy can be invaluable and need to ultimate destination in a basin, with a variety of
be sought out. The value of published literature should not be underestimated and an effort Earth systems factors such as eustasy, uplift,
should be made to “look under every stone” in order to find data that may affect geological subsidence, and climate controlling this (Figure 5).
risk assessment. This can be highly predictive and used to de-risk play
concepts.
» Sequence stratigraphy. Sequence stratigraphy considers the sedimentary response to
changes in relative sea level. It is, therefore, powerful in predicting subsurface sedimentary » Depth mapping. Reservoir, source rock, and
architecture and the likely facies present in a given location. seal presence need to be considered within a
depth framework to evaluate the effectiveness of
Geological age is key to integrating data; sequence stratigraphy, as a proxy for age, provides a these petroleum systems elements. Dynamically
framework in which to standardize and integrate disparate geological data. Wells, outcrops, seismic updatable structure contour maps and grids are
data, and specialist data can be attributed with sequence stratigraphic surfaces, and thereby integrated now relatively easy to construct in many exploration
into insightful interpretations such as gross depositional environment maps. software packages (e.g. DecisionSpace®) and
provide a vital perquisite to basin screening.
Recognition of globally significant sequences (the results of eustasy) provides additional predictive
capabilities in determining the likely sedimentary fill of a basin and its hydrocarbon potential (e.g. major » Basin modeling. Basin modeling is essential to
eustatic falls associated with lowstand fan deposition). predict source rock maturity through geological
time, and thus assess if, when, and how
hydrocarbons were generated and migrated.
Subsurface pressure and reservoir quality can also
be modeled. Modeling may be performed in 1D, 2D,
or 3D, plus the extra dimension of time, but should
begin with the calibration of a data-rich well in 1D.
A program of 1D modeling of wells and pseudo
wells (predicted lithological columns) can give a
quick, but necessarily rough, view of a petroleum
system. Such modeling can now be performed by
generalists as well as specialists in software such as
Permedia®.
The application of these fundamental techniques within frontier

exploration lies at the heart of the Neftex® Insights portfolio.
Tectonic History
Today, few sedimentary basins are completely unknown
entities. Data have been collected for decades by industrial
and academic seismic programs, drilling initiatives such as
the International Ocean Discovery Programme (IODP) and
its predecessors, and by the study of outcrops in and on the
margins of basins. Thus, even basins that have experienced
Figure 5 > Schematic representation of Earth systems science elements. This is a holistic approach that considers the key factors
that govern erosion, transportation, and ultimately the deposition of sedimentary rocks. The interplay of tectonics, climate and
limited efforts to explore for hydrocarbons are reasonably well
eustasy can be used to aid in the prediction of petroleum systems elements. understood, at least in terms of their basic tectono-stratigraphy.
The evaluation of a basin usually begins with an understanding of its tectonic history through the In the absence of well and/or outcrop data, regional geological “Exploration geologists are
Exploration
definition of tectonic megasequences. Such an understanding can provide insight into key issues that understanding, such as tectonic history, sea-level change, concerned with building
govern prospectivity: and conjugate or analogue basins can be used. These are up an understanding of
Realizing Potential
Realizing Potential
important because interpretation of seismic data can easily the geological history
» Timing of basin formation. Very young basins lack mature source rocks, while very old
be susceptible to bias derived from the experience of the of a basin and require a
basins may only possess over-mature source rocks, at least at depth.
interpreter, as shown by Bond et al. (2007) (Figure 6). Such means to integrate many
» Phases of tectonic history. These include pre-rift, syn-rift and post-rift. Petroleum system bias can best be overcome by a good understanding of the different types of data and
elements are often related to discrete phases in the history of a basin, and an overly complex relevant regional geological context. knowledge.”
basin history can destroy petroleum systems elements, for example by inducing breach of
While there are many potential iterations, the frontier
traps.
exploration process (Figure 1) is straightforward in that
Handbook
» Past and present geothermal gradients. These impact source rock maturity, timing of information on the stratigraphy of the basin is gathered from
migration, and reservoir effectiveness. a variety of data types, integrated (typically using sequence
stratigraphy), and then converted into petroleum geology
The tectonic history of a basin can be determined from the geodynamic context derived from plate understanding as expressed in the form of CRS maps for
tectonic models, coupled with large-scale basin architecture as imaged on deep seismic data. Some various play elements. This then leads into prospect definition
initial basin modeling can be helpful in generating basic notions of the likely possibilities of hydrocarbon and risked estimates of volumes of hydrocarbons in place
generation, reservoir effectiveness and seal integrity. Such initial work can be followed up with more (Figure 7). Stratigraphy is thus at the heart of play-based
detailed studies as the play concepts develop, and the likely locations of the play fairway and any exploration.
prospects within it become clearer.
Exploration geologists are concerned with building up an
understanding of the geological history of a basin and require
a means to integrate many different types of data and
knowledge. The most obvious commonality is geological
age. For example, rock units, seismic horizons, and phases of
tectonic history all have a geological age. This does not mean
the absolute (or numerical) age, but the relevant geological
period (as precise as possible). To achieve this, data can be
attributed with sequence stratigraphic surfaces from a local
or global model that acts as a proxy for age. These data can
then be integrated into derived products that provide insight for
the exploration workflow.
Figure 7 > The frontier exploration

process begins with understanding
the geological evolution of a basin
and its likely petroleum potential
through the identification of known
and predicted plays. Focus then
turns to these plays through
risk assessment of each play.
Finally, attention is paid to
individual prospects within a
play fairway and prospect-
specific risk. This leads to
Figure 6 > Different interpretations of the same seismic data reveal bias in interpretation relating to the experience of the interpreter. an inventory of prospects
After Bond et al. (2007). with the potential to
be drilled. Note that
geographic focus
Sedimentary Fill tightens throughout
the exploration
process.
If a basin has a tectonic history that suggests potential for prospectivity, the next task is to evaluate
its likely sedimentary fill, usually megasequence by megasequence, as determined from the tectonic
history of the basin.
An initial assessment is made using seismic data. These data are usually speculative, gathered to
promote the prospectivity of a basin or region. Seismic character and facies are useful indicators of
sedimentary fill, and can be integrated with well and/or outcrop information to determine lithology.
Gross Depositional Environment Maps sea‑level change. From such models 3D models, 2D GDE “A full stack of GDE maps
Exploration
maps can be extracted. captures the depositional

One approach to integrating seismic and well/outcrop data, and regional geology, is through the use of
history of a basin.
Realizing Potential
Realizing Potential
gross depositional environment (GDE) maps (Figure 8). These depict the sedimentary facies that are GDE maps represent what was deposited, but to be fully
Another way of depicting
known or predicted to have been deposited at a given time. effective, they need to be integrated with a depiction of
this is through use of
preservation limits. For example, this includes taking into
The location of sedimentary facies varies greatly through time, so it is useful to depict GDE maps with a chronostratigraphic charts
account subcrop preservation limits beneath unconformities.
fair degree of temporal precision. Here, sequence stratigraphy can play a major role, with maps drawn that depict the geographic
Gross thicknesses, but ideally net thicknesses, of depositional
on maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) (relative highs of sea-level) and maximum regression surfaces distribution of facies along a
facies are also a key consideration to be integrated with GDE
(MRS) (relative lows of sea-level), capturing the depositional limits of maximum progradation and transect, through time.”
maps, as potential source rocks, reservoirs and seals have
retrogradation. Other systems tracts can be depicted as required. minimum absolute viable thickness limits. This information can
Handbook
To construct GDE maps based on sequence stratigraphy, any data used in constructing the maps be determined from the data used in GDE map construction
must be attributed with the sequence stratigraphic model being used. Temporally-constrained (e.g. well thickness), but ideally needs combining into an
sequence stratigraphic surfaces can be identified (picked) in well, outcrop and seismic data, with isopach map.
reference to lithology and depositional environment. These can provide the basic framework for GDE GDE maps and related preservation limit and isopach maps
mapping that integrates data and interpolates between data (Figure 8). are often stacked to generate an interval map in which the
GDE mapping can be further supported by Earth systems science approaches that consider maximum preserved depositional extent and thickness of a key
palaeoclimate, and source-to-sink depositional processes (Figure 5). Amplitude extractions from 3D reservoir, source rock or seal facies are captured. These later
seismic volumes can also be a powerful tool. In the future, we may expect to see process-based form the feedstock into the CRS mapping process.
sedimentological understanding contributing more substantially to GDE mapping. Forward stratigraphic Subsurface Maps
modeling provides a means of determining a 3D sedimentary model of the subsurface by integrating
data with the controls on depositional processes such as sediment flux, subsidence and relative Structure depth maps depict the present-day depth of
burial of a particular stratigraphic horizon. They can be used
to depict the depth of a key source rock or reservoir, and
to draw inferences about source rock maturity or reservoir
effectiveness. This is especially so when integrated with an
understanding of the geochemistry of a particular potential
source rock and its burial history, or the likely changes in rock
properties of a reservoir at depth. Not all rocks are currently at
their maximum burial depth, and they may have experienced
a varied tectonic history. Thus, integration with structural
modeling is also important.
Chronostratigraphic Charts
A full stack of GDE maps captures the depositional history
of a basin. Another way of depicting this is through use
of chronostratigraphic charts that depict the geographic
distribution of facies along a transect, through time.
They typically show only the preserved rock record, and
provide insight into play concepts, and the likely geology
that a well might encounter at any given location. Whilst
chronostratigraphic charts are usually produced manually
by interpolating between wells/outcrops using sequence
stratigraphic principles, they can be also be generated from
forward stratigraphic models.
Play Cross Sections

Alongside chronostratigraphic charts, play cross sections are
useful, as they capture the depositional history of a basin in
depth, as opposed to in geological time. They usually begin
Figure 8 > A pair of GDE maps for a sea-level high (MFS) and sea-level low (MRS) in the Late Jurassic of NW Europe. Identification of as geo-seismic sections, where a seismic line is overlain with
sequence stratigraphic surfaces in a well provides constraint to the maps, which will ultimately be constructed from a large number
of well and outcrop data points, along with (as available) seismic facies, tectonic elements and models of drainage and currents. the geology it represents. Once the seismic data are depth
converted, the section can be regarded as a play cross section, and with knowledge of geothermal approach, predictions are becoming more accurate. The digital “The potential value of
Exploration
gradient, oil and gas generation windows can be added. Moreover, they are an excellent means of transformation of exploration that facilitates this process is a prospect is calculated
capturing play concepts and visualizing the link between various play elements, especially source, already well underway (for example, our DecisionSpace® from the volume of the
Realizing Potential
Realizing Potential
reservoir, seal and trap. 365 FairwayFinder application). This will enable more subtle recoverable hydrocarbons
exploration objectives such as stratigraphic traps to be present, risked against the
Common Risk Segment Mapping
identified. These can be hard to recognize in seismic data. A likely play risk and prospect
Having established the geological history of a basin or region, and the likely pattern of sedimentary digital subsurface model, informed by geological context and risk.”
fill, work can now proceed on assessing the potential plays in the basin. These can be extensions supported by machine learning, could incorporate tools to
of existing plays, analogue play concepts from other, similar basins, or completely novel ideas. In all identify the subtle geometries in seismic volumes, estimate
circumstances, the same set of basic questions about play risk need to be answered: rock properties, and establish play concepts.
Handbook
» What is the extent of a potential viable source rock with hydrocarbon generation potential? ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Where is it likely to be mature (for oil and/or gas), and what are the likely migration limits for
Many thanks to Andy Davies, Kat Gould, Frans van Buchem,
hydrocarbons from the kitchen?
Michael Treloar, Karen Heyburn, Owen Sutcliffe, and Graeme
» What is the extent of a possible reservoir and where will it be effective (i.e. not deep enough Nicoll, who directly or indirectly provided figure content for this
that porosity and permeability are occluded)? chapter and helped crystallise some of the ideas within it.
» What is the extent of a possible seal and where will it retain its integrity? REFERENCES
Abeed, Q. 2020. The Application of Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum
Such questions can be answered by CRS mapping (Figure 2), and definition of the play fairway — the
Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no.
basic high-graded area in which all the key elements of a play are thought to work. This play fairway July/August, p. 20-29. (XURBB_644265).
can then scrutinized in detail to identify specific drillable traps (i.e. prospects), that will carry their own Bond, C.E., Gibbs, A.D., Shipton, Z.K., and Jones, S., 2007. What do you think
prospect-specific risk (White, 1993). this is? “Conceptual uncertainty” in geoscience interpretation. GSA Today,
17/11, 4-10. (XURBB_627560).
Prospect Evaluation Bromhead, A.D. 2020. Unconventional Plays and Exploration Concepts.
Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. October, p.
For each viable prospect, a well prognosis is created, which predicts the likely stratigraphy that will 30-22. (XURBB_644663).
be penetrated. This is built from the regional geological understanding and depositional history that Cousins, T., Davies, R., Gravestock, C., Jewell, T., Simmons, M. and Sutcliffe,
was created as part of the screening process. The well prognosis can highlight drilling hazards and O., 2019, November. Exploration and Production: Reducing Geological
information regarding the reservoir. Risk in the Middle East. In Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition &
Conference, 2019, SPE Paper 197161-MS. (XURBB_644211).
The potential value of a prospect is calculated from the volume of the recoverable hydrocarbons Cowliff, L. and J. Montero 2020. Reservoir Properties and Petrophysics in
present, risked against the likely play risk and prospect risk. Thus, a prospect may be said to have Exploration: From New Ventures to Prospect Analysis. Exploration Insights
Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. April, p. 33-26. (XURBB_643794).
500 million barrels of oil recoverable at a risk of 1:10. An oil company will keep a prospect inventory,
Davies, A. 2020. Paleoclimate Models in Exploration. Exploration Insights
ranked by risk versus reward, along with geopolitical considerations, and the overall reward and risk of Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. September, p. 24-30.
a play. (XURBB_644480).

If a prospect in a new play is successful it may open up the play to the drilling of more prospects Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-28. (XURBB_641393).
and a greater prize overall. For example, the Zohr discovery of 2015 was a play opener in the Eastern Firth, E. 2019. Play Cross Sections — Visualizing Play Concepts. Exploration
Mediterranean. It led to other prospects in the same play fairway being successfully drilled in the basin, Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. September, p. 22-30.
where isolated Cretaceous/Miocene carbonate reefs were charged with biogenic gas and sealed with (XURBB_641758).
Messinian evaporites. Grant, S., Milton, N., and Thompson, M. 1996. Play fairway analysis and risk
mapping: an example using the Middle Jurassic Brent Group in the northern
SUMMARY AND LOOK AHEAD North Sea. In: Dore, A.G., and Sinding-Larsen, R., eds., Quantification and
Prediction of Hydrocarbon Resources: Stavanger, Elsevier, Norwegian
Petroleum Society Special Publications, 167-181. (XURBB_620804).
Frontier exploration is founded upon a sound understanding of the geological history of a basin,
which enables play concepts to be identified for exploration (Figure 7). Geological context and the Laird, S. 2019. Chronostratigraphic Charts — Working in Time. Exploration
Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. August, p. 30-37.
identification of analogues inform this process. Play concepts are evaluated by assessing the risk on
(XURBB_641588).
the various geological components that comprise the play — reservoir, charge and seal. This creates
Lang, C., J.-C. Wrobel-Daveau and G. Nicoll 2020. Plate Tectonic Models in
a high‑graded play fairway in which the prospects for drilling can be sought. The size and number of
Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no.
prospects informs the likely yet-to-find volume of hydrocarbons within the basin and the play, allowing May, p. 20-27. (XURBB_644270).
these to be ranked within a company’s exploration portfolio.
Longley, I., and J. Brown 2016. Why bother? (With Play Based Exploration):
The Five Reasons Why Play Based Exploration Worthwhile in a Modern Busy
Knowledge and integration of a variety of data types and geoscience specialisms is key to the success Understaffed and Overworked Exploration Company Environment. International
of this process. Explorationists predict the subsurface. Thanks to improvements in technology, data Conference and Exhibition, Melbourne, Australia 13-16 September 2015. AAPG
Search and Discovery no. 110227, p. 1-97. (XURBB_644679).
availability and quality, and, not least, geological understanding, arising from an integrated geoscience
March, p. 30-35. (XURBB_643555).
Exploration
Maksymiw, P. 2019. Stratigraphy in Exploration. Exploration Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p.
Realizing Potential
34-39. (XURBB_641247).
Nicoll, G., B. Gréselle, J. Smith and P. Helps 2020. Earth System Science: Source-to-Sink. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton
Landmark, p. 126-132. (XURBB_645996).
Simmons, M. 2020. Introduction: The Role of Geology in Frontier Hydrocarbon Exploration. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton
Landmark, p. 6-16. (XURBB_645992).
Simmons, M.D., Tari, G.C. and Okay, A.I., 2018. Petroleum geology of the Black Sea: introduction. Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 464, 1-18. (XURBB_644697).
Handbook
White, D.A. 1993. Geologic risking guide for prospects and plays. AAPG Bulletin, 77, 2048-2061. (XURBB_644698).
Sutcliffe, O. 2020. Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in Exploration. Exploration Handbook. Halliburton Landmark, p. 34-41.
(XURBB_645994).
Van Buchem, F. 2019. Forward Stratigraphic Modeling — Closing the Interpretation Loop. Exploration Insights Magazine.
Exploration Insights Magazine no. October, p. 30-37. (XURBB_643056).
Wright, G. 2020. Subsurface Mapping: Understanding the Subsurface Structural Disposition. Exploration Insights Magazine.
Exploration Insights Magazine no. February, p. 24-29. (XURBB_643148).
Wrobel-Daveau, J.-C. and C. Luneburg 2020. Structural Modeling in Exploration — Reducing the Risk in Exploration. Exploration
Insights Magazine. Exploration Insights Magazine no. June, p. 22-32. (XURBB_644269).
DISCLAIMER
Assessing Yet-to-Find A caveat associated with the areal productivity method is that
Exploration
many plays are constrained by the trap capacity and, therefore,

a knowledge of trap density and size is a key element to
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Realizing Potential
By: Mike Simmons, Thomas Jewell, Owen Sutcliffe, and Karen enhance this approach. The suitability of analogues, given the
distinctiveness of petroleum system elements within a basin,
Heyburn is another caveat to this methodology.
SOURCE ROCK YIELD ESTIMATION AND

An important process in the strategic management of an exploration portfolio is the determination of
AREAL RICHNESS
the volume of hydrocarbons that are “yet-to-find” (YTF) within a basin, play, or region. This YTF value The source rock yield estimation and areal richness approach
can be used to assess and compare exploration potential, allowing exploration companies or legislative is mostly used in underexplored, frontier basins and is derived
Handbook
bodies to make strategic decisions on the placement of future investments. YTF estimates are by calculating the volume of hydrocarbons likely generated
important for determining long-term energy policies at both national and international levels. In these and expelled from source rocks. This value is modified by
evaluations, the size of the likely reward (the YTF) is combined with an assessment of risk to determine estimating the losses that may have occurred during migration
the likely return on investment. to putative traps, and the likely recovery factor within them. An
estimate for the YTF is derived once the volume of discovered
There are several approaches to determining YTF, and the approach adopted will largely depend on
recoverable hydrocarbons is subtracted from this value.
the amount of data available at the time of analysis and the exploration maturity of the area or play
being assessed (see excellent detailed review of Foum, 2018). While YTF volumes are important, In these assessments, the ratio of hydrocarbons generated
their areal and stratigraphic distribution is also significant, especially as the paradigm of “advantaged to the hydrocarbons trapped is known as the generation/
hydrocarbons” becomes an increasingly important overlay for directing the location of investment accumulation efficiency (GAE) (Magoon & Beaumont, 1999),
decisions. In this paradigm, preference is given to hydrocarbon resources with the lowest carbon which is often represented as a percentage. As an example, “There are several
intensity to find and exploit, and in this context, YTF volumes concentrated in a few large structures consider a completely unexplored basin; 800 billion barrels are approaches to determining
may be considered preferable to volumes distributed over many small structures, or those technically estimated to have been generated and expelled, of which 10% YTF, and the approach
difficult to image and model. are trapped with a recovery factor of 40%. The YTF will be 32 adopted will largely depend
YTF values should be reported as a plausible range, which reflects the assumptions made and possible
billion barrels (800 billion barrels x 0.1 x 0.4). The GAE in this on the amount of data
errors inherent in the data used to make the calculation. Therefore, YTF estimates will always have
example would be 4% (32/800 x 100). available at the time of
their limitations. As a strategic explorer, it is good practice to update YTF estimates regularly when new
analysis and the exploration
Generation estimates may come from basin models of
data become available. Over the lifetime of exploration campaigns, changes to YTF values are normal.
maturity of the area or play
known and predicted source rocks. Major uncertainties in
Positive changes may reflect the discovery of new plays in a basin, or the rejuvenation of older plays by
being assessed.”
these calculations will be source rock richness, thickness,
new technological concepts. Negative changes occur when plays disappoint or are tested in new areas and maturity, so a range of values needs to be considered,
with an unfavorable subsurface expression. and good (analogue) source rock data are required. Likewise,
migration losses are hard to calculate and may range from
The main methods of YTF estimation are:
99.9% to 80% (Biteau and Baudin, 2019). These loses can
» Areal productivity also be calculated using basin modeling software, such as
» Source rock (or petroleum system) yield and areal richness
» Creaming curves
» Zipf plots and field size distributions
» Prospect inventory summation
» Feature count stochastic prediction
AREAL PRODUCTIVITY
The areal productivity method, one of the most common ways to estimate YTF in frontier plays in
new basins, was originally developed by the US Geological Survey (USGS) (e.g. Klemme, 1975). This
approach is dependent on having good quality analogue data and a knowledge of the constraining
factors on the play being assessed. It applies the areal productivity (Mmboe/km2), derived from a
suitable analogue, to an area in the basin being assessed where a play is considered viable (Figure 1).
Often, a range of appropriate analogues needs to be applied to produce a considered range of YTF
Figure 1 > Workflow required to calculate the areal productivity YTF. Note the optional workflow spur to enhance
estimates. the YTF estimates incorporating an element of field size distribution.
Permedia® petroleum systems modeling software. Recovery factors are hard to determine, especially This method is the commonest used across the hydrocarbon “If part of a basin has been
Exploration
if hard data are absent and multiple plays are involved. industry, but is really only applicable to well-explored fairways explored, the quantity of
and requires complete historical data. It is not applicable to hydrocarbons trapped in
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Although this approach is fraught with uncertainty and can only give order of magnitude estimates
fairway extensions or new plays, and it is recommended that part is reasonably well-
of YTF, it is one of the more geology-based approaches that is commonly used, especially in frontier
to separate oil and gas into separate curves. The creaming known. The areal richness
basins. This method is often seen as an optimistic approach to calculating YTF, and is frequently used in
curve approach also has severe limitations since technological of a basin can be calculated
farm-out and investment cases for companies to market their acreages and generate capital.
advances, regulatory frameworks, and legislation cannot be for this portion...which can
The GAE varies significantly from basin to basin. It is often higher in young, actively generating basins, accounted for and, therefore, often lead to underestimating then be extrapolated to the
such as the Los Angeles Basin, USA (33%), and much lower in old systems, such as the Ghadames hydrocarbon volumes. unexplored parts of the
Basin, Libya (2%). The global average GAE is approximately 5%. basin.”
ZIPF PLOTS AND FIELD SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Handbook
If part of a basin has been explored, the quantity of hydrocarbons trapped in that part is reasonably
The related techniques of Zipf plots and field size distribution
well-known. The areal richness of a basin can be calculated for this portion, usually as a figure of million
work on the premise that the distribution of field sizes follows
barrels per square kilometer, which can then be extrapolated to the unexplored parts of the basin. This
a pattern, and that the YTF of a basin is represented by
makes major assumptions about geologic similarities of plays across a basin, but is useful to produce an
“missing fields”. In most basins, there are a few giant fields,
order of magnitude estimate.
more medium-sized fields, and many more small fields. This
CREAMING CURVES can create a predictable pattern, helpful in determining YTF.
Creaming curves are essential tools for understanding the exploration history of a basin, and provide A Zipf plot shows the fields in a basin ranked by size. The Y
context to look to the future. A creaming curve is a plot showing discovered resources in a basin or play axis is the field size, and the X axis is the rank. Log-normal
against either the number of exploration wells or time since the start of exploration (often in years). All (Galtron) scales are used, and a straight-line correlation can be
volumes within a field must be backdated to the original discovery well. The term “creaming curve” is drawn. The area between the idealized line and the sample
derived from the analogy of a bottle of milk, where the cream (the best part) is at the top of the bottle dots may represent YTF. An example is shown in Figure 3.
and is used first.
Calculating YTF using field size distribution is also based on the
idea of missing fields. The fields are grouped in a histogram
based on resource estimates, with the histogram bins being on
a log-normal scale. A line can be drawn on the histogram and
Figure 2 > Generic creaming curves. Curve A is for a basin in which much of the volume was discovered by early wells on drilling
large traps. Curve B is for a basin in which exploration was rejuvenated by new play concepts during the course of exploration.
Figure 2 is a generic creaming curve showing the four phases of the exploration and resource
discovery history of a typical basin. The major discoveries are usually made early in the history of a
basin, although this pattern can be disrupted if significant new plays are discovered. Thus, in terms of
predicting YTF, it may be better to consider creaming curves on a play-by-play basis.
Creaming curves can be extrapolated to estimate YTF. This is done by fitting a hyperbolic curve and
deriving an equation, such that the likely resource to be discovered by future wells can be estimated.
Figure 3 > Using a Zipf plot for YTF estimation. Redrawn after Foum (2018).
This method has limited application to new plays, but is

Exploration
used by, for example, the USGS in their world petroleum

assessments, as shown in Figure 5.
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The USGS has divided the world into assessment units based
on existing petroleum plays, synthesizing existing databases.
They have continuously published updated reports covering
most of the world’s petroleum basins. The USGS looks at
both reserves growth in existing fields and YTF potential. The
outputs are a series of probabilistic estimates, P5, P50, mean
and P95, for both oil and gas. Upside estimates tend to be high
Handbook
using this approach (Stoker et al., 2006).
Figure 4 > Using “missing fields” in a field size distribution plot to estimate YTF (redrawn after Foum, 2018). The chart shows a
histogram of field sizes greater than 10 MMBOE in a basin. Fields are grouped into logarithmic size bins. The black line represents
best fit, with gaps below it representing possible missing fields forming a key component of the YTF.
the “missing” fields become visible. To get the YTF estimate, the number of fields needed in each bin
to reach the idealized line can be counted and added up to calculate the possible resource. An example
is shown in Figure 4.
A drawback of the histogram technique is that field size distributions do not follow an idealized pattern
in all cases, and accurate field data are required. This approach is best undertaken on a play-by-play
basis and results summed to give a YTF estimate for the basin. Furthermore, it cannot be used to
assess new plays or fairway extensions, and is often best used in conjunction with the creaming curve
approach to establish whether further discoveries are likely.
PROSPECT INVENTORY SUMMATION

All undrilled prospects in a basin can be assigned high-, mid-, and low-range volume estimates, along
with a likelihood of finding this volume. YTF can be calculated by adding up the average mean risked
resource volumes for prospects and leads that have been mapped within a play, basin, or even a
country, an approach often used by government regulators.
The drawback of this technique is that is depends on the accuracy of prospect evaluations, which
can often be overestimates. High risk or low volume prospects may never be drilled and should be
discounted from the evaluation. This approach only works in mature settings where good seismic data
are available to enable the identification of leads and prospects, which need to be related to analogous
fields to integrate prospect-specific risks.
FEATURE COUNT STOCHASTIC PREDICTION “The feature count

stochastic prediction method
The feature count stochastic prediction method is based on probabilistically estimating the number of
is based on probabilistically
future discoveries based on three parameters. These are:
estimating the number of
1. The size range of existing discoveries or mapped prospects future discoveries based on
three parameters: the size
2. The chance of success — This is generally estimated as the number of discoveries in a play, range of existing discoveries
divided by the number of wells targeted at a play. Chance of success improves with time as a or mapped prospects; the
play becomes better understood. chance of success; and
3. The number of prospects remaining to be drilled — This element is the hardest to estimate, as the number of prospects
many prospects do not meet risk, volume, or economic thresholds and are unlikely to be drilled. Figure 5 > USGS YTF assessment methodology. Redrawn after USGS (2000).
remaining to be drilled.”
SUMMARY
Exploration
The need for explorers to understand the size and ultimately the reward of an opportunity versus
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Realizing Potential
the risks and chance of failure involved is paramount to the hydrocarbon industry. This can only be
measured in terms of the return on investment to an organization. As outlined, all YTF estimation
methods have drawbacks, many relying on extrapolating from past results to predict the future. Such
an approach can be ineffective for new and untested plays. However, a range and most likely scenarios
of YTF estimates executed by using different methods can give us context within which to place our
exploration efforts and provide a guide towards the most prospective basins, plays, and prospects.
The success of all YTF estimation methods relies upon access to databases of information, be those
analogues or established field size estimations. The ongoing digitization of the oil and gas industry
Handbook
allows explorers to have such data at their fingertips, accelerating the speed at which YTF estimates
can be made, while also increasing their accuracy.
REFERENCES
Biteau, J.J. and F. Baudin 2019. Petroleum Geology – History, Genesis, Exploration, Resources. European Association of
Geoscientists and Engineers (EAGE), - p. (XURBB_644675).
Foum, A. 2018. Estimating Yet to Find in Petroleum Exploration. Self published, 1 p., https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/estimating-
yet-find-petroleum-exploration-alan-foum (XURBB_646293).
Klemme, D.H. 1975. Geothermal gradients, heatflow and hydrocarbon recovery. In A.G. Fischer and S. Judson (Eds.), Petroleum
and global tectonics, p. 251-304. (XURBB_646294).
Magoon, L.B. and E.A. Beaumont 1999. Petroleum Systems. In Beaumont, E.A. and N.H. Foster (Eds.), AAPG Treatise of
Petroleum Geology, Handbook of Petroleum Geology: Exploring for Oil and Gas Traps. AAPG Bulletin no. 75. American Association
of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG). (RURBB_008088).
Stoker, S.J., J.C. Gray, P. Haile, I.J. Andrews and T.D.J. Cameron 2006. The importance of stratigraphic plays in the undiscovered
resources of the UK Continental Shelf. In M.R. Allen, G.P. Goffey, R.K. Morgan and I.M. Walker (Eds.), The Deliberate Search for
the Stratigraphic Trap. Geological Society of London - Special Publications no. 254, p. 153-167. (XURBB_450674).
U.S. Geological Survey World Energy Assessment Team 2000. U.S. Geological Survey World Petroleum Assessment 2000 —
description and results. In World Petroleum Assessment 2000. USGS - Digital Data Series no. DDS-60. U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS). (XURBB_646312).
“????????”
DISCLAIMER
Halliburton
97 Jubilee Avenue
Milton Park
Abingdon
Oxfordshire
OX14 4RW
United Kingdom
landmark.solutions/Neftex
ExplorationEnquiries@halliburton.com
Tel: +44 (0)1235 442699
© 2021 Halliburton. All Rights Reserved.

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DATUM-2

SURFACE GEOLOGY Oligocene Pleistocene

ual model (2D/3D)

Well A Well B Well C Well D Well E Well F

Shallow-water carbonates R Reservoir

etic overprint (3D)C Salina/saltern evaporites C Seal

Organic-rich sediments C? Speculative seal

Basin BasinPlay Play

Structural Modeling in Exploration — Reducing

ng Exploratory Generation Appraisal & Well Development

Subsurface iterative interpretation workflow

Exploration Interpretation Loop 134

42 Exploration Structural Disposition 142

By Owen Sutcliffe By Georgina Wright

+ Diagenetic overprint (3D)

Outcrop Geology Petroleum Systems and Basin Modeling

Zone K 52 By Mike Simmons By Duncan Macgregor

Reservoir Properties and Petrophysics in Exploration:

Well A Well B Well C Well D Well E Well F

Biostratigraphy in Exploration Play Cross Sections — Visualizing Play Concepts

Non-biostratigraphic Techniques in Exploration Unconventional Plays and Exploration Concepts

Shallow-water carbonates R Reservoir

C Organic-rich sediments C? Speculative seal

R The Application of Organic Geochemistry in

Frontier Hydrocarbon Exploration

relatively simple to recognize a three-dimensional geological exploration has long since

Prospects are typically identified from

With the increasing availability of seismic data from the 1920s

By the time the North Sea and offshore Gulf of Mexico,

higher stratigraphy or surface due to its lack of permeability

mind or at your fingertips. progresses, we can expect

several hypotheses. can seamlessly navigate

not bound by scale, and should include both basin-scale and

This chapter presents the Landmark philosophy of how to

construct a digital twin of the subsurface most efficiently,

» Hard data — such as those obtained from seismic and wells

correlations and individual seismic lines, providing the subsurface is the

CONSTRUCTION OF THE DIGITAL TWIN — SCALE AND STRATIGRAPHIC

PETROLEUM SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND

REFERENCES A prospect is a potential

Exploration Insights Magazine no. March, p. 34-39. (XURBB_641247). structure.

The hierarchical organization of the stratigraphic record in different orders of depositional

Stratigraphy in Exploration relative time methods, cyclostratigraphy and sequence

How important is it to understand the absolute (numerical)

modeling, but age is often determined by proxy (i.e. the

Seismic Data: Interpretation and Analysis in

by contributing to the estimation of recoverable reserves.

SEISMIC SURVEYS “The collation and

to as geophones and in the water

algorithms to the seismic data, such as amplitude versus can be common in

processing of seismic data.

Ashcroft, W. 2011. A Petroleum Geologist’s Guide to Seismic Reflection. Wiley-

Well Data: Interpretation and Correlation in

» Data to integrate seismic interpretations

THE NATURE OF A BOREHOLE AND THE INFORMATION RECORDED

The recognition of sedimentary features in core is difficult, due to

In summary, core data provide a precise lithological sample that

In addition to conventional core, sidewall core samples are

Wells provide vital information on the pressure, pressure

Logs record either spontaneous measurement of a formation or induced measurements. Both

STRATIGRAPHY AND DEPOSITIONAL SETTING REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND CORRELATION

By: Mike Simmons

» Outcrops act as analogues to understand subsurface architecture. This is most commonly

Figure 3 > Natural fractures in the Kimmeridge Clay Formation at Kimmeridge