POINTERS TO REVIEW IN RESERVOIR

GEOLOGIC TRAPS

► A source rock exists for the generation of hydrocarbons, and that reservoir
rocks exist for the storage and production of the generated hydrocarbons, traps
must also exist to trap or seal the hydrocarbon in place forming a hydrocarbon
reservoir.
► Seal - A lithologic unit which significantly impedes the flow of hydrocarbons.
► Pore throat size is the major control on the ability of hydrocarbons to enter the
pore network of a given rock. It is a rock that has pore throats too small and
poorly connected to allow the passage of hydrocarbons.
► Brittle lithologies tend to develop fractures while ductile lithologies tend to flow
plastically under deformation.
Properties of an Effective Seal
► Small throat space (ie. fine grained)
► Laterally continuous
► Maintain uniformity of lithology over large areas
► Relatively ductile
Major Type of Seals
► Shales - 65%
► Evaporites - 33%
► Carbonate - 2%
THREE TYPES OF GEOLOGIC TRAPS
1. Structural Traps - created by the deformation of rock strata within the Earth’s
crust. This deformation can be caused by horizontal compression or tension,
vertical movement and differential compaction, which results in the folding, tilting,
and faulting within sedimentary rock formations.
Types of Structural Traps:
a. Anticlinal and Dome Trap - The rock layers in an anticlinal trap were originally
laid down horizontally folded upward into an arc or dome. Later, hydrocarbons
migrate into the porous and permeable reservoir rock.
Necessary conditions: An impervious cap rock and a porous reservoir rock;
closure occurs in all directions to prevent leakage.
b. Salt Dome or Salt Plug Trap - A trap created by piercement or intrusion of
stratified rock layers from below by ductile nonporous salt. The intrusion causes
the lower formations nearest the intrusion to be uplifted and truncated along the
sides of the intrusion, while layers above are uplifted creating a dome or anticlinal
folding.
 Hydrocarbons migrate into the porous and permeable beds on the sides of the
column of salt. Hydrocarbons accumulate in the traps around the outside of the
salt plug if a seal or cap rock is present.
c. Fault Trap - The faulting of stratified rock occurs as a result of vertical and
horizontal stress. At some point the rock layers break, resulting in the rock faces
along the fracture moving or slipping past each other into an offset position.A
fault trap is formed when the faulted formations are tilted toward the vertical.
When a non-porous rock face is moved into a position above and opposite a
porous rock face, it seals off the natural flow of the hydrocarbons allowing them
to accumulate.

Necessary conditions: The fault plane must have a sealing effect so that it
functions as a fluid migration barrier for reservoir rocks.
► Faults are highly ambiguous features. They may leak, acting as permeable
conduits for fluid flow (including oil and gas migration), but more commonly act
as seals unless they are rejuvenated after petroleum has pooled.
► There are three common fault – petroleum pool associations:
▪ 1. The fault itself makes the trap without an ancillary trapping mechanism
such as a fold — normal faults are the most common examples.
▪ 2. The fault creates another structure (e.g., a fold or horst) that in turn
forms the main trap.
▪ 3. The fault may be a consequence of another structure that forms the
main trap — e.g., the extensional crestal faults that form above some
anticlines.
2. STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS - formed as a result of differences or variations between
or within stratified rock layers, creating a change or loss of permeability from one area
to another. These traps do not occur as a result of movement of the strata.
It is created by any variation in the stratigraphy that is independent of structural
deformation, although many stratigraphic traps involve a tectonic component such as
tilting of strata.
In a stratigraphic trap, oil is trapped in 2 sandstones which are surrounded by shale.
The shale prevents the oil from escaping.
● Primary stratigraphic traps result from variations in facies that developed during
sedimentation. These include features such as lenticular, pinch-outs, and
appropriate facies changes.
● Secondary stratigraphic traps result from variations that developed after
sedimentation, mainly because of diagenesis. These include variations due to
porosity enhancement by dissolution or loss by cementation.
SUB - TYPES OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS:
1. Lenticular Traps - A porous area surrounded by non-porous strata. They may
be formed from ancient buried river sand bars, beaches, etc. Examples of such
lenticular traps include: fluvial sandstone bodies embedded in flood basin mud
rocks.
2. Pinch-out or lateral graded Trap - A trap created by lateral differential
deposition when the environmental deposition changes up-dip.
3. Reef traps - Because the rocks that surround reefs can differ in composition
and permeability, porous reefs can form stratigraphic traps for hydrocarbons. The
open cavities between the corals create excellent reservoirs, and when the reef
is buried by mud, the oil becomes trapped.
4. Sandstone Lenses - Layers of sand often form lens like bodies that pinch out. If
the rocks surrounding these lenses of sand are impermeable and deformation
has produced inclined strata, oil and natural gas can migrate into the sand bodies
and will be trapped by the impermeable rocks. This kind of trap is also difficult to
locate from the surface, and requires subsurface exploration techniques.
5. Unconformity Traps - are those that resulted from the truncation of reservoir
rocks and the subsequent sealing of the subcrop by an unconformable, relatively
impermeable, fine-grained, rock unit. The source rocks may be within the
pre-unconformity sequence, or in the immediate post-unconformity cap rocks.
The timing of secondary migration is not, of course, earlier than the time of
sealing of the subcrop. There may be a lapse of 50 m. y. or more between the
accumulation of the petroleum source rock and the accumulation of its
petroleum.
TYPES OF UNCONFORMITIES
► Disconformity - the gap in the record if the uplift is gentle so the rock layers are
not tilted or deformed. Exists where the layers above and below an erosional
boundary have the same orientation

► Parallel unconformity - the gap in the record if the erosional surface is, more or
less, horizontal and may not be readily apparent.

► Angular unconformity - Produces when deposition of sediments on layers that

have been deformed and eroded. Sedimentary layers below such an
unconformity are not parallel with those above, and the gap in the record is
obvious.

► Nonconformity - an erosion surface on igneous or metamorphic rock that has

been buried beneath sediments. Develops where sediments are deposited on top
of an eroded surface of igneous or metamorphic rocks
Later in geologic time, hydrocarbon generated in its source rock at lower elevations is
forced into the connate water-saturated sandstone and begins to migrate up elevation,
displacing the heavier water down elevation. This hydrocarbon will continue to migrate
until it encounters the impermeable shale at the transition zone within the rock. It is
trapped as a result of the change of permeability within the sedimentary bed, as the
transition occurs from sandstone to shale or from permeability to no permeability. This
transition of properties within the rock sediment is called a facies change.

3. COMBINATION TRAPS - is where two (or more) trapping mechanisms come

together to create the trap. are structural closures or deformations in which the reservoir
rock covers only part of the structure. Both structural and stratigraphic changes are
essential to the creation of this type of trap. Traps of this nature are dependent on
stratigraphic changes to limit permeability and structure to create closure and complete
the trap.

Types of traps and their % of world petroleum occurrence

Anticlines 75 %
Faults 1%
Salt diapirs 2%
Unconformities 3%
Reefs 3%
Other stratigraphies 7%
Combination 9%

FFECT OF FRACTURES ON A SEAL

► The presence of only one fracture 0.035 mm. (0.0014 in.) wide above a 152 m.
(500 ft.) oil column can leak off around 150 million barrels in 1,000 years. A large
field can be easily drained if there are several fractures.
Thief Beds - Thief beds are rocks with reservoir qualities that abut the reservoir. When
tilted, they will drain the reservoir of the hydrocarbons, similar to a straw drawing liquid
from a bottle.
ROLE OF FAULTS

► Faults either aid in the entrapment of hydrocarbons or cause leakage from the
trap. They can be sealing or non-sealing.
Why is biodegradation bad?
Through time, meteoric liquids (usually water) is introduced into the reservoir. It carries
bacteria and degrades the oil into a heavy one. Heavy type oils are difficult to produce
or sometimes cannot be produced.

REQUISITES OF A PETROLEUM SYSTEM

1. Source rocks rich in organic content that must be buried deep enough in the
basin so that the temperature will be sufficient to transform the organic matter
 into petroleum in a process called maturation.
2. The generated petroleum is expelled from the source rock and migrates into a
permeable and porous reservoir rock.
3. A seal must envelope the reservoir rock to prevent it from leaking out to the
surface or dispersed elsewhere.
4. A trap should exist so that hydrocarbon can be contained and will accumulate
within the reservoir.
5. The timing of migration and trap formation is critical.
6. Once it is trapped, retention is important. Post depositional events should
prevent it to further migrate or become biodegraded.

STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphy is the science of understanding the variations in the successively layered
character of rocks and their composition. These rocks may be sedimentary, volcanic,
metamorphic or igneous. The layering of sedimentary rocks is expressed as sets of
simple to complex sedimentary geometries, and a wide variety of different sedimentary
facies.
Sequence stratigraphy, a branch of sedimentary stratigraphy, deals with the order, or
sequence, in which depositionally related stratal successions (time-Rock) units were
laid down in the available space or accommodation.
The chronostratigraphy of sedimentary rocks tracks changes their character through
geologic time.
FUNDAMENTALS PRINCIPLE OF STRATIGRAPHY

► Law of Original Horizontality - proposed by the Danish geological pioneer

Nicholas Steno (1638–1686). This principle states that layers of sediment are
originally deposited horizontally under the action of gravity. This allows us to infer
that something must have happened to the rocks to make them tilted. This
includes mountain building events, earthquakes, and faulting.The rock layers on
the bottom have been deformed and are now tilted. The rock layers on the top
were deposited after the tilting event and are again laid down flat.
► Law of Superposition - states that beds of rock on top are usually younger than
those deposited below. This is logical, consider a layered cake or a stack of
books, you can’t add another layer unless one already exists to begin with. By
understanding the Law of Superposition, we can make general statements about
the ages of the rock units.
► Law of Lateral Continuity - suggests that all rock layers are laterally continuous
and may be broken up or displaced by later events. This can happen when a
river or stream erodes a portion of the rock layers. This can also happen when
faulting occurs. Faulting causes displacement in rock units.
► Cross-cutting relationships also helps us to understand the timing of events.
 Younger features cut across older features.

► The Principle of Faunal Succession states that a species appears, exists for a
time, and then goes extinct. Time periods are often recognized by the type of
fossils you see in them. Each fossil has a ‘first appearance datum’ and a ‘last
appearance datum’. This is simply the oldest recorded occurrence of a fossil and
then the youngest recorded occurrence of a fossil
► Unconformities are simply gaps (missing data) in the rock record, these gaps
could indicate a variety of processes
► Angular unconformities are represented by an older group of rock layers has
been tilted, eroded, and another younger set of rock layers were deposited on
top of this erosional surface.
► Disconformities are an erosional surface between two sets of rock layers.
Unlike with angular unconformities, there is no tilting of the older rock layers. This
makes disconformities difficult to recognize because the erosional surface is
often very difficult to find.
► Nonconformities are unconformities that separate different rock types. This is
commonly the separation between igneous and sedimentary or metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks. These types of unconformities usually indicate that a long
amount of time has been eroded away before the younger sedimentary rocks
were deposited.
► Uniformitarianism is one of the most important unifying concepts in the
geosciences that suggests that catastrophic processes were not responsible for
the landforms that existed on the Earth's surface. It suggested that the landscape
developed over long periods of time through a variety of slow geologic and
geomorphic processes.
► Cyclicity - intrinsic feature of marine sedimentary basins, and is controlled by
relative sea-level change resulting from the interplay of tectonics, sediment
supply, and eustasy.

► Hierarchy - basic stratigraphic principles apply across a wide range of space and
time scale.

► Walther’s Law of Facies was introduced by the German geologist Johannes

Walther (1860–1937) as an important geological principle, after the establishment
of the concept of “facies,” one of the foundations of modern stratigraphy.
Walther’s Law states that any vertical progression of facies is the result of a
succession of depositional environments that are laterally juxtaposed to each
other.
STRATIGRAPHY BOUNDARIES
The boundaries between rock units can be conformable or unconformable.
Conformable is meant to describe continuous deposition with no major breaks in time
or erosional episodes.
Vertical Succession of strata represents progressive passage of time either
continuously at the scale of observation or discontinuously.
Lateral Succession of strata represents changing environments of deposition at the
time of sedimentation or diagenesis.

Sedimentary (litho) Facies and (litho) Facies Analysis

● Lithostratigraphic Units (time independent)
● Defined by sum total of (relevant) rock properties
● Reflects processes during genesis and may include Lithology, Sedimentary
Structures, Fossils, Bedding Style & Geometry, & Paleo-sediment transport
indicators
It is possible to precisely determine the sum of total of processes active at the
site of deposition and interpret “Depositional Environment”.
Facial sequences are recurring facies associations which occur in a particular order
due to the inherent temporal changes in depositional conditions in particular
environments.
SEDIMENTARY FACIES CHANGES:
● different sediment often accumulate adjacent to one another at the same time
● Each unit (facies) possess a distinctive set of characteristics reflecting the
conditions of a particular environment
● Merging of adjacent facies is a gradual transition
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
1. Particles
2. Strata
3. Facies unit
4. Architectural elements
5. Sequences
6. Basin fill

PETROLOGY
► Petrology is the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition,
distribution and structure of rocks. It is the study of the origin and composition of
rocks, with particular emphasis on the physical, chemical, and possibly biological
processes that are involved in the formation of rocks.
► Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography; but in current
usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale
description of rocks, while petrography is the speciality that deals with
microscopic details.
► Petrology utilizes the classical fields of mineralogy, petrography, optical
mineralogy, and chemical analyses to describe the composition and texture of
rocks. Modern petrologists also include the principles of geochemistry and
geophysics through the studies of geochemical trends and cycles and the use of
thermodynamic data and experiments to better understand the origins of rocks.
THREE BRANCHES OF PETROLOGY:
► Igneous petrology focuses on the composition and texture of igneous rocks
(rocks such as granite or basalt which have crystallized from molten rock or
magma). Igneous rocks include volcanic and plutonic rocks.
► Sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary
rocks (rocks such as sandstone, shale, or limestone which consist of pieces or
particles derived from other rocks or biological or chemical deposits, and are
usually bound together in a matrix of finer material).
► Metamorphic petrology focuses on the composition and texture of metamorphic
rocks (rocks such as slate, marble, gneiss, or schist which started out as
sedimentary or igneous rocks but which have undergone chemical, mineralogical
or textural changes due to extremes of pressure, temperature or both)
► Texture refers to the mutual relationship of the different mineralogical
constituents in a rock
► Structure refers to the large scale features or field characteristics of the rocks
Importance:
▪ contribute to the strength of the rock
▪ act as a distinguishing feature
▪ reveal the mode of origin of the rock
PETROLOGY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
► Igneous rocks are created when molten rock (magma) cools and hardens. They
are called primary rocks, as they are the first formed rocks that made up the
primordial Earth’s crust

► The basic classification of igneous rocks are extrusive and intrusive igneous
rocks.
 ► Classification based on depth of the formation:
▪ Volcanic rocks – formed on the surface of the Earth
▪ Plutonic rocks – formed at considerable depths ( 7- 10 km)
▪ Hypabyssal rocks – formed at intermediate depths (<2km)
Texture generally describes the grain size (or crystal size) in rocks.
1. A large or coarse grain size (> 1 mm) is associated with plutonic, or intrusive
rocks. Slow cooling usually causes this texture.
2. Small or fine grain size (< 1 mm) is associated with volcanic, or extrusive
rocks. Rapid cooling usually causes this texture.
3. Sometimes magma cools so quickly that crystals have no time to form. Instead
glass forms (example, obsidian).
Composition of igneous rocks reflects the chemistry of the original magma.
1. Mafic rocks are richer in Mg, Fe, and Ca. They are also darker in color and
denser.
2. Felsic rocks are richer in K, Na, Al and Si, and, compared to mafic rocks, are
lighter in color as well as density.
3. Intermediate compositions lie between these two end members.
AVERAGE MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCK

Factors Defining Textures of Igneous Rocks

● Degree of Crystallization
1. Holocrystalline ( entire crystal)
 2. Holohyaline ( entire glass)
3. Merocrystalline ( crystal & glass)
● Granularity
1. Coarse-grained
2. Medium-grained
3. Fine-grained
TYPES OF TEXTURES
1. Equigranular (broadly equal in size)
2. Inequigranular (difference in their relative grain size )
3. Directive (exhibit perfect or semi perfect parallelism of crystals or crystallites in
the direction of the flow of magma)
4. Intergrowth (two or more minerals may crystallize out simultaneously in a
limited space so that the resulting crystals are mixed up or intergrown)
5. Intergranular (specifically termed intersertal if the material filling the spaces is
glassy in nature)
STRUCTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Structures due to cooling of magma
1. Jointing structure - development of cracks or joints in the rocks formed from
these sources, these joints sometimes follow definite patterns
2. Rift and grain - indicate two separate directions, often used by quarry men, in
which the igneous rocks like granite can be broken from the main rock body with
a comparative ease. The equally spaced joints are producing cubical blocks.
3. Vesicular structure - escape of gases while cooling is going on leads commonly
to the formation of cavities of various sizes and shapes in the cooled mass.
4. Miarolitic structure - sometimes small and distinct cavities are formed during the
crystallization of magma, these cavities often containing projecting crystals are
called miarolitic cavities.
Miscellaneous Structure
1. Reaction structure ( characterized by the presence in the rock of some
incompletely altered minerals conspicuously surrounded on their borders by their
alteration products, often happens that some earlier formed minerals react with
the magma during the subsequent stages of crystallization)
2. Xenolithic structure (imposed on the igneous rocks because of incorporation of
foreign material, the foreign fragments are termed xenoliths)
FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Form of igneous rock refers to the shape in which cooled igneous masses occur in
nature. It is decided by:
o Structural disposition of host rock
 o Viscosity and composition of magma or lava

Forms of igneous rocks has two types:

o Concordant
o Discordant
CONCORDANT BODIES

▣ Sills (igneous intrusions that have been injected along or between the bedding
planes or sedimentary sequence are known as sills)

▣ Phacoliths (small sized intrusives that occupy positions in the troughs and
crests of bends called folds)

▣ Lopoliths (igneous intrusions, which are associated with structural basins, that
are sedimentary beds inclined towards a common centre, are termed as
lopoliths)

▣ Laccoliths (concordant intrusions due to which the invaded strata have been
arched up or deformed into a dome)
▣ DISCORDANT BODIES
▣ Dykes/dikes (defined as columnar bodies of igneous rocks that cut across the
bedding plane or unconformities or cleavage planes and similar structures)

▣ Volcanic necks (in some cases vents of quiet volcanoes have become sealed
with the intrusions, such congealed intrusions are termed volcanic necks or
volcanic plugs)

▣ Batholiths (these are huge bodies of igneous masses that show both
concordant and discordant relations with the country rock)
▣ PETROLOGY OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary petrology is the classification and study of sedimentary deposits/rocks.
This study is the basis for understanding sediment transport and deposition processes,
as well as shedding light on the environmental setting where the sediments were
formed.
➢ Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation, compaction and
consolidation of sediments
➢ They are secondary rocks, derived from the sediments produced by the
 weathering of pre-existing rocks
➢ The accumulation and compaction of these sediments usually take place in the
presence of water
VARYING MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
Factors influencing mineralogical composition:
❖ Nature of gathering ground
❖ Duration of transport
❖ Mixing up of sediments
❖ Allogenic and authigenic minerals

► Authigenic sedimentary minerals form during sedimentation by precipitation or

recrystallization instead of being transported from elsewhere (allogenic) by water
or wind)
Textures of sedimentary rocks are determined by:
1. Origin of grains (Clastic and non-clastic textures)
2. Size of grains
o Coarse-grained - avg grain size >5mm
o Medium-grained - avg grain size b/w 5 & 1mm
o Fine-grained - avg grain size <1mm
3. Shapes of grains (Rounded, sub-rounded, angular & sub-angular)
4. Packing of grains (Open-packed (porous) and densely packed
5. Fabric of grains - Described in terms of orientation of longer axes of grains
6. Crystallization trend (Crystalline granular & amorphous textures )
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEXTURE & WEATHERING
The texture of a sedimentary rock can provide a lot of information about the types of
environments that the sediments were weathered in, transported by, and deposited in
prior to their lithification into sedimentary rocks. Most sedimentary rocks consist of
grains that weathered from a parent rock and were transported by water, wind, or ice
before being deposited.
▣ Grain size: It is a good indicator of the energy or force required to move a grain
of a given size. Large sediments such as gravel, cobbles, and boulders require
more energy to move than smaller sand, silt, and clay sized sediments. Grain
size is also an indicator of the distance or length of time the sediments may
 have traveled. Smaller grain sizes generally indicate greater transport distances
and duration than larger grains.
▣ Sorting: It will generally improve with the constant or persistent moving of
particles, and thus can indicate if particles were transported over a long
distance or for a long time period. Sorting can also indicate selective transport
of a particular grain size.
▣ Rounding: is a good indicator for the amount of abrasion experienced by
sediments. In general, sediments that have been transported longer distances
will be more rounded than those which have traveled shorter distances.
▣ STRUCTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary structures are features within sedimentary rocks produced during or after
sediment deposition. It provides clues to how and where deposition of sediments occur.
Three types: Mechanical Structures, Chemical Structures, Organic Structures
1. Mechanical Structures - Stratification, Lamination, Cross bedding, Graded
bedding, Mud cracks, Rain prints, Ripple marks
2. Chemical Structures - Concretionary structures, Nodular structure, Geode
structure
3. Organic Structures - Fossiliferous structure, and Stromatolic structure

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF FORMATION

➢ Clastic - Mechanically formed rock
 ▣ Non-clastic rocks - Chemically formed rocks, Organically formed rocks

Chemically formed rocks

◼ Siliceous deposits, Carbonate deposits, Ferruginous deposits, Phosphatic
deposits, and Evaporites
Organically formed rocks
▪ Carbonate rocks
▪ Carbonaceous rocks
▣
PETROLOGY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks form by alteration or modification of any kind of preexisting rock.
Metamorphism may be caused by pressure, heat, or by water or other fluids or gases
that infiltrate a protolith. The process of metamorphism can involve changes in the
minerals present, changes in rock texture, or changes in rock composition, or any
combination of the three.

● Ortho-metamorphic rocks - formed from igneous rocks

● Para-metamorphic rocks – formed from sedimentary rocks
METAMORPHIC AGENTS
1. Temperature
► Minerals are normally stable at temperatures below 200° C
 ► Sources of heat for metamorphism:
a. The internal heat
b. The magmatic heat
► Metamorphic changes take place between 300°C - 850°C
2. Pressure
Pressure causing metamorphism is of two types:
○ Uniform pressure (due to over-burden), acts vertically downwards
○ Directed pressure (from orogenic activity), can act in any direction
3. Chemically active fluids (water/steam, CO2, hydrofluoric acid etc.)
● These fluids act as carriers of chemical components that drive the chemical
reactions with the minerals
● The pore fluids undergo expansion, with rise in temperature
● Fluids present around rocks may react with the minerals within them, at
elevated temperatures
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
1. Thermal Metamorphism - Refers to all metamorphic processes in which heat
plays a predominant role.
o Contact metamorphism, Pyro metamorphism, and Plutonic
metamorphism
2. Dynamic Metamorphism - Pressure causes movement of and interaction
between rocks, resulting in their mechanical breakdown - cataclasis.
➢ Also known as cataclastic, mechanical or dislocation metamorphism
➢ Stress is more effective at higher levels of the crust, where rocks are rigid and
brittle
3. Dynamo-thermal Metamorphism
➢ Also known as Regional Metamorphism
➢ It refers to metamorphism under the combined action of all the three agents
➢ Most prevalent of all metamorphic processes
➢ Such conditions were available during the mountain building activity, in the
history of the earth
4. Metasomatism
Refers to the formation of new minerals by the chemical replacement of the existing
 ones, under the influence of chemically active fluids
The chemically active fluid may be provided:
o from within the rock (mineral metasomatism)
o from outside the rock (rock metasomatism)
EFFECTS OF METAMORPHISM
● Recrystallization
● Rock flowage
● Granulation
● Metasomatic replacement
Example of Metamorphic Changes
● Igneous rocks - Granites undergo dynamic metamorphism, to form crush
breccia
● Sedimentary rocks - Pure limestone, re-crystallizes under conditions of
contact metamorphism, to marble
Metamorphic Grades - Represents the extent to which an original rock has been
changed by metamorphism. The grades are indicated by the presence of a set of index
minerals (Low grade, Medium grade, High grade)
Metamorphic Zone - Indicate the depth wise extension of particular grades of
metamorphism:
1. The Epizone (temperature < 300° C)
2. The Mesozone (temperature b/w 300° - 500° C)
3. The Ketazone ( above 500° C)

TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

● Crystalloblastic texture ( textures which include all those textures that have
been newly imposed upon the rock during the process of metamorphism and
are, therefore, essentially the product of metamorphism)
● Palimpsest texture ( textures that include textures which were present in the
parent rock and have been retained by the rock despite metamorphic changes
in other aspects)
STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. Cataclastic structure (results from the crushing and granulation of minerals and
rocks (cataclasis), through the application of stress at low temperatures, with but
little new mineral formation, except along planes of considerable movement )
 2. Schistose structure (due to the predominance in a metamorphic rock of flaky,
lamellar, tabular, rodlike, and highly-cleavable minerals, such as mica, chlorite,
talc, and amphiboles, which, under the dominant influence of directed pressure in
dynamo-thermal metamorphism, form layers, felts, and folia arranged in more or
less parallel bands.)
3. Gneissose structure (rock possessing gneissose structure exhibits a
pronounced appearance in which light and dark coloured band alternate)
4. Maculose structure (characterized by a spotted appearance of the rock that may be
caused due to the formation of large-sized crystals called porphyroblasts within an
otherwise fine grained rock as a result of thermal metamorphism of argillaceous rocks
like shale)
5. Granulose structure (produced due to the predominance of equigranular minerals
such as quartz, feldspar, pyroxenes and calcite)

Large-scale Structural Features

● Rock cleavage
○ Flow cleavage
○ Fracture cleavage
● Schistosity
● Foliation
CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
● Foliated rocks – rocks that show parallelism in their mineralogical and
structural constitution e.g. slates, phyllites
● Non-foliated rocks – characterized by the absence of foliation