Experiment 1: Tensile Test

1. Title: Determination of the tensile properties of different class of materials

2. Objective: To characterize and compare the mechanical behavior of a polymer and

aluminium (metal)

3. Requirements of the experiment

• Tensile specimen
• Llyod Mechanical Testing Machine
• Vernier caliper

4. Introduction
4.1. Brief description of the equipment/machine: The Universal Testing Machine in the
Materials Testing Lab is shown in Fig. 1. It is a 10 kN capacity testing machine and is screw
driven. While the lower cross head is fixed, the upper cross head is movable and is fitted with
the transducer type ‘load cell’. This testing machine can also be used for compression, torsion,
bend/flexural and for high temperature tensile tests with other accessories.

Load frame

Load cell

Upper cross head

(moveable)

Lower cross head

(fixed)

Fig. 1: Llyod testing machine in Materials Testing Lab

4.2. Mechanical behavior of metallic materials: Typical stress-strain curve for a
polycrystalline metal is shown in Fig. 2. The common definitions of yield strength (Sy) and
ultimate tensile strength (Su) of ductile metals are illustrated in Fig. 2. OA is the elastic regime.
Yield strength is defined as the stress value corresponding to a strain value of 0.002 (draw
parallel line to OA from a strain value of 0.002 and the intersection point is A – corresponding
to Sy). Point at maximum load (U), at which an unstable neck initiates, gives the ultimate
tensile strength (or tensile strength) Su. The sample fractures at F.

U
Su
F
Engineering Stress

Sy
A

O
Engineering strain

Fig. 2: Engineering stress-strain curve for a polycrystalline metal

4.3. Mechanical behavior of polymers: Polymeric solids show a whole range of stress-
strain responses, depending on conditions, from very creepy behavior to stiff elastic behavior,
a rubbery range in between. Fig. 3 shows a typical stress-strain curve for a thermoplastic
polymer.
‘OA’ is the elastic regime, where Hooke’s law is valid. There is a departure from
linearity at point A and the load curve rises to a local maximum at B, at which point the neck
initiates. The yield stress of the polymer is poorly defined since the stress-strain curves bends
over at the top of the elastic region (see Fig. 3 after point A). Generally, the value at the top of
the curve (point B) is used as ‘yield point’. Typical polymers yield at 5-10% strain, whereas,
a metal yields at less than 0.2% strain.
The load then falls as the neck is reduced in cross-sectional area, until stability is
reached (point C), and the neck propagates along the test piece at essentially constant stress
(till point D). The process in the region ‘CD’ is also called “cold drawing”. Subsequently, after
neck has propagated along the length of the test bar, the stress increases again due to strain
hardening, till fracture occurs at point F.
 F
E
B
Stress

A C
D

O
strain

Fig. 3: Engineering stress-strain curves for a thermoplastic polymer.

4.4.Definitions and properties within elastic limit

Hooke’s law: Within elastic limit, the deformation is proportional to load, i.e., strain is
proportional to stress
Young’s modulus of elasticity, E: The ratio of stress to strain below elastic limit
Offset yield strength Sy: Stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and
a line parallel to the elastic part of the curve offset by strain 0.002
Resilience (UR): The maximum energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit
Modulus of resilience (UR) = 0.5 * Syey

4.5.Definitions and properties in the plastic region

Strain hardening: The relationship between stress and strain is nonlinear during plastic
deformation. Like E in elastic range, strength coefficient (K), strain hardening exponent (n)
and amount of strain hardening prior to test (εo) are used to characterize material in plastic
range
 = K (ε + εo)n,  log  = log K + n log (ε + εo)

Ultimate tensile strength (Su): The maximum engineering stress before rupture
Su = Pmax/Ao
Toughness (UT): Ability to absorb energy per unit volume up to fracture
Percentage of Total Elongation at Fracture = (Lf - Lo)/Lo*100
Percentage Reduction in Area = (Ao-Af)/Ao*100, Maximum change in cross-sectional area which
has occurred during the test (Ao-Af) expressed as a percentage of the original cross-sectional
area (Ao), where Af is the final cross-sectional area.

4.6.Nomenclature
A Instantaneous area (mm2)
Ao Original area of cross-section at gauge length (mm2)
Af Area in the neck region after failure (mm2)
E Young’s modulus of elasticity (GPa)
e Engineering strain
ey Engineering strain at yield point
ef Engineering strain at failure
ε True strain
εo Strain before starting the test
K Strength coefficient (N/m2, Pa)
L Instantaneous gauge length (mm)
Lo Original gauge length - gauge length before application of load (mm)
Lf Gauge length after rupture of the specimen (mm)
n Strain hardening exponent
P Instantaneous load/force (N)
Pmax Maximum load/force (just before necking) (N)
S Engineering stress (MPa)
Sy Yield stress (MPa)
Su Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
 True stress (MPa)
t time (s)
UR Modulus of resilience (J/m3)
UT Toughness (J/m3)

4.7.Formulas
a) Engineering stress and engineering strain
S = P/Ao
e = (L-Lo)/Lo = (Ao - A)/A [Note: Constancy of volume  AoLo = AL]
b) True stress and true strain
P P A0 A L L − L0
= = =s 0 =s = s( + 1) = s(e + 1)
A A0 A A L0 L0
L
dL L L − L0
= 
L0
L
= ln
L0
= ln(
L0
+ 1) = ln( e + 1)

5. Experimental procedure

a) Dogbone samples of polymeric material and aluminum (metal) will be tested in tension.
The dimensions of aluminum samples are according to ASTM-E8, whereas polymeric
samples are not as per standard.
 b) Measure original width and thickness of the sample along the reduced section (gauge
length) of the specimen. Take at least 3 readings and find the average value of cross-
sectional area (Ao). Similarly measure the gauge length (Lo).
c) Make sure that the testing machine was switched on for at least 30 mins for stabilization
(this will be done by staff member) before starting the test.
d) Fix the specimen into the testing machine with appropriate grips.
e) Select the cross-head speed (for aluminum sample it is 1.8 mm/s, which results in initial
strain rate of 10-3 s-1) and start the test. Wait till sample gets fractured.
f) Carefully, measure final gauge length after fracture by joining the two fractured parts
(Lf)
g) Measure cross sectional dimensions of the specimen after fracture (Af)

6. Data reporting and Analysis

For metal:

a) Report the following in the given format with units.

Lo Ao Lf Af

b) We will provide you with the load-extension curve obtained from the tensile test. Use
excel or any other software for the following:

Serial # e S ε 
1
2

c) First plot load vs extension. Now, plot stress-strain curves (both engineering and true)
in the same plot. Comment on the difference you observe.

d) Report the following in sequence as shown below (with units)

E
Sy (0.2%)
ey
Su
ef
K
N
UR
 UT

d) Report % of elongation at fracture, % of reduction in area at fracture, the elastic recovery

part of the strain.
e) Compare the value of Young’s modulus with the standard value and comment on the
difference in value, if any.

For Polymer:
a) Report the following in the given format with units.

Lo Ao Lf

b) We will provide you with the load-extension curve obtained from the tensile test. Report
the following in the given format with units (You may use excel sheet)

Serial # e S
1
2

c)
First plot load vs extension. Now, plot engineering stress-strain curve. Comment on the
difference you observe with the curve for metal.
d) Report % of elongation at fracture, yield stress (see Fig. 3), the approximate stress level
of cold drawing process.

7. General Questions
1.
Why do we use dogbone sample to test?
2.
What are load cell and actuator?
3.
Among the following, what is the input during tensile tests: strain rate, displacement
rate, force stress?
4. In Fig. 2, why does engineering stress continuously decreases in the region ‘UF’?
5. What is the mechanism behind strain hardening in metals? Show the region where strain
hardening is happening in Fig. 2.
6. What would be the change in the curve in Fig. 2 if it was plotted in terms of true stress
and true strain? Draw both the curves in the same plot.
7. Which properties you think are sensitive to strain rate?
8. Which properties are engineered for a) spring and b) metal working?
9. In Fig. 3, describe the mechanisms of regions ‘CD’ and ‘DE’.
10. Although Young’s modulus of elasticity for glass is more than steel, steel is preferred
for designing engineering components. Why?