Bachelor of Science in Biosystems Engineering

Year of study: 3rd Year; 1st Semester

Course Title: APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS
Course Code: FEB 331

LECTURE THREE
UNIFORM FLOW ANALYSIS
Lecture Outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Development of flow resistance formulae
3.4 Chezy Formula
3.5 Manning’s Equation
3.6 Introduction to channel design
3.7 General design considerations
3.8 Summary
3.9 Self-Assessment Questions /Activity
3.10 References and Further Reading

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3.1 Introduction
Welcome to the third lecture in the course on
Uniform Flow Analysis. In the last lecture remember
that this was one of the categories for analyzing
open channel flow. In this lecture, we are going to
develop the formulae used for uniform flow
analysis. This will enable you to understand the
techniques to determine the flow parameters: flow
depth and flow rate. In this lecture, we shall start by
developing the flow resistance formulae and then
discuss their applications and how they are used to
find the flow rates and other parameters. Finally we
will discuss now the formulae are used to design an
artificial open.

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3.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
a) Develop the Manning’s equation.
b) Understand how to use the equation in
determining the flow depth and flow rate in
uniform flow analysis.
c) Understand the general design approaches
for artificial channels

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3.3 Development of flow resistance formulae
The flow of a liquid in an open channel is said to be uniform when
the following are all constant from section to section:
• Depth of flow
• Velocity of flow
• Channel cross-sectional area
• Channel bed slope
The depth corresponding to uniform flow is termed normal depth
and denoted, yn.
Uniform flow rarely occurs, but flow tend to become uniform in
long channels in the absence of controls e.g. hydraulic structures.
The concept of uniform flow is the basis of analysis and design of
channels.

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At this flow condition, the pressure distribution
due to depth is hydrostatic and as there is no
acceleration to the flow, the net force on any
element must be zero.
Study of uniform flow requires quantification of
the flow resistance.
Consider the element of uniform flow down the
channel reach shown in Fig. 3.1.

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Fig. 3.1 Forces on a channel length in uniform flow
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If the bed slope is small and the depth at section (1) and (2) is
the same, the hydrostatic pressure force, F1, due to depth y1
must be equal to the hydrostatic pressure force, F2, due to
depth y2. Therefore for equilibrium, the gravitational force,
due to the component of weight in the direction of flow, acting
on the block of liquid, must be balanced by the frictional shear
force on the bed and sides of the channel i.e.
mg sin θ = τ0PL
Where m = mass of liquid between section (1)
and (2)
θ = angle of inclination of the bed
τ0 = frictional shear stress
L = length of the channel reach
P = wetted perimeter of the channel

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If the density of the liquid is ρ then
m = ρ x volume of liquid
= ρgAL
where A is the x-sectional area of flow.
Substituting for m gives
ρgAL sin θ = τ0PL
Therefore
ρgA sin θ
τ0 =
P
A
From previous is the hydraulic radius denoted R and for
P
small angles of θ, θ = sin θ = tan θ = S0 which is the slope of
the channel bed.

Therefore, the expression for τ0 may be written as

τ0 = ρgRS0 ------------------(1)
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3.4 Chezy equation
In turbulent flow, τ0, has empirically been found to be proportional to
velocity squared i.e.
τ0 α V2 and so τ0 = KV2
Where K is a constant of proportionality.
Equating the expression (1) for τ0 gives:
2
ρgAS0
KV =
P
therefore
ρgRS0
V=
K
Grouping the constants ρ, g and K together,
V = C RS0 ----------- (2)
This is the famous Chezy equation and C is called the Chezy constant.
Get the relationship between C and the Darcy Weisbach, f

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3.5 Manning's equation
Many studies of C in natural and artificial channels,
(and especially by Manning) found the following
relationship:
R1/6
C= where n is called the Manning’s coefficient.
n
Substituting in the Chezy equation (1),
R2/3 S01/2
We get: V =
n
This is the famous Manning Equation.
In terms of discharge,
1
Q= A R2/3 S01/2 in metric units
n

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3.5.1 Other forms of Manning’s equation
Conveyance factor
The Manning’s equation may be re-written as
1
Q = KS01/2 where K = A R2/3
n
K is known as the conveyance factor.
Section factor
The Manning’s equation may also be re-written as:
2/3
𝑛𝑄
AR = 1/2
S0
The left hand side is known as the section factor.
Application
If values of n, Q, and So, are known the section factor equation can be solved
to determine the normal depth in a given channel.
This may be done by using:
a) The design charts presented by Chow [1959],
b) Trial-and-error procedure,
c) Numerical methods for the solution of a nonlinear algebraic equation.

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Manning’s n depends on:
1. Surface roughness (grain size of sedimant and age
of lining)
2. Degree and type of lining
3. Seasons (foliage or not)
4. Channel alignment (degree of meandering)
5. Silting and scouring
6. Suspended soil and bed loads
7. Local obstructions (on bed/sides, pipes, bridges,
stones etc.)
8. Depth of water

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Table 3.1 Manning’s n for different channel linings
Channel type Lining type Range of n

Rigid Concrete 0.013 – 0.015

Grouted rip-rap 0.028 – 0.040

Stone masonry 0.030 – 0.042

Soil cement 0.020 – 0.025

Asphalt 0.016 - 0.018

Unlined Bare soil 0.020 – 0.023

Rock cut 0.025 – 0.045

Gravel rip-rap 25mm 0.030 – 0.044

50mm 0.034 – 0.066

Rock rip-rap 150mm 0.035 – 0.104

300mm 0.040 – 0.078

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3.5.2 Computations in uniform flow
a) Manning’s equation is used to solve uniform
flow problems.
b) Two calculations are usually performed.
i. Flow rate from a given depth
ii. Depth from a given flow rate
In uniform flow, the flow depth is known as
normal depth, denoted yn.

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Example 1: Determining discharge given the flow depth in
a trapezoidal channel
Given:
• Material of construction: Concrete with
Manning’s coefficient, n = 0.015
• Normal depth = 2m
• Base width = 5m
• Slanting sides, slope = 1 V : 2 H
• Bed slope, So = 0.001
Calculate:
(i) Discharge, Q
(ii) Mean velocity, V
(iii) Reynolds number, Re
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Solution
y = 2m
b = 5m
x=2
n = 0.015
S0 = 0.001
1
i Q= A R2/3 S01/2
n

Y A P A/P Q
(m) (m2) (m) (m) (m3/s)
2 18/13.944 1
(b +x y) y b + 2 y 1 + 𝑥2 *18* 1.292/3 ∗ 0.0011/2
0.015
= (5+2*2)2 = 5 + 2*2 1 + 22 = 1.29
=18 = 13.944 = 44.968 ≈ 45

ρVR
(ii) V = Q/A and (iii) Re = ; take µ = 1.14*10-3 Ns/m2 and establish that flow is
µ
turbulent.
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Example 2: Determining depth given flow rate in a
trapezoidal channel

Given:
a) Same channel as in Example 1
b) Discharge = 30m3/s
Calculate:
The normal depth, yn using the following
procedure:
a) Plot the rating curve: i.e. graph of y vs. Q
b) Read off y when Q = 30m3/s

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Solution
y = ?; b = 5m; x = 2; n = 0.015; S0 = 0.001

1 1 𝐴5/3 1/2
Q= A R2/3 S 1/2
0 = S = 30m3/s
n n 𝑃2/3 0

Y (m) A P Q
(m2) (m) (m3/s)
5/3
y (b +x y) y b + 2 y 1 + 𝑥2 1 (b +x y) y 1/2
30 = x 2/3 x S0
0.015 b + 2 y 1+𝑥 2
5/3
1 (5 +2 y) y 1/2
30 = x 2/3 x 0.001
0.015 5 + 2 y 1+22

(5 +2 y) y 5/3
30 = 2.108 x 2/3
5 + 2 y 1 + 22

Plot a graph of y vs. Q also known as the rating curve. Read y = 1.62m when Q = 30m3/s

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3.6 Channel design
3.6.1 Introduction
a) Open channels are designed to carry a design
discharge in a safe and economical way.
b) For flood control channels such as spillways
i. The design discharge is the peak flow resulting from
a flood event of a specified return period.
ii. Design discharge is obtained from hydrologic study
of upstream catchments.
c) For water distribution channels e.g. irrigation
canals or aqueducts for water supply, the design
discharge is determined on the basis of water
demand along or at the end of the channel.
d) Open channels are usually designed for uniform
or normal flow conditions.
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e) Uniform flows seldom occur in nature.
f) In artificial channels of uniform section, the
occurrence of uniform flows is not frequent
because of the existence of controls (e.g.
weirs and sluice gates) which govern the
relationship between depth and discharge.
However, uniform flow is approximated to
ease computation.
g) Most channels are analysed and designed
for uniform flow conditions.

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h) Designing an open channel involves selection of:
a) channel alignment,
b) size and shape of the channel,
c) longitudinal slope and
d) the type of lining material.
e) to convey a given flow rate with a given flow depth
i) Normally, we consider several hydraulically
feasible alternatives (minimum x-sectional area
for a maximum flow rate), and compare them to
determine the most cost-effective alternative.
j) For a given discharge, slope and roughness, the
designer aims to minimize the cross-sectional
area A in order to reduce construction costs
k) Deciding whether the channel should be lined
to:
a) reduce seepage and/or
b) prevent the erosion of channel sides and bottom.
Design of a channel is done by trial and error.
a) Channel parameters are selected
b) Analysis is done
c) Verification is done to show that the operational
requirements are met with these parameters.
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3.7 General Design Considerations
a) Selection of channel alignment is the first step in designing
an open channel by considering:
i. the topography of the area,
ii. available width of right-of-way, and
iii. existing and planned adjacent structures and
transportation facilities
b) The topography also controls the invert elevations and
bottom slope of the channel.
c) Most manmade surface channels are trapezoidal in cross-
section, although triangular, parabolic and rectangular
channels are also used.
d) The primary concern in selecting a cross-sectional shape and
size is the section's hydraulic capacity to accommodate the
design discharge.
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e) Other factors to be considered
i. Depths
a) the depth of the channel may be
limited due to a high water table in the
underlying soil, or underlying bedrock.
ii. Widths
a) Large channel widths and mild side
slopes will result in high costs of right-
of-way and structures such as bridges.
b) Small channel widths, on the other
hand, may create construction
difficulties.
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iii. Side slopes
a) Likewise, steep side slopes can
cause slope stability problems as
well as high erosion rates in
earthen channels.
b) The steepest recommended side
slopes for different types of
channel materials are given in
Table 3.2 below
Table 3.2
x

e.g. if x = 3.0 it means 3 horizontal to 1 vertical

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3.8 Summary

We have come to the end of lecture three. This

lecture started by developing flow resistance
formulae in uniform flow analysis. We said that
use of Manning’s formula is the most common
approach for finding flow and depth in uniform
flow in open channels. Finally, we said that by
combining various channel aspects and
parameters for uniform flow, design of an open
channel can be achieved.

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3.9 Self - Assessment

Looking at pictures (a) and (b):

(a) If the channels have similar geometric
properties and were to carry the same flow,
how would the flow depth compare?
(b) What features of the channel would affect the
Manning’s n?
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3.10 References and further reading

References for further reading were listed in

Lecture one. You are free to look at any of them.

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