CHAPTER 7: THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

(Homework: 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 8.2)

IPCC [2007]
Spectroscopy Review
Outline

1. What is the greenhouse effect?

2. What is the influence of greenhouse gas on

the Earth in good and bad sides?

3. How to calculate the greenhouse effect?

 EMISSION OF RADIATION
Radiation is energy transmitted by electromagnetic waves; all objects
emit radiation
One can measure the radiation flux spectrum emitted by a unit
surface area of object:

Here DF is the radiation flux emitted in [l, l+Dl]

is the flux distribution function characteristic of the object



Total radiation flux emitted by object: F   l d l

0
Emission Spectrum of the Sun
Emission Spectrum of the Earth
The Comparison of Emission Spectra

Earth
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW:
Emissivity e(l,T) = Absorptivity
For any object: …very useful!

Illustrative example:

Kirchhoff’s law allows

determination of the
emission spectrum of
any object solely from
knowledge of its
absorption spectrum
and temperature
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT:
absorption of terrestrial radiation by the atmosphere
TERRESTRIAL RADIATION SPECTRUM FROM SPACE:
composite of blackbody radiation spectra emitted from different altitudes
at different temperatures
SOLAR RADIATION SPECTRUM: blackbody at 5800 K
 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION SPECTRUM FROM SPACE:
composite of blackbody radiation spectra for different T

Scene over
Niger valley,
N Africa
ABSORPTION OF RADIATION BY GAS MOLECULES
• …requires quantum transition in internal energy of molecule.

• THREE TYPES OF TRANSITION

– Electronic transition: UV radiation (<0.4 mm)
• Jump of electron from valence shell to higher-energy shell,
sometimes results in dissociation (example: O3+hn gO2+O)
– Vibrational transition: near-IR (0.7-10 mm)
• Increase in vibrational frequency of a given bond
requires change in dipole moment of molecule
– Rotational transition: far-IR (10-100 mm)
• Increase in angular momentum around rotation axis

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT INVOLVES ABSORPTION OF NEAR-IR

TERRESTRIAL RADIATION BY MOLECULES UNDERGOING
VIBRATIONAL AND VIBRATIONAL-ROTATIONAL TRANSITIONS
 NORMAL VIBRATIONAL MODES OF CO2
3N-3-2 LINEAR MOLECULE
3N-3-3 non-linear

Δp  0 forbidden

Δp  0 allowed

Δp  0 allowed

Greenhouse gases = gases with vib-rot absorption features at 5-50 mm

• Major greenhouse gases: H2O, CO2, CH4, O3, N2O, CFCs,…

• Not greenhouse gases: N2, O2, Ar, …

 EFFICIENCY OF GREENHOUSE GASES FOR GLOBAL WARMING

The efficient GGs are the ones that absorb in the “atmospheric window” (8-13
mm). Gases that absorb in the already-saturated regions of the spectrum are
not efficient GGs.
 RADIATIVE EQUILIBRIUM FOR THE EARTH

TS 4  4RS2 TS 4  4RS2

  R 2
(1  A)  T
4
 4 R 2
E; FS 
4d 4d 2
2 E E

Solar radiation flux intercepted by Earth = solar constant FS = 1370 W m-2

Radiative balance c effective temperature of the Earth:
Rs = 7x 105 km
Ts = 5800 K
= 255 K d = 1.5x 108 km
Re = 6400 km
A = 0.28
where A is the albedo (reflectivity) of the Earth
 SIMPLE MODEL OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT
VISIBLE IR Energy balance equations:
• Earth system
FS (1  A) / 4  (1  f ) To4 + f  T14
Incoming Reflected Transmitted
• Atmospheric layer
solar solar surface
f  To4  2 f  T14
FS / 4 FS A / 4 (1  f ) To4 1
Solution:   To=288 K
4

 F (1  A)  e f=0.77
To   S 
f
 4(1  )  T1 = 241 K
 
f  T14 Atmospheric 2
emission
Atmospheric layer (T1)
f  T14 Atmospheric
emission
abs. eff. 0 for solar (VIS)
f for terr. (near-IR)

Surface emission
FS / 4  To4
FS A / 4
Earth surface (To)
Absorption efficiency 1-A in VISIBLE
1 in IR
The ultimate models
for climate research
TERRESTRIAL RADIATION SPECTRUM FROM SPACE:
composite of blackbody radiation spectra emitted from different altitudes
at different temperatures
HOW DOES ADDITION OF A GREENHOUSE GAS WARM THE EARTH?
Example of a GG absorbing at 11 mm
1.
1. Initial state

2. 2. Add to atmosphere a GG
absorbing at 11 mm;
emission at 11 mm
decreases (we don’t see
the surface anymore at
that l, but the atmosphere)

3.
3. At new steady state, total
emission integrated over all l’s
must be conserved
e Emission at other l’s must
increase
e The Earth must heat!
 RADIATIVE FORCING OF CLIMATE DF
atmospheric
Reflected solar emission
FSA/4 f T14 Flux out
Flux in
surface
solar radiation emission
FS/4 (1-f) To4

greenhouse layer
(H2O, clouds, CO2, CH4, …)
Efficiency f

• Radiative equilibrium: DF = (Flux in) – (Flux out) = 0

• Increase greenhouse efficiency f e Flux out decreases e DF > 0; WARMING
• Increase solar reflection e Flux in decreases e DF < 0; COOLING
• Radiative forcing DF predicts equilibrium surface temperature response DTo :
DTo = l DF. In our 1-layer model, l  [4(1f/2)T3o]-1 = 0.3 K m2 W-1;
in research climate models, l ranges from 0.3 to 1.4 K m2 W-1 depending on model
IPCC [2007]
NOAA GREENHOUSE GAS RECORDS
 GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL (GWP):
foundation for climate policy
• The GWP measures the integrated radiative forcing over a time
horizon Dt from the injection of 1 kg of a species X at time to,
to +Dt
relative to CO2:
 DF1 kg X dt
GWP 
to
to +Dt


to
DF1 kg CO2 dt

Gas Lifetime GWP for time horizon

(years) 20 years 100 years 500 years
CO2 ~100 1 1 1
CH4 12 63 23 7
N2O 114 279 300 158
CFC-12 (CF2Cl2) 100 10340 10720 5230
HFC-134a (CH2FCF3) 14 3580 1400 4
SF6 3200 15290 22450 32780
Review

1. What is the greenhouse effect?

2. What is the influence of greenhouse gas on

the Earth in good and bad sides?

3. How to calculate the greenhouse effect?

Albedo Enhancement by Aerosols
 EVIDENCE OF AEROSOL EFFECTS ON CLIMATE:
Temperature decrease following large volcanic eruptions
+0.2

Observations
NASA/GISS general
0

circulation model
Temperature
Change (oC)
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2

1991 1992 1993 1994

Mt. Pinatubo eruption

 SCATTERING vs. ABSORBING AEROSOLS

Scattering sulfate and organic aerosol Partly absorbing dust aerosol

over Massachusetts downwind of Sahara

Absorbing aerosols (black carbon, dust) warm the climate by absorbing solar
radiation
 AEROSOL “INDIRECT EFFECT” FROM CLOUD CHANGES

Clouds form by condensation on pre-existing aerosol particles (“cloud

condensation nuclei”) when RH>100%

clean cloud (few particles): polluted cloud (many particles):

large cloud droplets small cloud droplets
• low albedo • high albedo (1st indirect)
• efficient precipitation • suppressed precipitation (2nd indirect)
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE SINCE 1850 [IPCC, 2007]

IPCC [2007]
MILLENNIAL NH TEMPERATURE TREND [IPCC, 2001]
 RADIATION & FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS

Electromagnetic energy at wavelength (l) has associated frequency (f) and

photon energy (E): h=6.62x10-34 Js
hc c
E  h  ,l c=3.0x108 m/s
l 
1

Also often use wavenumbers notation: l
radiative forcing for C ppm CO2, W·m–2 = (5.35 W·m–2) ln(C/C0)
C0 is 278 ppmv as the condition in 1750.
400 ppm -> -1.95Wm-2
The radiative
forcing for the 2011
CO2 concentration,
393 ppm, is 1.85
W·m–2.

IPCC [2007]