Special Issue Article

Proc IMechE Part B:

J Engineering Manufacture
1–16
High-speed machining of aluminium Ó IMechE 2020
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DOI: 10.1177/0954405420929787

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Balakrushna Guntreddi and Amitava Ghosh

Abstract
In an attempt to investigate the effectiveness of vegetable oil based small quantity lubrication in high-speed machining of
aluminium, this study finds that its usefulness is more significant in an intermittent cutting process like end milling than in
turning, where continuous cutting happens. The investigation was carried out using small quantity lubrication aerosol,
produced by air atomization of sunflower oil at the rate of 100 ml/h for each cutting zone. In the high-speed turning
operations, uncoated and polycrystalline diamond–tipped WC inserts were used. 5%–20% reduction of cutting force
could be realized by small quantity lubrication application, compared to dry environment. The highest order of reduction
was observed when the cutting velocity was increased from 700 to 1000 m/min. At lower velocities, small quantity lubri-
cation effect was almost insignificant. However, high-speed end milling operations received substantially superior benefit
by small quantity lubrication application. The reduction of feed force was 30% or more among different cutting speeds.
The beneficial effect of small quantity lubrication application was significantly more in machining commercially pure 1050
grade of aluminium than 7075 alloy. The required prevalence of the thick-film lubrication at the interface of chip and tool
rake for arresting any possible diffusion of aluminium to tool material was significant in the intermittent cutting since
every cutting edge drew in fresh micro-droplets of lubricant before resuming cutting in its next cycle of engagement with
workpiece. Interestingly, the end milling performance of small quantity lubrication–assisted uncoated carbide was so
good that diamond-coated tools were not necessary. Surface roughness profiles, chip morphology and traces of built up
edge formation were critically investigated and the results clearly indicated the predominantly more favourable outcome
of small quantity lubrication application in end milling, compared to turning.

Keywords
Small quantity lubrication, sunflower oil, continuous and intermittent cutting, built up edge/layer, cutting force, surface
quality, chip morphology

Date received: 31 May 2019; accepted: 26 April 2020

Introduction the material is greater than the rate of strain hardening

High-speed machining (HSM) is often preferred for its
shorter process time and ability to offer improved sur-
face quality, if there is a suitable cutting tool, a machine
tool and high performance cooling–lubrication technol-
ogy. It is difficult to generalize the range of ‘high
speed’. It depends on the dynamic behaviour of work
material, in particular on mechanics of chip formation.1
The Solomon’s fundamental studies of metal cutting
on different materials – steel, bronze, copper and
aluminium – suggest that machining temperature may
potentially decrease at a certain cutting speed and its
higher values.2 In general, in high-speed turning of
steel, the cutting temperature generally increases when
the speed increases. If the rate of thermal softening in
of the material during machining, it decreases the shear
energy requirement for the material removal. However,
high-speed milling has an additional advantage. As
spindle speeds increase, the chip thickness on each cut-
ting edge reduces. The specific energy to spend for
shearing the material decreases when the uncut chip
thickness decreases. Considering the environmental
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai, India
Corresponding author:
Balakrushna Guntreddi, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India.
Email: gbk441@gmail.com
2 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
hazards with common cutting fluids, HSM under dry
environment is always the first choice if at all feasible.
Most of the tools are prone to a built up edge/layer
(BUE/BUL) formation in dry machining of aluminium
alloys. Consequently, there is a further deterioration of
the surface finish and tool life.3,4 Uncoated carbide tools
receive severe BUE/BUL formation. At higher veloci-
ties, it was found that BUE was likely to form in sec-
ondary sticking zone, which was not severe as that
formed at the first sticking region (vicinity of the cutting
edge) while machining at lower velocities.5,6 Diamond-
coated tools and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools
have been performed outstandingly in arresting of
BUE formation when compared with uncoated carbide
and some other coatings like TiC, TiN and Al2O3.7–10
However, performance of diamond-coated tools is also
influenced by the coating morphology, intra-bond orbi-
tal hybridization11 and thickness of coating and round-
ness of cutting edge.12 However, PCD tools suffer from
BUL formation, and the inertness of diamond towards
aluminium is negated due to the presence of Co binder
which promotes diffusion.13,14
The use of metal work fluids (MWFs) and a suitable
delivery technology may potentially reduce these detri-
mental effects by heat dissipation and lubrication at the
tool–chip interface and flushing of chips, although
there are some critical challenges in the application of
cutting fluids for high-speed turning and milling. Use
of emulsions by conventional flood coolant application
methods was reportedly ineffective in both turning and
milling processes. Accessing the chip–tool interface is
the primary challenge to the stream of cutting fluid in
high-speed turning whereas a thin air-wall generated
surrounding the rotating end mill prevents it accessing
the tool–chip interface during high-speed milling.15
However, environmental concerns are severer with the
use of larger quantity of cutting fluids. Besides this, cost
associated with maintenance and disposal of cutting
fluids (approximately up to 7%–17% of total cost) and
ineffectiveness of coolants in flood cooling methodol-
ogy play key roles in search of the alternatives to the
conventional flood cooling. Minimum quantity lubrica-
tion (MQL) or alternatively named as small quantity
lubrication (SQL) is an approach considered by many
researchers to reduce the use of quantity of fluids and
increase the effectiveness of the cutting fluids.16–25 SQL
is a generic terminology referring to low consumption
of cutting fluid. Small volume of cutting fluid (1–
1000 ml/h) is broken into numerous micro-sized dro-
plets by the atomization of the oil with the help of a
compressed air jet (4–8 bar). Atomization of the oil is
influenced by many parameters such as the type of the
cutting fluid, oil flow rate, input air pressure and nozzle
distance.17 The use of vegetable-based oils can also
effectively contribute to HSM when applied through
MQL methodology. The effectiveness of MQL with
vegetable oils during machining of steels has been pro-
ven successful even in continuous mode operation like
turning. Less flank wear, reduction in surface finish
and higher penetration capability were observed under
MQL mode when compared with conventional flood
coolant.18–21 The independent works on turning and
milling of aluminium suggest that BUE formation
could be arrested with MQL approach, and consequen-
tially, surface finish gets improved. Reduction of forces
was also observed.22,23 At severe cutting conditions,
soft material like aluminium prone to severe BUE for-
mation, as a consequence, an abrupt change in coeffi-
cient of friction (COF) at the tool–chip interface was
observed. The work material flow velocity was found
to be affected by the increase of COF. The change in
work material flow was more pronounced for a higher
COF; the sticking zone becomes large as the friction is
higher.26 In such cases, accessing of the tool–chip inter-
face to the cutting fluids becomes challenging. MQL-
turning studies on AA6061 in the range of 50–400 m/
min revealed that the rate of adhesion of the work
material over the rake face was increased in the range
of 250–400 m/min, and adhered material over the rake
surface was noted to be higher in MQL when compared
with flood coolant.27 Contrarily, beneficial effect of
MQL was reported in machining of aluminium.15,23,28
Itoigawa et al. attempted to investigate the effectiveness
of the MQL systems in intermittent turning operation
and in intermittent friction tests to understand fric-
tional characteristics at tool–chip interface in continu-
ous and intermittent operations. The aerosol was
sprayed from the top of the workpiece not at the tool–
chip interface.29 F Pierre et al. have also investigated on
tribological influence of MQL on COF and work mate-
rial adhesion. It was reported that a drastic reduction
of COF was observed for WC and PCD tools by intro-
ducing cutting fluids in MQL. It was reduced from 0.8–1
under dry to only 0.2 under MQL assistance.30
Lack of precise information and analyses in the liter-
ature can be clearly observed on comparative outcomes
of SQL application in intermittent and continuous
machining processes in particular for high-speed opera-
tions. Al and alloys have been prioritized in the work
because in other class of materials like steels, SQL-
vegetable oil aerosol improves the machinability even
in turning (as found in the literature), because the chip
curling is more and aerosol only requires to reduce the
friction18,19,31–34 at chip–tool interface and the subse-
quent wear. Steels are studied much extensively.
Materials like titanium and alloys would have adhesion
and friction issues, even severer; however the same was
kept outside the scope of study. The current investiga-
tion addresses the concern considering two HSM oper-
ations, that is, turning and end milling. This article
emphasizes on the order of reduction of cutting force
and roughness independently on each process. Aerosol
of sunflower oil, which is a vegetable oil, was used as
SQL medium for machining of aluminium and its
alloys. This cutting fluid was selected because it ensures
‘green machining’ and at the same time contains long
chained fatty acid molecules, which helps in sustaining
film lubrication at chip–tool interface with a promise to
Guntreddi and Ghosh 3

Table 1. Chemical composition of the workpiece material (AA-
7075-T651) in wt%.
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti
0.05 0.17 1.4 0.03 2.4 0.19 5.8 0.08
*
B: balance.
arrest diffusion of aluminium into tool material.
Microscopic changes on machined surface profiles and
chip morphology were critically analysed to understand
the arrest of BUE formation. The study also looks for
conditions where the SQL technology using vegetable
oil with uncoated carbide tools can become a potential
alternative to diamond tools, which are otherwise rec-
ommended for HSM of aluminium and its alloys.
Materials and methods
Experimental setup of high-speed turning and milling
In the present work, HSM of AA7075-T651 aluminium
alloy was carried out using vegetable oil–based sun-
flower oil and SQL technology. The composition and
mechanical properties of the workpiece material are
listed in Tables 1 and 2. Effectiveness of SQL technol-
ogy was tested for both continuous-turning and slot-
milling operation. Round bars with the dimension
of Ø150 mm 3 400 mm were used for the high-speed
turning experiments. The evaluation length was 30 mm
in every experiment. SNMA120408 type uncoated tung-
sten carbide (WC-6Co) tool and PCD-tipped carbide
tools were selected for turning experiments. PCD tools
were indigenously produced by active brazing process
under high vacuum. 30 mm 3 55 mm 3 30 mm rectan-
gular plates were used in the high-speed end milling
Al
tests. The full slot-milling operation was carried out
*B along the 30 mm long side. Uncoated two-fluted tung-
sten carbide end mill cutters were selected for the high-
speed slot-milling operation. The machining process
parameters and SQL jet conditions are presented in
Table 3. Commercially available micro dose pump
(Accu-Lube, ITW Rocol North America, Model: 03A1-
STD) was used, having an ability to discharge the oil at
a flow rate ranging from 100 to 450 ml/h in SQL mode.
A bio-degradable vegetable sunflower oil (thermal con-
ductivity: 0.19 W/m K; viscosity: 44.2 mPa s; density:
916.97 kg/m3; specific heat: 1.79 kJ/kg K at 30 °C) was
used as the cutting fluid. An internal mix nozzle was
used for delivering the cutting fluid in aerosol form at
tool–work interface. Figure 1 illustrates the HSM
experimental setups for both turning and milling. A
twin jet nozzle was used for applying the cutting fluid
on rake and flank face of the cutting tool used during
high-speed turning operation in SQL mode. The twin
jet nozzle was indigenously manufactured using three-
dimensional (3D) printing technology. Polylactide
(PLA) material was used for making twin jet nozzle. An
additional thin layer of hard thermosetting polymer
was applied over the nozzle. This inhibited the hard
machining swarfs to degrade the nozzle surface by its
abrasive action. Figure 1(b) represents the schematic
view of milling experimental setup. A single internal
mix nozzle was employed for applying the cutting fluid
in SQL mode. The cutting fluid was atomized by com-
pressed air at 5 bar pressure inside the nozzle. Two SQL
nozzles were used so that the aerosol could take care

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the workpiece material (AA7075-T651).

Tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation (%)

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

573 585 511 523 12.5 12.5

Table 3. Experimental conditions.

Operation Turning Milling

Tool geometry and specifications SNMA120408 (Widia, WC-6Co grade, PCD) D502 series (Widia, WC-6Co grade)
26°, 26°, 6°,15°,75°, 0.8 mm Ø10 mm, two-fluted, 30° helix
Cutting velocity (Vc) 500, 700, 1000 m/min 100, 200, 300, 400 m/min
Feed (So/f) 0.2 mm/rev 100, 200, 400 mm/min
Depth of cut (t/ap) 1 mm 0.5 mm
Environment Dry, small quantity lubrication (SQL)
SQL parameters and oil flow rate Sunflower oil, air pressure: 5 bar
Rake face side: 100 ml/h 100 ml/h
Flank face side: 100 ml/h
Stand of distance nozzle to the tool tip Rake face side: 20 mm 5 mm
Flank face side: 15 mm

PCD: polycrystalline diamond.

4 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
Figure 1. Experimental setup of (a) high-speed turning and (b) high-speed milling.
principal flank, rake and the auxiliary flank. Cutting oil
was atomized at the rate 100 ml/h through each nozzle,
thus cumulatively 200 ml/h. In the case of slot milling,
the aerosol was delivered to the machining zone with an
oil atomization rate of 100 ml/h. It was not increased to
200 ml/h or higher value because only 100 ml/h for
milling was even found to be remarkably good for
milling and machining outcomes were superior to that
observed in turning. The nozzle was mounted at an
angle and a stand-off distance of 22°–25° and 5–6 mm,
respectively, to ensure that the aerosol to get injected at
the cutting edge before its entry for machining (Figure
1(b)).
Cutting force acquisition
A piezoelectric dynamometer (Kistler Instruments,
Switzerland; Model 9257B) coupled with a multichan-
nel charge amplifier (Kistler Instruments; Model
5070A) and DynoWare software was used for measur-
ing the cutting force components during HSM. A 300-
Hz low-pass filter was set during acquisition of the
data. Cutting force (Fz) and feed force (Fx) were moni-
tored and acquired data at a 1000 Hz sampling rate in
the case of high-speed turning. Dynamic variation of
feed force (Fx), transverse force (Fy) and thrust forces
(Fz) was closely monitored and captured with the same
dynamometer with a sampling rate of 10,000 Hz during
high-speed milling, considering higher rotation speed.
Surface roughness measurements
The machined surface topography of work specimen
was inspected using a Perthometer (Mahr; Model M2).
A cut-off length of 0.8 mm and 5.6 mm measurement
length were considered for the evaluation. Average
centre line average (CLA) values (Ra) and average
maximum height of the profile (Rz) were recorded.
In high-speed turning, two-dimensional (2D) surface
profiles of the machined surface as produced by the
WC and PCD tools under dry and SQL environments
were closely studied at three randomly chosen locations
on the bar. The measurement direction was along the
axis. In the case of high-speed milling, roughness of
cutting edge face side of the machined slots was mea-
sured. The measurement direction was perpendicular to
the lay and at randomly selected three locations.
Chip morphology and microscopic studies
A large number of chips were collected during the
machining operations at all machining conditions.
Macroscopic form view of the chips was taken with a
digital camera (Canon EOS 1300D) and presented. A
small chip segment was taken from the chips collected
during experiments and ultrasonically cleaned with iso-
propanol for 5 min. Then, the underside of chip was
inspected under scanning electron microscope (SEM)
for examining BUE/BUL traces. Post-machining con-
dition of the inserts, end mill cutters and machined sur-
faces were also studied to assess the quality of
machining.
Results and discussion
Critical factors like cutting force, feed force, surface
roughness, chip morphology, post-machining condition
of cutting edge of the tool and quality of machined sur-
face were under the primary focus of the work to com-
paratively assess the suitability of using SQL
technology with sunflower oil in the high-speed regime
of turning and end milling processes.
On cutting force
Cutting forces analysis for high-speed turning. Cutting force
(Fz) and feed force (Fx) developed during the high-
speed turning of AA7075 with uncoated WC and PCD-
tipped carbide tools under dry and SQL environments
are shown in Figure 2. Three trials for each condition
Guntreddi and Ghosh
Figure 2. Plots indicating the variation of (a) cutting and (b) feed force values w.r.t. different machining conditions during high-speed
turning under different environments.
were carried out and the average and standard devia-
tion values are plotted. Cutting forces were much less
than recorded under conventional domain of cutting
speed (\ 300 m/min).27 The graphical representation
suggests that the usual trend of reduction of forces at
higher velocity is substantial. This is due to thermal
softening of the work material with the increase in tem-
perature at higher cutting speeds, which prompted
the serrated type chip formation and reduction in
forces.35–37 At the lowest speed (500 m/min), uncoated
WC tool recorded the highest force of 202 N among all
the conditions. Although the BUE formation was not
evident, the BUL formation caused the hindrance to
the free flow of chip, thereby escalating the force level.
The presence of cobalt in WC tool promotes the diffu-
sion of aluminium. SQL aerosol injection in the cutting
zone through twin nozzle system could reduce the cut-
ting force and feed forces but to a mere 4% and 8%,
respectively.
The application of SQL aerosol jet is thus proved to
be not-so-effective to penetrate and lubricate chip–tool
interface because the chip exerts a very high pressure
on the tool and slides at high velocity. The contact is
intimate and continuous. The aluminium being soft, its
plastic contact zone is supposed to be longer and the
elastic contact length is comparatively insignificant.
Thus, lubrication through capillary penetration and
chemisorption of the oil finds less opportunity.
Maximum order of reduction in the cutting forces was
observed only at very high velocity condition, that is,
1000-0.2-1. The benefit was only 5% reduction of cut-
ting force and 24% reduction of feed forces. At 1000 m/
min, chips were discontinuous and more amount of
heat was carried along with chip. Discontinuous chip
formation was helpful in accessing the tool–chip inter-
face. At 500 m/min, the chips were longer when com-
pared with chips formed at 1000 m/min. The access of
the tool–chip interface was thus difficult and there was
BUE formation. However, cutting forces got reduced
5
substantially when PCD tools were used in the place of
WC tools under either dry or SQL condition. The order
of reduction in cutting forces and feed forces was
enhanced up to 9% and 32%, respectively, when com-
pared with uncoated WC tools under dry environment.
This was expected and due to chemical inertness of dia-
mond towards the aluminium and its high thermal con-
ductivity, which helped in arresting BUE/BUL
formation significantly. However, tool wear mechanism
alters due to more aggressive diffusion and chemical
action at higher speeds due to high temperatures at the
tool–chip interface. Consequentially, aluminium starts
diffusing through the Co binder and weakens the PCD
tools. To enhance the performance of the PCD tools,
tests were extended under SQL environment. The SQL
jets, however, could not help much in enhancing the
performance of the PCD tool. The order of reduction
in forces was mere 6%–7%.
Cutting forces analysis for high-speed milling. The beneficial
effects of reduction in forces by the introduction of oils
in SQL mode were observed in all the components of
the cutting forces. Feed force (Fx) and transverse force
(Fy) are principal components of resultant force (R)
shown in Figure 3(a). Thrust force (Fz) force is consid-
ered not to be related significantly to the friction at
chip–tool interface, although any reduction in force has
an indirect influence on every component. Thrust force
variation on the milling cutter in one revolution for
100 m/min-100 mm/min-0.5 mm condition is plotted in
time domain in Figure 3(b). It clearly shows that the
introduction of SQL aerosol has a beneficial effect even
on the minor force component like thrust force.
However, the subsequent discussion is focussed on feed
force component. The maximum value of the feed force
(along the direction of slot generation) was considered
for comparison. Three trials for each condition were
carried out and the average of the highest levels of feed
force in three trials along with the standard deviation is
6 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)

Figure 3. Forces in milling (a) schematic view of the principal component forces FT, FR, Fx and Fy and (b) dynamic variation thrust
force (Fz) for one single rotation of the cutter under dry and SQL environments for the 100 m/min-100 mm/min-0.5 mm condition.

Figure 4. Variation of feed force values in high-speed milling operation at different feed rate values of: (a) 100 mm/min, (b) 200 mm/
min and (c) 400 mm/min.

plotted in the graph. The performance of uncoated
carbide end mills under dry and SQL-sunflower oil
environment is presented in Figure 4. Solid carbide
WC-6Co end mills were found to receive substantial
benefit upon application of SQL-sunflower oil environ-
ment. The order of reduction in feed forces was esca-
lated to the range of 17%–35% among the different
conditions when compared to dry environment. The
maximum reduction in the feed forces was observed to
be 33% and 35% at the low feed rate of 100 mm/min
and high-speed combinations (300 and 400 m/min,
respectively), when the uncut chip thickness is in the
lower orders. Thus, it is evident that the film lubrica-
tion through aerosol injection was very much effective
Guntreddi and Ghosh 7

and in particular when lesser force at chip–tool inter- Fz 3 Vc Nm

Power consumptionðPCÞturning = ð3Þ
face was prevalent. Due to intermittence in the cutting, 60 S
each cutting edge was able to regenerate a fresh layer Vc 3 So 3 t 1 m3
of thick lubricious film of fatty acid molecule rich sun- MRR turning = 3
106 60 S
flower oil. An increasing trend of cutting forces was
observed with either an increase in feed rates or where t is the depth of cut (mm)
decrease in cutting velocity. It was found that effective- PC turning
ness of the SQL slightly was less at higher feed rates. It Specific energyðKe Þturning = 3
MRR turning
was also found that the feed forces decreased due to ð4Þ
1
the reduction in the uncut chip thickness with an J=mm3
1000
increase in velocity. The SQL application for end
milling by uncoated carbide was so effective that it was
not even required to use diamond-coated carbide tools. Specific energy evaluation for slot milling
SQL application kept the cutting force appreciably low
2 3 p 3 N 3 T Nm
and helped in eliminating BUL formation, which is dis- Power consumptionðPCÞsolt milling=
60 S
cussed later.
ð5Þ
where T is the torque (N m), and N is the rotational
On specific energy speed of end mill (rev/min)
Evaluation of specific energy for high-speed turning and slot
D
milling. Environmental and energy conscious machining ðF T Þ 3 2
Torque ðTÞ = Nm
is the future of the machining industry.38 Machining is a 1000
complicated thermo-mechanical process. The total where FT is the average tangential force,
energy consumed during machining in ductile regime of FT = Transverse force ðFy Þ=2 at u = 90° (maximum
machining (continuous and serrated chip formation) uncut chip thickness) (refer Figure 3), and D is the dia-
majorly comprises of plastic deformation energy located meter of the tool
in the primary shear zone, the friction work between the
tool–chip interface and the chip kinetic energy. In brittle d3w3f m3
regime of machining, it mainly comprises of local kinetic MRR slot milling = 3 109
60 S
energy of fragments and fracture surface energy.39 In
the selected regime of speed ( \ 1000 m/min), ductile where d is the depth of cut (mm), w is the width of slot
mode of shearing (short continuous and serrated type (mm), and f is the table feed (mm/min)
chip formation) is observed. The total specific energy is Average specific energyðKe Þslot milling
evaluated by taking into consideration of experimentally
PC slot milling 1
measured cutting forces in both the process. 3 J=mm3 ð6Þ
MRR slot milling 1000
Specific energy evaluation for turning

Total power consumption Comparison of specific energy for high-speed turning versus
Specific energyðKe Þ = milling. The order of benefit of SQL application was
MRR
PC independently very much conclusively distinguishable
= for the both turning and milling processes. However,
MRR
ð1Þ there were differences in material removal rates
(MRRs). Specific energy (Ke) often gives a clearer pic-
Total power consumptionðPCÞturning ture as it nullifies the differences in MRR. The specific
= Fz 3 Vc + Fx 3 Vf ð2Þ energy for both processes was calculated using equa-
tions (4) and (6), respectively. Figure 5 represents the
where Fz is the cutting force (N), which is major (periph- variation of the specific energy for both turning and
eral) component of the cutting forces, Vc is the cutting milling under dry and SQL environments. The results
speed (m/min), Fx is the feed force (N), and Vf is the feed indicate that the introduction of aerosols has shown
velocity (m/min) more beneficial results in the intermittent process like
So 3 N milling than a continuous process turning. In the case
Vf = m=min of high-speed turning, PCD tools have recorded less
1000
specific energy when compared to WC tools. However,
where So is the feed (mm/rev), and N is the rotational introduction of SQL aerosol has shown much benefi-
speed of job (rev/min). cial results when machined with WC tools. Maximum
The power consumption caused in the feed direction is beneficial results were observed at a very high speed,
neglected40,41 due to Vf  Vc , Fx \ Fz. So the total power that is, 1000 m/min, where discontinuous chips were
consumption equation (2) is changed into equation (3) formed. Since it was able to arrest the adhesion of
8 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
Figure 5. Variation of specific energy in (a) high-speed turning and (b) high-speed milling.
aluminium significantly by forming a thin lubrication
film at tool–chip interface. Although the specific energy
in milling process is higher when compared to turning,
the percentage reduction of the specific energy observed
by the introduction of SQL aerosols at the tool–chip
interface was also substantially higher than in turning.
This is due to the arresting of diffusion aluminium at
tool–chip interface through superior access of chip–tool
interface by the lubricant aerosol.
Post-machining condition of the tool
SEM images of the post-machining condition of turn-
ing inserts and end mills are displayed in Figure 6. The
images and the energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
analyses justify the arguments presented to explain the
trend of force results. Post-machining condition of cut-
ting edges has been presented for the conditions in
which machining time was approximately equal, 1000-
0.2-1 condition of turning (4.38 s of machining time)
and 300-200-0.5 condition of milling (4.5 s of machining
time per tooth). Interestingly, the beneficial effect of
SQL was realized to the maximum level at these condi-
tions. The 1000-0.2-1 condition in turning refers to the
combination of a cutting velocity of 1000 m/min, longi-
tudinal feed of 0.2 mm/rev and depth of cut of 1 mm. In
milling, 300-200-0.5 condition refers to the combination
of the cutting velocity of 300 m/min, longitudinal feed
rate of 200 mm/min and axial/down feed of 0.5 mm. It
can be seen that there is significant adhesion of work
material on the rake face of the uncoated inserts as
shown in Figure 6(a) and (b). The EDS probing analy-
sis was conducted arbitrarily on the marked areas to
ensure that the visible patches (under SEM) were the
adhered layers of the aluminium. The EDS results con-
firmed that adherence was present under both dry and
SQL environments. Thus, it is evident that the SQL jets
could not help much in arresting BUL formation. On
the contrary, SQL aerosol stream was much effective
for the intermittent operation like milling. Figure 6(c)
and (d) displays the SEM images of the post-machining
condition of solid uncoated carbide end mill rake sur-
faces under dry and SQL environments, respectively.
Microscopic observation of rake face and EDS analyses
suggest that uncoated carbide end mills received adhesion
of work material under dry environment. In Figure 6(d),
under SQL environment, there was no apparent adher-
ence of aluminium layer. Thus, the tool tip was selected
to be probed by EDS as that is the area most prone to
carry any trace of aluminium. However, there were negli-
gible traces of work material on the tools under SQL
environment, depicting that SQL jet could help in arrest-
ing BUE/BUL formation.
On surface roughness
Surface roughness evaluation for high-speed turning. Figure 7
represents the roughness values (Ra and Rz) of the
machined surfaces produced by high-speed turning.
Surface roughness values were observed to be signifi-
cantly less than those usually recorded in conventional
domain of cutting speed ( \ 300 m/min).42 This is due
to thermal softening of the material and change in the
chip formation pattern to short length, which helped in
avoiding the rubbing of the newly generated machine
surface. SQL-sunflower oil conditions could not help
uncoated tools much in arresting BUL formation in
most of the machining condition. Beneficial results
under SQL environment were only realized at the high-
est speed condition, that is, 1000-0.2-1. However, the
order of reduction was only 10%–13%. The PCD tools
(images are shown later) outperformed in arresting the
BUE/BUL formation under dry environment when
compared with uncoated tools. It was reflected, expect-
edly, in terms of surface roughness. Ra and Rz values
were reduced by 34% and 21%, respectively. The aero-
sol seemed to find better access to chip–tool interface
at higher cutting velocity. Figure 8 portrays the sample
2D-surface roughness profiles produced at 1000-0.2-1
condition. It is evident that the machined grooves
Guntreddi and Ghosh
Figure 6. Post-machining condition of WC inserts in (a) dry and (b) SQL environments at Vc: 1000 m/min, So: 0.2 mm/min and t:
1 mm. Post-machining condition of end mill cutters in (c) dry and (d) SQL environments at Vc: 300 m/min, f: 200 mm/min and ap
(depth of cut): 0.5 mm.
generated by uncoated carbide tools have occasional
piling of work material surrounding the groove due to
BUL transfer which escalated the roughness under dry
environment. Since PCD is more chemically inert, its
performance under dry was satisfactory and thus the
beneficial effect of SQL application was not realized to
a significant extent. However, the uniformity in surface
profile was improved under SQL environment for both
uncoated and PCD-tipped carbide tools.
Surface roughness evaluation for high-speed milling. Figure 9
displays the 2D surface roughness profiles generated
during high-speed milling at different cutting velocities.
The highly irregular profiles of machined surface pro-
duced by the uncoated tool under dry environment
depict the prevalence of BUE/BUL formation. The rede-
posited material on the machined surface usually causes
such abrupt changes on the profile. Interestingly, unlike
in the case of high-speed turning, the machined surface
was remarkably uniform under the application of SQL-
sunflower aerosol. The performance of uncoated tools
was so appreciable that the diamond-coated tools were
not used for end milling. Due to severe irregularity in the
9
profile, Rz values are only plotted for comparing the
roughness under dry and SQL environments. Figure 10
compares the Rz values for all the high-speed milling
experiments. WC end mills under SQL-sunflower oil
environment have shown much beneficial results. The
order reduction was 29%–44% at 100 mm/min feed rate.
With the increase in feed rate, the reduction of Rz value
under SQL application slightly got reduced. At 400 mm/
min, the order of reduction was 9%–25%. In general, it
is apparent that the SQL application draws more benefit
when the uncut chip thickness is thinner, which primarily
takes place when cutting velocity increases and feed
decreases. Higher cutting velocities also cause the chip
segmentation and chip curling which may sometimes
make the SQL application more effective. In very few
occasion, the trend was apparently reverse, which could
be due to sudden entanglement of micro-chip debris
between flank and finished surface. In the visual experi-
ence, all SQL-aided cuts were very clean. Figure 11
shows the SEM images of the sample surfaces produced
by uncoated tool at the 400-100-0.5 and 300-200-0.5 con-
ditions under dry and SQL environments, for which the
beneficial effect of SQL application was maximum. It
clearly suggests that the cutting action was not smooth
10
Figure 7. Variation of surface roughness (a) Ra and (b) Rz during high-speed turning of AA7075 alloy with WC and PCD tools
under dry and SQL environments.
Figure 8. Surface roughness profiles of AA7075 alloy turned with WC and PCD tools under dry and SQL environments at Vc:
1000 m/min, So: 0.2 mm/rev and t: 1 mm.
under dry environment. Ploughing impressions and
smearing of BUE/BUL marks within the grooves are evi-
dent. This can escalate or reduce the Ra/Rz values and
hence can sometimes illusively depict in favour of dry
machining. So are the cases assumed to be for couple of
conditions when SQL effect was not apparently realized.
Surfaces generated under SQL environment revealed
clean grooves produced by uninterrupted shearing of
work material. BUE/BUL free cutting edge of a tool can
only lead to development of such profiles on the finished
surface. It justifies previous arguments furnished for
explaining cutting force reduction, surface roughness
reduction and post-machining clean condition of tool
under SQL environment.
On chip morphology
Chip morphology for high-speed turning. In the HSM pro-
cess, chip morphology and its governing mechanisms
are significantly influenced by cutting velocity, which
has strong influence on the various factors like dynamic
behaviour of material, cutting temperature, strain
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
hardening and plastic to brittle transition. At lower cut-
ting speeds ( \ 300 m/min), chip formation generally
takes place by isothermal compression and shear. In
the selected regime of speed ( \ 1000 m/min) of current
work, there was no apparent plastic to brittle transition
in the deformation behaviour of material during chip
formation. However, a change in the chip formation
mechanism was observed with further increase in the
cutting speed. Thermal effects and degree of deforma-
tion seemed to play a role in alteration of chip forma-
tion mechanism from isothermal compression to
adiabatic shearing, which promoted the formation of
serrated chip.43–50 Both cutting speed and feed rate are
the dominant influential factors of adiabatic shearing
for a given workpiece material. The critical load for
serrated chip formation is defined as the multiplication
of cutting speed and feed rate per tooth. It was found
that the critical load required for AA7075 material was
0.10 m2/(min tooth).51 Figure 12 represents the sec-
tional views of chips generated at 700-0.2-1 under dry
environment (critical load 0.14 m2/(min tooth)). It
is clearly evident from Figure 12(a)–(c) that shear is
Guntreddi and Ghosh 11

Figure 9. Surface roughness profiles of AA7075 alloy high-speed milled with solid carbide tool under dry and SQL environments at
Vc: 400 m/min, f: 400 mm/min and ap: 0.5 mm.

Figure 10. Variation of surface roughness (Rz) during high-speed milling of AA7075 at different feed rates (f) of (a) 100 mm/min, (b)
200 mm/min and (c) 400 mm/min.

confined to a very thin plane. Saw tooth formation is
visible and it appears more repetitive rather than peri-
odic cracking. The chip sheared surface at high magni-
fication (Figure 12(d)) clearly shows an elongated
dimple kind structure, which is the characteristic signa-
ture of adiabatic shear.46,52,53
Figure 13 represents the chips produced during high-
speed turning of AA7075 with WC and PCD tools. With
the increase in cutting velocity, size of chips length was
decreased. At 500 and 700 m/min cutting velocities, chips
were in ribbon form (serrated type). Chips were in arc-
connected form (discontinuous type) at 1000 m/min.54,55
Discontinuous chip formation seemed to enhance the
usefulness of the SQL jets, as it could access the
machining zone better. Maximum reduction of forces
and surface roughness was observed in such cases.
Underside of the chip carries the impression of BUE/
BUL formation. Figure 14 compares underside of chips
generated by WC and PCD tools under dry and SQL
environments for the 1000-0.2-1 condition of turning.
Chips produced by WC tools show stick-slip marks under
both dry and SQL environments in turning. It depicts that
SQL jets were not able to significantly arrest aluminium
diffusion, which indicates inadequate penetrability of the
SQL aerosol. However, the marks are finer for PCD tools
as it could significantly arrest the BUE/BUL formation.
No difference was observed when SQL jets were admitted,
indicating the same inadequate penetrability.
12 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)

Figure 11. Micro morphology of high-speed milled surface

under dry and SQL environments at different conditions (a)
400-100 dry (b) 400-100 SQL (c) 300-200 dry (d) 300-200 SQL
(400-100 represents cutting speed (Vc) of 400 m/min and feed
rate (f) 100 mm/min).
Figure 13. Chips generated during high-speed turning of
AA7075 with WC and PCD tools under dry and SQL
environments.

Figure 12. (a and c) Micrographs of chip machined at 700-0.2-

1 under dry environment and (b and d) fracture morphology of
the adiabatic shear band at higher magnification (700-0.2-1
represents Vc: 700 m/min, So: 0.2 mm/rev and t: 1 mm).
Chip morphology for high-speed milling. Figures 15 and 16
display morphology of chips collected at high-speed
milling at 400-100-05 and 300-200-0.5 conditions,
respectively. The macroscopic chip morphology sug-
gests that chip curling happened under dry condition
due to its thermal gradient along the chip thickness.
The magnified views of the underside of chips produced
under dry environment clearly revealed the traces of
feed marks and ploughed/smeared out material due to
Figure 14. Underside view of chips generated during high-
speed turning with WC and PCD tools under dry and SQL
environments: (a) WC-dry, (b) PCD-dry, (c) WC-SQL and
(d) PCD-SQL (Vc: 1000 m/min, So: 0.2 mm/rev and t: 1 mm).
sticking tendency of the chips on rake surface. Due to
an increase in friction at tool–chip interface and tem-
perature under dry environment, chips tend to crack
(Figure 15(b)) or receive side flow of material (Figure
16(b)). However, the chips were curled more under
SQL environment due to its combined effect of
Guntreddi and Ghosh
Figure 15. SEM images of chips produced by uncoated end mill
cutters under (a and c) dry and (b and d) SQL environments for
the condition of Vc: 400 m/min, f: 100 mm/min and ap: 0.5 mm.
Figure 16. SEM images of chips produced by uncoated end mill
cutters under (a and c) dry and (b and d) SQL environments for
the condition of Vc: 300 m/min, f: 200 mm/min and ap: 0.5 mm.
cooling–lubrication and hydrodynamic lift by aerosol
jets. The magnified view of the underside of the chips at
400–100-0.5 and 300-200-0.5 conditions evidentially
demonstrates no significant traces of stick-slip marks,
depicting smooth flow of chips on rake surface (Figures
15(d) and 16(d)).
Although application domain of pure commercial
grade of aluminium (AA1050) is very narrow, a few
tests were carried out on this material to confirm if the
SQL jets are useful for arresting BUE/BUL formation.
Since it is aluminium which causes the BUE/BUL for-
mation and the stream of SQL aerosol of sunflower oil
13
has been proved to be effective for milling AA7075
alloy by arresting the diffusion of aluminium into tool
material, the benefit was supposed to more in the case
of AA1050 if the explained mechanism is true. Figure
17 shows the feed force (Fx) and surface roughness (Rz)
values under dry and SQL at the 180-200-0.5 and 200-
200-0.5 conditions for milling pure aluminium. 40%–
50% reduction in feed force and 80%–90% reduction
in surface roughness were recorded, which justify the
aforesaid arguments in favour of the usefulness of SQL
jets in an intermittent process like milling.
Conclusion
The study compares the effectiveness of sunflower oil
aerosol in SQL application in high-speed turning and
milling of AA7075. The salient conclusions are as
follows:
 Use of sunflower oil in SQL mode was found to be
mostly ineffective for turning since the removal pro-
cess is continuous. The benefit was negligible except
at cutting velocity of 1000 m/min. The chips tend to
be discontinuous at 1000 m/min, giving more room
to the aerosol for lubricating chip–tool interface. In
other velocities, chips were in ribbon form with ser-
rated characteristics, having longer plastic zone
contact with tool rake. Aerosol seemed to be unable
to effectively penetrate the machining zone and sub-
sequently could not offer any favourable outcome
for high-speed turning application.
 PCD turning tools exhibited acceptable perfor-
mance during machining AA7075 under dry envi-
ronment being reasonably able to arrest BUE/BUL
formation. Diamond being inert, it restricts the for-
mation of BUE/BUL on the surface of the cutting
tool. A maximum of 9% and 32% reduction in cut-
ting and feed forces, respectively, was noted with
respect to the performance of uncoated tool.
Moreover, the surface roughness (Ra and Rz) of the
machined surface was also reduced by 20%–35%.
Application of SQL technology also did not find
scope of offering any significantly beneficial role.
 Contrarily, the application of sunflower oil using
SQL technology could bring in remarkable improve-
ment for intermittent slot milling of AA7075 by
uncoated carbide tools. At the feed rates ranging
from 100 to 200 mm/min and cutting velocities rang-
ing from 300 to 400 m/min, the cutting force was
reduced by 30%–35% by SQL application.
Similarly, the surface finish was improved by 30%–
45% under same machining conditions. Cutting oil
aerosol of 200 ml/h in turning was proven to be sub-
stantially less effective than even 100 ml/h in milling.
The order of reduction in specific energy was also
remarkable, compared to turning. Such improve-
ment is ascribed to the intermittent cutting action,
which helps the rake surface of every cutting tooth
14
Figure 17. Variation of (a) feed force (Fx) and (b) surface roughness (Rz) values during end milling of AA1050 substrate with
uncoated end mill cutter under dry and SQL environments at Vc: 200 m/min, f: 200 m/min and ap: 0.5 mm.
to receive the fresh aerosol before resuming every
cutting action. The thin layer of the cutting fluid at
chip–tool interface lifts up the chip by hydrody-
namic pressure and prevents the formation of BUE/
BUL by developing a separating layer of lubricating
film at chip–tool interface.
 Summarily, SQL technology is proved to be not so-
effective for continuous cutting processes, but con-
trarily is highly beneficial for intermittent cutting
processes. The SQL technology with vegetable oil is
potentially capable of even replacing the use of
diamond-coated tools by uncoated tools. The bene-
ficial effect of SQL-vegetable aerosol was more
pronounced for end milling of pure aluminium than
its alloy form.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iDs
Balakrushna Guntreddi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
2165-9176
Amitava Ghosh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7557-
6248
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