Course 11

Course 11
CHAPTER 5
Drilling Hydraulic
1
FUNDAMENTALS OF
DRILLING ENGINEERING
ROBERT F. MITCHELL & STEFAN Z. MISKA
OUTLINE
1. Introduction to Drilling Hydraulic
2. Hydrostatic Pressure Calculations
2.1 Incompressible Fluids
2.2 Compressible Fluids
2.3 Hydrostatic Pressure in Complex Fluid Column
2.4 Equivalent Density Concept
2.5 Effect of Entrained Solids and Gases in Drilling Fluid
2.6 Effect of Well Deviation
OUTLINE
3. Steady Flow of Drilling Fluid 4. Rheological Models of Drilling
3.1 Mass balance Fluids
3.2 Momentum balance 4.1 Overview of Rheological Models.
4.2 Newtonian Fluid Model
3.3 Energy Balance
4.3 Bingham Plastic Model
3.4 Flow Through Jet-Bits 4.4 Power-Law Fluids
3.5 Bit Hydraulic Power
3.6 Bit Hydraulic Impact Force
3.7 Jet Bit Nozzle Size Selection
OUTLINE
5. Laminar Flow in Pipes and 7. Frictional Pressure Drop in an
Annuli Eccentric Annulus
5.1 Shear Stress in Laminar Flow 7.1 Newtonian Fluid Model
5.2 Newtonian Fluid Model 7.2 Power Law Model
5.3 Non-Newtonian Fluid Models.
5.4 Herschel-Bulkley Fluids.
6. Turbulent Flow In Pipes and
Annuli
6.1. Newtonian Fluid Models.
6.2. Non-Newtonian fluid models
OUTLINE
8. Frictional Pressure Drop With 10.Dynamic Surge and Swab
Pipe Movement Pressure
8.1 Newtonian Fluid Model 10.1 Introduction
8.2 Non-Newtonian Fluid Model 10.2 Dynamic Pressure Prediction
8.3 Turbulent Flow 11. Cuttings Transport
9. Calculating Steady-State
Pressure in a Wellbore
9.1 Circulating Wellbore Pressures
9.2 Surge Pressure Prediction
1. Introduction to Drilling Hydraulics
• Three primary function of a drilling fluid :
1. The transport of cuttings out of the wellbore
2. Prevention of fluid influx
3.The maintenance of wellbore stability
• if wellbore pressure falls below the pore pressure, fluids will flow into
the wellbore, perhaps causing a blowout
• Drilling fluids range from relatively incompressible fluids, such as
water and brines, to very compressible fluids, such as air and foam.
• Well bore problem In detail, starting from the simplest and progressing
to the most complicated :
1. Hydrostatic pressure calculation
2. Steady flow of fluids
• Following these basic problems, we will present a series of special

topics :
1. Fluid rheology
2. Laminar flow
3. Turbulent flow
4. Eccentric annulus flow
5. Flow with moving pipe
6. Steady-state wellbore flow
7. Dynamic wellbore pressure prediction
8. Cuttings transport
• For the vertical forces acting on an element of fluid at a depth Z in a
hole of cross-sectional area A, the downward force on the fluid
element excerted by the fluid given by pressure p times the cross
sectional area of elemet A :
there is an upward force on the element exerted by the fluid below

• In addition, the weight of the fluid element is exerting a downward
force given by
where r is the density of the fluid and g is the acceration due to

gravity, which at sea level has a value of 9,81 m/’s2
• Because the fluid is in stationary condition, no shear forces exist and
the three forces shown must be in equilibrium :
Fig 5.1 -Forces acting on a fluid element

Expansion of the second term and division by the element volume A
delta-Z gives
With the conversion factor applied :

2.1. Incompressible fluid
• If we are dealing with a liquid such as drilling mud or salt water, fluid
compessibility is negligible for low temperatures
• Specific weight can be considered constrant with depth
in field units :
• The application of the hydrostatic pressure equation is the
determination of the proper drilling density.
• The density of the fluid column must not be sufficient to cause any of
formations exposed to the drilling fluid to fracture.
• The fluid column in the well must be sufficient density to cause the
pressure in the well opposite each permeable stratum to be greater than
the pore pressure of the formation fluid in the permeable stratum
Fig 5.2 – The well-fluid

system [from
Bourgoyne et al.
(1991)]
• In some cases, gas is injected in well from the surface, while in other
cases gas may enter the well from subsurface formation.
• The variation of pressure with depth in a static gas column is more
complicated than in a static liquid column because the gas density
changing pressure.
• The gas density can be expressed as a funcrtion of pressure :
changing units from consistent units to common field units gives :

2.2 Compressible fluid
• When the gas column is not short or highly pressured, the variation of
gas density with depth within the gas column should be taken into
account.
• If the variation in z within the gas column is not too great, we can treat
Z as a constant, Z-average. Separating variables in the above equation
and integrating gives :
• If we assume that T is realatively constant over the depth range :
• In field units :
Where P is in psi, M in lbm/lbm-mol, delta-Z in ft, and T in degrees R

• The fluid column contains several section of different fluid densities
• The variation of pressure with depth in this type of complex fluid
column must be determined by separating the effect of each fluid
segment.
• If the pressure at to section 1 is known to be Po, then the pressure at
the bottom of Section 1 can be computed.
• The pressure at the bottom of section 1 is equal to the pressure at the
top of section 2. Thus, the pressure at the bottom of section 2 can be
expressed in terms of the pressure at the top section 2 :
• In general, the pressure at any vertical depth Z can be expressed by

2.3 Hydrostatic Pressure in Complex Fluid Columns
Fig 5.3 – A complex fluid

column [from Bourgoyne
et al. (1991)]
2.3 Hydrostatic Pressure in Complex Fluid Columns
Fig 5.4 – Viewing the

well as a manometer
[From Bourgoyne et al.
(1991)]
• Field experience in a given area often allows guidelines to be
developed for the maximum mud density that formations at a given
depth will withstand without fracturing during normal drilling
operations.
• It is sometimes helpful to compare a complex-well-fluid column to an
equivalent single-fluid column that is open to atmosphere
In field units
• The equivalent mud density always should be referenced to a
specifiead depth.
• Drilling activity has extended in recent years to high-pressure/high-
temperature (HP/HT) wells, where drilling fl uids experience both hot
and cold temperature extremes, thus undergoing changes in density.
• Simulation results are shown in Fig. 5.5 for a water-based mud
(WBM) and a synthetic-based mud (SBM) in 8,000 ft of water and
onshore HP/HT environments
Fig. 5.5 – Comparison of

equivalent static density for
WBM and SBM in 8000 ft
of water and onshore
HP/HT environments [from
Zamora and Roy (2000)]
• As long as the foreign materials are suspended by the fluid, or settling
through the fluid at their terminal velocity, the effect of the foreign
materials on hydrostatic pressure can be computed by replacing the
fluid density with the density of the mixture.
• However, particles that have settled out of the fluid and are supported
by grain-to-grain contact do not influence hydrostatic pressure
• The average density of an ideal mixture of N components is given by
• If one component is a fi nely divided gas, the density of the gas
component does not remain constant but decreases with the decreasing
pressure. A drilling fl uid that is measured to have a low density due to
the presence of gas bubbles is said to be gas-cut.
• Determination of the density of a gas-cut can be made in the following
way. If Nv moles of gases are dispersed in (or associated with) 1m3 of
drilling fluid, the volume fraction of gas at a given in the column is
given by
• In addition, the gas density rg at that point is defined. Thus, the
effective density of the mixture, r-average, is given by
•
• Where M is the average molecular weight of the gas, Combination of
this expression yields :
• If the variation of z and T is not too great over the column length of
interest, they can be treated as constants of mean values z-average and
T-average. Integration gives
• Iterative calculation procedure must be used for the determination of

the change in pressure with elevation for a gas-cut fl uid column.
However, if the gas-liquid mixture is highly pressured and not very
long
2.6 Effect of Well Deviation
• We have been considering Z as the true vertical depth (TVD) of the
well. In a real well, we use measured depth, s, rather that Z to
determine our location in the wellbore.
• What is even more important is that pressure changes due to friction
from fluid fl w vary with measured depth, not with TVD. The
relationship between TVD and measured depth for a well with
constant azimuth is given by :
3. Steady Flow of Drilling Fluids
In spite of the complexity of the system, the effect of frictional forces must be
determined for the calculation of :
1. The flowing bottomhole pressure or ECD durin drilling or cementing
operations.
2. The bottomhole pressure or ECD during tripping operations
3. The optimum pump pressure, flow rate and bit nozzle sizes during
drilling operations
4. The cutting-carrying capacity of the mud
5. The surface and downhole pressures that will occur in the drillstring
during well-contro operations for various mud flow rates.
3.1 Mass Balance
• The balance of mass for single-phase flow is given by
where steady-state flow has been assumed.

3.1 Mass Balance
• As pressure decreases, so does density, which implies that the average
velocity increases. In other words, pressure decreases will accelerate a
gas in a constant-area pipe.
• In the absence of any accumulation or leakage of well fl uid in the
surface equipment or underground formations, the fl ow rate of an
incompressible well fl uid must be the same at all points in the well.
For an incomprossible fluid, takes an even simpler form :
3.2 Momentum Balance
The balance of momentum for snigle-phase flow has the form
where steedy-state flow has been assumed

• The Dv term is called the fluid acceleration, and it is nonzero only for
compressible fluids. Also note that the term rv is constatnt. The rg
term is the fluid weight term, which has been discussed in detail in
section Hydrostatic Pressure Calculation. The fluid friction term is
often expressed using the friction factor concept :
• The Fanning friction factor f depends on the fluid density, velocity,
viscosity, fluid type, and pipe roughness. Appropriate models for f,
considering a variety of different fluid types, will be considered in
detail in the section on rheology.
• The hydraulic diameter Dh is defined as
For a pipe cross-sectional area :

For annulus formed by two pipes :
Notice that there is no effect of pipe eccentricity, so that also has to be

accounted for in the friction factor. The friction factor we have defined
is the Fanning friction factor.
For an incompressible fluid, takes the following simple form :
Where all the coefficients are constant.

3.3 Energy Balance
• The law of conservation of energy states that the net energy rate out of
a system is equal to the time rate of work done within the system
• The work done by the fluid is equal to the energy per unit mass of fluid
given by the fluid to a fluid engine (or equal to minus the work done
by a pump on the fluid). Thus, the law of conservation of energy yields
Simplifying this expression using differential notations yields

3.3 Energy Balance
• The change in internal energy of the fluid and the heat gained by the
fluid usually is considered using a friction loss term, using the
following expression :
• The friction loss term can be used conveniently to account for the lost
work or energy wasted by the viscous forces within the flowing fluid :
3.3 Energy Balance
Fig. 5.8 – Generalized

flow system [from
Bourgoyne et al. (1991)]
3.4 Flow Through Jet Bits
• A schematic of incompressible fl ow through a short constriction, such
as a bit nozzle, is shown in Fig. 5.9. In practice, it generally is
assumed that :
• The change in pressure due to change in elevation is negligible
• The velocity Vo upstream of the nozzle is negligible, compared with the nozzle
velocity Vn
• The frictional pressure loss across the nozzle is negligible.
Thus,
• Substituting the symbol DPb for the pressure drop (P1 – P2) and
solving this equation for the nozzle velocity Vn yields
In SI units,
Fig. 5.9 – Flow through a bit nozzle [from Bourgoyne et al. (1991)]
• To compensate for this difference, a correction factor or discharge
coefficient Cd usually is introduced so that the modified equation
in SI units :
• if the pressure drop is the same for each nozzle, the velocities through
all nozzles are equal. Therefore, if the nozzles are of different areas,
the fl ow rate q through each nozzle must adjust so that the ratio q/A is
the same for each nozzle. If three nozzles are present
• Note also that the total flow rate of the pump, q, is given by :
• Simplifying :
• Thus, the velocity of flow through each nozzle is also equal to the total
flow rate divided by the total nozzle area:
Fig 5.10 – Flow through parallel

nozzles [from Bourgoyne et al. (1991)]
• In field units, the nozzle velocity Vn is given by
• Where Vn has units of m/s, q has units of m3/s, and At has units of m2.
Combining solving for the pressure drop across the bit, Dpb, yields
In SI units
3.5 Bit Hydraulic Power
• Because power is the rate of doing work, pump energy W can be

converted to hydraulic power PH by multiplying W by the mass flow
rate pq. Thus
• In SI units PH is expressed in watts (W), DPp in Pa, and q in m3/s. In

field units, if the flow rate q is expressed in gal/min and the pump
pressure DPp is expressed in lbf/in.2, then
• The purpose of the jet nozzles is to improve the cleaning action of the
drilling fluid at the bottom of the hole. This avoids the bit balling
phenomenon in drilling soft formations.
• The rheological properties of drilling fl uids can affect the hole bottom
cleaning, particularly in the area around the bit nozzles and cones
• If it is assumed that the jet stream impacts the bottom of the hole in the
manner shown in Fig. 5.9, all of the fl uid momentum is transferred to
the hole bottom
• Because the fluid is travelling at a vertical velocity Vn before striking

the hole bottom and is travelling at zero vertical velocity after striking
the hole bottom, the time rate of change of momentum (in field units)
is given by
In SI units
• Where pq is the mass rate of the fluid
In SI units
3.7 Jet Bit Nozzle Size Selection
• Significant increases in penetration rate can be achieved through the

proper choice of bit nozzles.
• At present, there is still disagreement as to what hydraulic parameter
should be used to indicate the level of the hydraulic cleaning action.
The most commonly used hydraulic design parameters are bit nozzle
velocity, bit hydraulic horsepower, and jet impact force
4. Rheological Models of Drilling Fluids
• It is common practice in the computation of the frictional losses to
consider only the effects of the viscous forces. However, with the new
generations of drilling fluids, with polymers introduced on a regular
basis, tests should be conducted to verify the elastic recovery from
deformation that occurs during flow.
• The rheological models generally used by drilling engineers to
approximate fluid behavior are the Newtonian model, the Bingham
plastic model, the power-law or Ostwald-de Waele model, and the
HerschelBulkley model
4.1 Overview of Rheological Models
• The viscous forces present in a fl uid are characterized by the fl uid
viscosity. To understand the nature of viscosity, consider a fl uid
contained between two large parallel plates of area A, which are
separated by a small distance L
• The magnitude of the force F was found experimentally to be given by
• The term F/A is called the shear stress exerted on the fl uid. The
constant of proportionality m is called the apparent viscosity of the fl
uid. Thus, shear stress is defined by
• Note that the area of the plate, A, is the area in contact with the fl uid.
The velocity gradient v/L is an expression of the shear rate:
Fig. 5.11 – Laminar Flow of Newtonian fluids [from Bourgoyne (1991)]

4.2Newtonian Fluid Model
• The Newtonian model states that the shear stress t is directly

proportional to the shear rate g as follows:
• In terms of the moving plates (Fig. 5.11), this means that if the force F
is doubled, the plate velocity v also will double. Examples of
Newtonian fl uids are water, gases, high-gravity oils, and brines.
4.2Newtonian Fluid Model
Fig. 5.14 – Shear stress vs. shear

rate for a Newtonian fluid [from
4.3 Bingham Plastic Fluids
• A Bingham plastic fl uid will not fl ow until the applied shear stress t
exceeds a certain minimum value t y known as the yield stress
• After the yield stress has been exceeded, changes in shear stress are
proportional to changes in shear rate, and the constant of
proportionality is called the plastic viscosity, mp
4.3 Bingham Plastic Fluids

rate for a Bingham Plastic Fluid
[from Bourgoyne et al. (1991)]
4.4 Power-Law Fluids
• Like the Bingham plastic model, the power-law model requires two
parameters for fluid characterization. However, the power-law model
can be used to represent a pseudoplastic fluid (n < 1), a Newtonian
fluid (n = 1), or a dilatant fluid (n > 1).
• The parameter K usually is called the consistency index of the fl uid,

and the parameter n usually is called either the power-law exponent or
the fl ow behavior index
4.4 Power-Law Fluids

rate for a pseudoplastic power-
law Fluid [from Bourgoyne et al.
(1991)]
4.5 Herschel-Bulkley Fluids
• Like the Bingham plastic model, a fluid represented by this model will
not flow until the applied shear stress t exceeds a minimum value t y,
which is called the yield stress. The fluid behaves like a solid until the
applied force is high enough to exceed the yield stress.
• . The deviation from unity of the dimensionless flow behavior index

characterizes the degree to which the behavior of the fluid is non-
Newtonian. Like the power-law model, the units of the parameter K
depend on the value of n
Fig. 5.16 – Shear stress vs. shear rate

for a yield-pseudoplastic Herschel-
Bulkley fluid [ Bourgoyne et al. (1991)]
5. Laminar Flow in Pipes and Annuli
If the pump rate is low enough for the fl ow to be laminar, the
Newtonian, Bingham plastic, or power-law model can be employed to
develop the mathematical relation between fl ow rate and frictional
pressure drop. In this development, these simplifying assumptions are
made:
• The drillstring is placed concentrically in the casing or open hole.
• The drillstring is not being rotated.
• Sections of open hole are circular in shape and of known diameter.
• The drilling fl uid is incompressible.
• The fl ow is isothermal.
• The fl ow is 1D.
5.1 Shear Stress in Laminar Flow
• Fluid flowing in a pipe or a concentric annulus does not have a
uniform velocity. If the flow pattern is laminar, the fluid velocity
immediately adjacent to the pipe walls will be zero, and the fluid
velocity in the region most distant from the pipe walls will be a
maximum
• Cylindrical Pipe Flow. concentric rings of fluid lamina are telescoping
down the conduit at different velocities. Pipe flow differs from annular
flow because annular flow has a zero velocity boundary condition at
the inner pipe radius, r1, while pipe fl ow has zero velocity specified
only at the outer radius r2.
Fig. 5.20 – Velocity profiles for

laminar flow : (a) pipe flow and
(b) annular flow [from Bourgoyne
et al. (1991)]
• For a fluid in motion and in contact with a solid surface, we always
define :
• The direction of the shear stress is defined, by convention, as positive

when the outward normal to the surface and the shear stress both act in
the same direction
Fig. 5.21 – Velocity profile for

fluid flowing over a solid surface.
Fig. 5.22 – Positive shear stresses

acting on a fluid element
Fig. 5.23 – Flow in a cylindrical annulus

• The force F1 applied by the fl uid pressure at Point 1 is given by :
• Likewise, the force F2 applied by the fl uid pressure at Point 2 is given

by :
• The negative sign for the dps/ds term is required because the frictional
pressure change is negative. The frictional force exerted at point r is
given by
• Similarly, the frictional force exerted at point r + Dr is given by :
• If the fluid element is moving at a constant velocity, the sum of the

forces acting on the elements must equal zero. Summing forces, we
obtain :
or
• If the fluid can be described with the Newtonian fluid model, the shear
stress at any point in the fluid in the annulus is given by :
separating variables, and integrating, we obtain

• Pipe Flow. The simplest case is pipe flow. We already know that C1 is
zero. The drilling fluid wets the pipe wall, and the fluid layer
immediately adjacent to the pipe inside wall (r = R) has a velocity of
zero. Thus, for pipe flow
• For flow of Newtonian fluid in a pipe, the shear stress is given by :

• For fl ow in a pipe, the total fl ow rate is given by integrating the

velocity profile over the cross-sectional area:
• The fl ow rate is given in terms of the mean velocity by :
So,
Fig. 5.26 – Velocity and shear stress profiles for flow of Newtonian fluid in a pipe.
• Annular Flow. For flow in an annulus, the drilling fluid wets both pipe
walls, and the fluid layers immediately adjacent to the pipe walls (at r
= rp and at r = rw ) have a velocity of zero. for the two constants of
integration,
• Substituting these expressions yields
• The shear stress for the fl ow in an annulus is given by

Fig. 5,27 – Velocity profile and shear-stress distribution for flow Newtonian fluid in a
concentric annulus
• The total flow rate can be obtained by summing the flow contained in
each concentric shell of fluid. Thus, for an annulus
Upon integration, this equation becomes

5.3 Non-Newtonian Fluid Model
• Bingham Plastic Model. Developing flow equations for a Bingham
plastic fluid (as well as any fluid with a yield stress) is complicated
because portions of the fluid having a shear stress less than the yield
point must move as a rigid plug down the conduit.
• Flow in a Slot. We will fi rst investigate the fl ow of a Bingham fl uid
in a slot because of its relative simplicity and symmetry. In the region
0 < y < ya,
Fig. 5.29 – Laminar flow of a Bingham plastic fluid in a slot

At y = 0, the shear stress is equal to the shear stress at the inner slot
wall, t = twi ; hence, t 0 = t wi. At y = ya, the shear stress must be equal
to ty; hence :
In the layer between the pipe wall and the plug (0  y  ya ) (Fig. 5.29),
the Bingham model is defined by :
• Thus, the shear stress in this fluid region is given by
• After separating variables and integrating, and noting that v must be

zero at y = 0, we obtain the following expression for fluid velocity:
• The velocity of the plug region can be obtained by evaluating at y = ya,
thus giving
• Now we can relate the shear stress to the frictional pressure drop by a
force balance:
• The velocity profi le for the fl ow in annuli modeled as a slot is then
given by
• Pipe Flow. The derivation of the equations for laminar flow of
Bingham plastic fluids through a pipe is quite similar to the derivation
of the slot flow equation. As in the case of a slot, the portions of the
fluid flowing near the center of the conduit that have a shear stress less
than the yield point must move as a rigid plug down the conduit.
Fig. 5.30 – Laminar flow of a Bingham plastic fluid in a pipe.

• In the plug region, the Bingham model is defined by
• Thus, the shear stress in the plug region is given by
• After separating variables and integrating, we obtain the following

expression for fl uid velocity:
• For the fl ow of Herschel-Bulkley fluids in an annulus modeled as a
slot, the analysis follows that of Bingham plastic fluids.
Slot Flow. The Herschel-Bulkley model is given by
• There is a central core of the fl uid that moves as a rigid plug if the
shear stress levels are smaller than the yield stress of the fl uid, similar
to the fl ow of a Bingham plastic fl uid in a slot
Fig. 5.32 – Slot flow of a Herschel-Bulkley fluid

Fig. 5.33 – Shear-stress distribution for flow of Herschel-Bulkley fluid in a slot

6. Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Annuli
6.1 Newtonian Fluid Models
flow of a Newtonian fluid in pipes usually is considered to be laminar if
the Reynolds number is less than 2,100 and turbulent if the Reynolds
number is greater than 2,100. However, for Reynolds numbers of
approximately 2,000 to 4,000, the fl ow is actually in a transition region
between laminar fl ow and fully developed turbulent flow.
The most widely used correlations are based on a dimensionless
quantity known as the friction factor.
An empirical correlation for the determination of friction factors for
fully developed turbulent fl ow in circular pipe has been presented by
Colebrook (1939). The Colebrook function is given by
Fig 5.36 – Stanton chart

showing Fanning friction
factors for turbulent flow in
circular pipe [after Moody
(1944)]
6.2 Non-Newtonian Fluid Models
• Bingham Plastic Model. The frictional pressure loss associated with

the turbulent fl ow of a Bingham plastic fl uid is affected primarily by
density and plastic viscosity
• Power-Law Model. Dodge and Metzner (1959) extended the
Colebrook equation for Newtonian fluids to powerlaw fluids and
showed that the friction factor for the power-law fluids can be given
by
6.2 Non-Newtonian Fluid Models
Fig 5.37 – Friction factors for

power-law-fluid model [from
6.3 Recommended Friction Models
Rheological model 1 : Newtonian fluid.

Pipe flow.
Friction pressure drop :
Reynold number :
Laminar flow :
Turbulent flow :
Annular flow
Frictional pressure drop:
Reynold number :
Laminar flow :
Turbulent flow :
Rheological Model 2 : Bingham Plastic Fluids

Pipe flow
Frictional Pressure drop :
Reynolds number :
Laminar flow :
Turbulent flow :
Annular Flow :
Frictional pressure drop :
Reynolds number :
Laminar flow :
Turbulent flow :
Rheological model 3 : Power Law Fluids

Pipe flow.
Frictional pressure drop :
Reynolds number :
Where D is the pipe ID

Laminar flow :
For NRe > 4150 – 1150n

Anular flow :
7. Frictional Pressure Drop in an eccentric
annulus
The frictional pressure drop in an eccentric annulus is known to be less
than the frictional pressure drop in a concentric annulus. For laminar
flow of Newtonian fluids, the pressure drop in a fully eccentric annulus
is approximately half the pressure drop in a concentric annulus. For
turbulent flow, the difference is about 30%.
Define the correction factor for eccentricity:

annulus
The eccentricity Ne, a dimensionless number that ranges from zero
(concentric annulus) to one (fully eccentric annulus), is given by:
annulus
Fig 5.38 – Defenition of an eccentric annulus

annulus
• The laminar-fl ow analytic solution (Piercy et al. 1933) is not easy to
derive and is very complex. For those interested, it is given on page
126 of White (1974). Fortunately, there is a simple solution for a
narrow annulus :
annulus
• Note that full eccentricity increases the flow rate by a factor of 2½.
The laminar flow solution for an annulus shows that the frictional
pressure drop is proportional to the volume flow rate, so
• For turbulent fl ow, Tao and Donovan (1955) have determined

experimentally that, roughly
annulus
• At full eccentricity, the flow rate is approximately 1.54 times the
concentric rate. Ce for turbulent fl ow is
annulus
7.2 Power-Law Model
• Ce for laminar fl ow is determined on the basis of the methods used by
Uner et al. (1989). The fl ow rate through a concentric annulus is given
by
• where Rr = rp/rw. The fl ow rate through an eccentric annulus was

determined to be
annulus
7.2 Power-Law Model
Where
And
annulus
7.2 Power-Law Model
Ce for laminar fl ow of a power-law fl uid is then
annulus
7.2 Power-Law Model
Fig. 5.39 – Volume flow through an eccentric

annulus [from white (1974)].
8. Frictional Pressure Drop With Pipe
Movement
As pipe is moved downward in a well, the drilling fl uid must move
upward to exit the region being entered by the new volume of the
extending pipe. Likewise, an upward pipe movement requires a
downward fl uid movement. The fl ow pattern of the moving fl uid can
be either laminar or turbulent, depending on the velocity at which the
pipe is moved. It is possible to derive mathematical equations for surge
and swab pressures only for the laminar fl ow pattern. Empirical
correlations must be used if the fl ow pattern is turbulent.
Movement
A typical velocity profile for laminar fl ow caused by pulling pipe out of
the hole at velocity –vp is shown in Fig. 5.40. Note that the velocity
profile inside the inner pipe caused by a vertical pipe movement is
identical to the velocity profile caused by pumping fluid down the inner
pipe. If the mean fluid velocity in the pipe is expressed relative to the
pipe wall, the pipe-flow equation developed in Section 5.5 can be
applied.
Movement
Fig. 5.40—Velocity profiles for laminar-fl ow pattern when pipe

is pulled out of hole [from Bourgoyne et al. (1991)].
Movement
Substituting the term () ip vv for v yields
or, in SI units,
Movement
The velocity profile in the annulus caused by vertical pipe movement
differs from the velocity profile caused by pumping fl uid through the
annulus in that the velocity at the wall of the inner pipe is not zero. The
slot-fl ow representation of the annular geometry usually is preferred
because of its relative simplicity:
Movement
Expressing the fl ow rate in terms of the mean fl ow velocity in the
annulus, a v , and solving for the frictional pressure gradient dpf /ds
gives
Movement
• It is possible to derive laminar-fl ow surge-pressure equations using
non-Newtonian fluid models such as the Bingham plastic and power-
law models. This can be accomplished by changing the boundary
conditions at the pipe wall from v = 0 to v = –vp in the annular-flow
derivations for the Bingham plastic model and power-law model given
in Section 5.5. However, the resulting surge-pressure equations are far
too complex for field application.
Movement
The suitability of the annular-flow equations for predicting surge
pressure is suggested by the similarity of the annular flow and surge
pressure equations for the Newtonian fluid model.
Burkhardt suggested using an effective mean annular velocity given by
where the constant K, called the mud-clinging constant, is obtained for a

given annular geometry using Fig. 5.41.
Movement
Mud-clinging-constant values also can be obtained from the work of
Schuh (1964) for the power-law fluid model and a slot approximation of
annular geometry. The resulting curve is used irrespective of flow
pattern and falls between Burkhardt’s curves for laminar and turbulent
flow.
Curves to determine the mud-clinging constant were proposed as a
function of the annulus diameter ratio, the ratio of actual fl uid
displacement to the maximum or closed-end pipe displacement, and the
Bingham number relative to the pipe velocity or the power-law fl ow
behavior index
Movement
to the pipe velocity is defined as follows:
Movement
8.3 Turbulent Flow
Empirical correlations have not been developed specifically for the
calculations of surge and swab pressures when in turbulent flow.
However, Burkhardt (1961) and Schuh (1964) have presented
correlations for the mud-clinging constant K applicable for turbulent
flow and for commonly used annular geometries (Fig. 5.41). Recall that
these annular flow equations, in turn, are based on an empirical
correlation developed for circular pipes.
Movement
8.3 Turbulent Flow
Fig. 5.41—Mud-clinging constant, K, for computing swab/surge pressures [from Bourgoyne et al. (1991)].
Movement
8.3 Turbulent Flow
Fig. 5.42—Mud-clinging constant plotted against annulus-diameter ratio for a Bingham

plastic fl uid and Bingham number equal to 100 [from Bourgoyne et al. (1991)].
Movement
8.3 Turbulent Flow
Fig. 5.43—Mud-clinging constant plotted against annulus-diameter ratio for a power-law fl uid with fl ow-behavior index of
0.5 [from Bourgoyne et al. (1991)].
9. Calculating Steady-State Pressures in a
Wellbore
A typical wellbore fluid system is illustrated in Fig. 5.2. Summing all
pressure drops gives the standpipe pressure:
Pstandpipe = DP(pipe joints) + DP(internal upsets) + DP(area changes) +
DP(bit) + DP(annulus) + DP(tool joints) + DP(misc) + DP(choke) + Patm
For flow in the annulus, both fluid density and fluid friction will
increase pressure going down the annulus. Where fluid type changes, the
pressure and fl ow velocity are continuous:
Wellbore
Pressure drop across the bit consists of two area changes, into the
nozzles and exit from the nozzles into the open hole annular area.
Miscellaneous pressure drops are drops through tools, mud motors, fl
oats, or in-pipe chokes. Sometimes, the manufacturer will have this
pressure loss information tabulated; otherwise, one must estimate the
pressure loss through use of the tool internal dimensions
If the standpipe pressure is given, then the fl ow exiting the annulus
must be choked back to a tmospheric pressure:
DP(exit choke) = Pstandpipe – DP(pipe joints) – DP(internal upsets) –
DP(area changes) – DP(bit) – DP(annulus) – DP(tool joints) – DP(misc)
– Patm
Wellbore
Fig. 5.44—Pressure-drop calculation sections.

Wellbore
9.2 Surge Pressure Prediction
An exceptional flow case is the operation of running pipe or casing into
the wellbore. Moving pipe into the wellbore displaces fluid, and the flow
of this fluid generates pressures called surge pressures. When the pipe is
pulled from the well, negative pressures are generated, and these
pressures are called swab pressures
Wellbore
Surface Boundary Conditions
There are six variables that can be specified at the surface :
p1 = pipe pressure,
v1 = pipe fluid velocity,
p2 = annulus pressure,
v2 = annulus fluid velocity,
v3 = pipe velocity
Wellbore
A maximum of three boundary conditions can be specified at the surface. For
surge without circulation, the following boundary conditions hold :
p1 = atmospheric pressure,
v3 = specified pipe velocityold:
For a closed-end pipe, the following boundary conditions hold:

v1 = v3, fluid velocity equals pipe velocity;
p2 = atmospheric pressure;
v3 = specified pipe velocity
Wellbore
For circulation with circulation rate q, the boundary conditions are
v1 = v3 + q/A1 (i.e., fl uid velocity equals pipe velocity plus circulation
velocity),
v3 = specified pipe velocity,
Wellbore
End of Pipe Boundary Conditions
There are 11 variables that can be specifi ed at the moving pipe end (see
Fig. 5.46):
p1 = pipe pressure,
v1 = pipe velocity,
p2 = pipe annulus pressure,
v2 = pipe annulus velocity,
pn = pipe nozzle pressure,
Wellbore
vn = pipe nozzle velocity,
pr = annulus return area pressure,
vr = annulus return area velocity,
p = pipe-to-bottomhole pressure
v = pipe-to-bottomhole velocity,
v3 = pipe velocity
Wellbore
Fig. 5.45—Surge-pressure calculation regions.

Wellbore
Fig. 5.46—Balance of mass at the bit.

Wellbore
Fig. 5.47—Balance of mass for cross-sectional area changes.

Wellbore
A total of seven boundary conditions can be specified at the moving
pipe end with bit, as shown in Fig. 5.47. For the surge model, three
mass-balance equations and four nozzle-pressure relations were used:
Pipe-to-bottomhole mass balance:
Arvr + Anvn + Abv3 – Av = 0
Pipe annulus mass balance:
A2v2 – (A2 – Ar)v3 – Arvr = 0
Pipe mass balance:
A1v1 – (A1 – An)v3 – Anvn = 0
Wellbore
Pipe nozzle pressures:
Annulus return pressures:
The boundary conditions are greatly simplifi ed for a pipe without a bit:
A1v1 + A2v2 + A3v3 – Av = 0
Wellbore
and
p1 = p2 = pr = pn = p
v1 = vn
v2 = vr
The boundary condition imposed by a fl oat is the requirement that
v1 – v3 < 0.
If the solution of the boundary conditions does not satisfy this condition, the
boundary conditions must be solved again with the new requirement:
v1 = v3
Wellbore
Surge Pressure Solution
For open pipe surges, the problem is finding how the fl ow splits between the
pipe and the annulus, so that the pressures for both the pipe and the annulus
match at the bit. One strategy for solving this problem is
1. Calculate all pressures with all flow in the annulus, then check pressures
at the bit; annulus pressure will be lower because of fluid friction.
2. Calculate all pressures with all flow in the pipe, then check pressures at
the bit; pipe pressure will be lower because of fluid friction. 3
3. Calculate a division of flow between the pipe and annulus that will
equalize the pressures at the bit.
4. Repeat Step 3 until the two pressures match within an acceptable
tolerance.
10. Dynamic Surge and Swab Pressures
10.1 Introduction.
• When a tubular (such as drillstring or casing) is moved in a hole filled

with a fluid, transient pressure fluctuation can occur, causing the fluid
pressure at a given depth to oscillate above and below the hydrostatic
pressure. Transients occur while either pulling out of the hole or
tripping in the hole. It is natural to associate a pressure surge with
tripping in, and a pressure swab with pulling out.
• Fig. 5.48 shows a typical trip-in velocity profi le while tripping one
stand of drillpipe in the hole. The graph includes picking up off the
slips, lowering the stand in the hole, and stopping the stand to set the
slips.
10.1 Introduction.
Fig. 5.48—Typical velocity profile while tripping in the hole.

10.1 Introduction.
Fig. 5.49—Typical transient swab/surge pressure against time while tripping in one stand [after Rudolf
and Suryanarayana (1998)].
10.1 Introduction.
Fig. 5.50—Normalized transient pressures while tripping in one

stand [after Rudolf and Suryanarayana (1998)].
10.1 Introduction.
Fig. 5.50—Normalized transient pressures while tripping in one

stand [after Rudolf and Suryanarayana (1998)].
10.1 Introduction.
Rudolf and Suryanarayana (1998) reported fi eld measurements of

surge pressures to validate a fully dynamic surge model, as shown in
Fig. 5.49 and Fig 5.50. Fig. 5.49 shows a typical transient swab/surge
pressure against time while tripping in the hole one stand. The graph
shows transient pressure behavior over 60 seconds as seen at the bottom
of the open hole, starting with the bit 9,366 ft above the hole bottom
10.1 Introduction.
Steine et al. (1996) reported on surge and swab experiments performed

in an inclined onshore slimhole well. Fig. 5.51 shows the downhole
(1936 m measured depth) pressure development during tripping with
plain drill water circulating at 150 L/min. In a successive paper, Bach et
al. (1997) reported on a sensitivity study preformed on the data obtained
from the tests. Wang et al. (1997) studied the effect of unsteady motion
of closed-end casing strings in concentric annuli on wellbore surge and
swab pressures
10.1 Introduction.
Fig. 5.51—Surge/swab data measured downhole in plain drill

water [after Steine et al. (1996)].
10.2 Dynamic Pressure Prediction
Calculating dynamic pressures in a wellbore are significantly more difficult

than calculating steady-state fl owing conditions. In a dynamic calculation,
there are two effects not considered in steady flow: fluid inertia and fluid
accumulation. In steady-state mass conservation, flow of fluid into a volume
was matched by an equivalent flow out of the volume. In the dynamic
calculation, there may not be equal inflow and outflow, but instead, fluid may
accumulate within the volume.
Typically, dynamic fl uid fl ow is not a consideration. The major exception is

the operation of running pipe or casing into the wellbore, where dynamic
pressure variation may be as important as pressures caused by fl uid friction.
Governing Equations—Dynamic Pressure Prediction
The fl uid pressures and velocities in open hole are determined by solving two
coupled partial differential equations: the balance of mass and the balance of
momentum.
Balance of Mass
where
A = cross-sectional area,
m2; P = pressure, Pa;
Kb = fluid bulk modulus, Pa;
and v = fl uid velocity, m/s.
The fluid volume change is given by the bulk modulus Kb. For drilling
muds, Kb varies as a function of composition, pressure, and
temperature. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the
compressibility.
Balance of Momentum.
where r = fl uid density, kg/m3; dPf = friction pressure loss, Pa/m; g =

gravitational constant, m/s2; j = angle of inclination from the vertical;
and
• The balance equations for flow with a pipe in the wellbore are similar
to the equations for the openhole model with two important
differences. First, the expansivity terms in the balance of mass
equations depend on the pressures both inside and outside the pipe
• For instance, increased annulus pressure can decrease the cross-
sectional area inside the pipe, and increased pipe pressure can increase
the cross-sectional area because of pipe elastic deformation. The
second major difference is the effect of pipe speed on the frictional
pressure drop in the annulus, as discussed in the steady-state surge
article
Borehole Expansion
The balance of mass equation contains a term that relates the fl ow
cross-sectional area to the fluid pressures. This section discusses the
application of elasticity theory to the determination of the coefficients in
the balance of mass equation. If we assume that the formation outside
the wellbore is elastic, then the displacement of the borehole wall
because of change in internal pressure is given by the elastic formula.
where
u = radial displacement, m;
vf = Poisson’s ratio for the formation; and
Ef = Young’s modulus for the formation, Pa.
The cross-sectional area of the annulus is given by
11. Cutting Transport
11.1 Introduction
Of the many functions that are performed by the drilling fluid, the most
important is to transport cuttings from the bit up the annulus to the
surface. If the cuttings cannot be removed from the wellbore, drilling
cannot proceed for long. In rotary drilling operations, both the fluid and
the rock fragments are moving
11.1 Introduction
Vertical Wells
• The problem of cuttings transport in vertical wells has been studied for
many years, with the earliest analysis of the problem being that of
Pigott (1941). Several authors have conducted experimental studies of
drilling-fluid carrying capacity
• The transport effi ciency in vertical wells is usually assessed by
determining the settling velocity, which is dependent on particle size,
density and shape; the drilling fl uid rheology and velocity; and the
hole/pipe confi guration. Several investigators have proposed
empirical correlations for estimating the cutting slip velocity
experienced during rotary-drilling operations
11.1 Introduction
Deviated Wells
Laboratory experience indicates that the fl ow rate, if high enough, will
always remove the cuttings for any fluid, hole size, and hole angle.
Unfortunately, flow rates high enough to transport cuttings up and out of
the annulus effectively cannot be used in many wells because of limited
pump capacity and/or high surface or downhole dynamic pressures. This
is particularly true for high angles with hole sizes larger than 12¼ in.
High rotary speeds and backreaming are often used when fl ow rate does
not suffice.
11.2 Particle Slip Velocity
Fig. 5.52—Fluid movement about a settling particle (Bourgoyne

et al. 1986).
The earliest analytical studies of cuttings transport considered the fall of

particles in a stagnant fluid, with the hope that these results could be
applied to a moving fluid with some degree of accuracy. Most start with
the relation developed by Stokes (1845) for creeping flow around a
spherical particle (Fig. 5.52).
where
m = Newtonian viscosity of the fl uid, Pa.s; ds = particle diameter, m;
vsl = particle slip velocity, m/s; and Fd = total drag force on the particle,
N.
When the Stokes drag is equated to the buoyant weight of the particle W,
Then, the slip velocity is given by
Where
rs = solid density, kg/m3; rf = fl uid density, kg/m3; and g = acceleration of
gravity, m/s2.
Stokes’ law is accurate as long as turbulent eddies are not present in the
particle’s wake. The onset of turbulence occurs for
where the particle Reynolds number is given by
For turbulent slip velocities, the drag force is given by
where f is an empirically determined friction factor. The friction factor is a

function of the particle Reynolds number and the shape of the particle given
by Y , the sphericity. Table 5.2 gives the sphericity of various particle shapes.
The friction factor/Reynolds number relationship is shown in Fig. 5.53

for a range of sphericity. The particle slip velocity for turbulent fl ow is
given by
Fig. 5.53—Friction factors for computing particle slip velocity

(Bourgoyne et al. 1986).
reference
1. Azar, J.J. and Sanchez, R.A. 1997. Important Issues in Cuttings Transport for Drilling
Directional Wells. Paper SPE 39020 presented at the Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference and Exhibition, Rio de Janeiro, 30 August–3
September. DOI: 10.2118/39020-MS.
2. Bach, G.F., Bjorkevoll, K., Rommetveit, R., Steine, O.G., and Maglione, R. 1997. Surge
and Swab in a Slim Hole Confi guration: Full Scale Experiments, Simple Models, and a
Computer Verifi cation. E&P Forum, Offshore Mediterranean Conference, Ravenna,
Italy, 19–21 March; OMC 97 2: 899–908.
3. Bailey, W.J. and Peden, J.M. 2000. A Generalized and Consistent Pressure Drop and
Flow Regime Transition Model for Drilling Hydraulics. SPEDC 15 (1): 44–56. SPE-
62167-PA. DOI: 10.2118/62167-PA. Bassal, A.A. 1995. A Study of the Effect of Drillpipe
Rotation on Cuttings Transport in Inclined Wellbores.
4. MS thesis, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Becker, T.E., Azar, .J., and Okrajni, S.S.
1991. Correlations of Mud Rheological Properties With CuttingsTransport Performance
in Directional Drilling, SPE Drill Eng 6 (1): 16–24.

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• Following these basic problems, we will present a series of special

there is an upward force on the element exerted by the fluid below

where r is the density of the fluid and g is the acceration due to

Fig 5.1 -Forces acting on a fluid element

With the conversion factor applied :

Fig 5.2 – The well-fluid

• The gas density can be expressed as a funcrtion of pressure :

changing units from consistent units to common field units gives :

Where P is in psi, M in lbm/lbm-mol, delta-Z in ft, and T in degrees R

• In general, the pressure at any vertical depth Z can be expressed by

Fig 5.3 – A complex fluid

Fig 5.4 – Viewing the

Fig. 5.5 – Comparison of

• Iterative calculation procedure must be used for the determination of

• The balance of mass for single-phase flow is given by

where steady-state flow has been assumed.

where steedy-state flow has been assumed

For a pipe cross-sectional area :

Notice that there is no effect of pipe eccentricity, so that also has to be

Where all the coefficients are constant.

Simplifying this expression using differential notations yields

Fig. 5.8 – Generalized

Fig 5.10 – Flow through parallel

• Because power is the rate of doing work, pump energy W can be

• In SI units PH is expressed in watts (W), DPp in Pa, and q in m3/s. In

• Because the ﬂuid is travelling at a vertical velocity Vn before striking

• Where pq is the mass rate of the ﬂuid

• Signiﬁcant increases in penetration rate can be achieved through the

Fig. 5.11 – Laminar Flow of Newtonian fluids [from Bourgoyne (1991)]

• The Newtonian model states that the shear stress t is directly

Fig. 5.14 – Shear stress vs. shear

Fig. 5.15 – Shear stress vs. shear

• The parameter K usually is called the consistency index of the ﬂ uid,

Fig. 5.16 – Shear stress vs. shear

• . The deviation from unity of the dimensionless flow behavior index

Fig. 5.16 – Shear stress vs. shear rate

Fig. 5.20 – Velocity profiles for

• The direction of the shear stress is deﬁned, by convention, as positive

Fig. 5.21 – Velocity profile for

Fig. 5.22 – Positive shear stresses

Fig. 5.23 – Flow in a cylindrical annulus

• Likewise, the force F2 applied by the ﬂ uid pressure at Point 2 is given

• If the ﬂuid element is moving at a constant velocity, the sum of the

separating variables, and integrating, we obtain

• For ﬂow of Newtonian ﬂuid in a pipe, the shear stress is given by :

• For ﬂ ow in a pipe, the total ﬂ ow rate is given by integrating the

• The ﬂ ow rate is given in terms of the mean velocity by :

• Substituting these expressions yields

• The shear stress for the ﬂ ow in an annulus is given by

Upon integration, this equation becomes

Fig. 5.29 – Laminar flow of a Bingham plastic fluid in a slot

• After separating variables and integrating, and noting that v must be

Fig. 5.30 – Laminar flow of a Bingham plastic fluid in a pipe.

• Thus, the shear stress in the plug region is given by

• After separating variables and integrating, we obtain the following

Fig. 5.32 – Slot flow of a Herschel-Bulkley fluid

Fig. 5.33 – Shear-stress distribution for flow of Herschel-Bulkley fluid in a slot

Fig 5.36 – Stanton chart

• Bingham Plastic Model. The frictional pressure loss associated with

Fig 5.37 – Friction factors for

Rheological model 1 : Newtonian fluid.