"Teachers like leaves, everywhere abound; but effective teachers like fruits are rarely found.

"

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1 & 2

The National Competency Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) is an integrated theoretical framework that
defines the different dimensions of effective teaching
 Competency-Based Mean?
- Means that the standards or criteria for characterizing good teaching are defined in terms of the
teacher's credential, LET scores, grades in graduate school, degrees, personality traits, and so on,
we look at what the teacher can do competently.

SEVEN DOMAINS
DOMAIN 1: SOCIAL REGARD FOR LEARNING
 4 Acts as a positive role model for students
DOMAIN 2: LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
 Creates an environment that promotes fairness
 Makes the physical environment safe and conducive to learning
 Communicates higher learning expectations to each learner
 Establishes and maintains consistent standards of learners’ behavior
DOMAIN 3: DIVERSITY OF LEARNERS
 Is familiar with learner's background knowledge and experiences
 Demonstrates concern for holistic development of learners
DOMAIN 4: CURRICULUM
 Demonstrates mastery of the subject
 Communicates clear learning goals for the lessons that are appropriate for learners
 Makes good use of allotted instructional time
 Selects teaching methods, learning activities, and instructional materials or resources appropriate to
learners and aligned to the objectives of the lesson
DOMAIN 5: PLANNING, ASSESSING AND REPORTING
 Communicates promptly and clearly to learners, parents, and superiors about the progress of learners
 Develops and uses a variety of appropriates assessment strategies to monitor and evaluate learning
 Monitors regularly and provides feedback on learners' understanding of content
DOMAIN 6: COMMUNITY LINKAGES
 Establishes learning environments that respond to the aspirations of the community
DOMAIN 7: PERSONAL GROWTH AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
 Takes pride in the nobility of teaching as a profession
 Builds professional links with colleagues to enrich teaching practice
 Reflects on the extent of the attainment of learning goals

National Adoption and Implementation of the

Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST)
(Department Order 42, s. 2017)
o The Philippine Government has consistently pursued teacher quality reforms through a number of
initiatives. As a framework of teacher quality, the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards
(NCBTS) was institutionalized through CHED Memorandum Order No. 52, s. 2007 and DepED Order
No. 32. s. 2009.
o The K to 12 Reform (R.A. 10533) in 2013 has changed the landscape of teacher quality requirements in
the Philippines.
o The reform process warrants an equivalent supportive focus on teacher quality • - high quality teachers
who are properly equipped and prepared to assume the roles and functions of a K to 12 teachers.
7 Domains of PPST
1. Domain 1 – Content, Knowledge and Pedagogy
2. Domain 2 – Learning Environment
3. Domain 3 – Diversity of Learners
4. Domain 4 – Curriculum and Planning
5. Domain 5 – Assessment and Reporting
6. Domain 6 – Community Linkages and Professional Engagement
7. Domain 7 – Personal Growth and Professional Development

The 7 Domains collectively comprise 37 strands that refer to more specific dimensions of teaching

Domain 1 – Content Knowledge and Pedagogy | 7 strands:

1. Content knowledge and its application within and across curriculum areas
2. Research-based knowledge and principles of teaching and learning
3. Positive use of ICT
4. Strategies for promoting literacy and numeracy
5. Strategies for developing critical and creative thinking, as well as other higher-order thinking skills
6. Mother Tongue, Filipino and English in teaching and learning
7. Classroom communication strategies

Domain 2 – Learning Environment | 6 strands:

1. Learner safety and security
2. Fair learning environment
3. Management of classroom structure and activities
4. Support for learner participation
5. Promotion of purposive learning
6. Management of learner behavior

Domain 3 – Diversity of Learners | 5 strands:

1. Learners' gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences
2. Learners' linguistic, cultural, socio-economic and religious backgrounds
3. Learners with disabilities, giftedness and talents
4. Learners in difficult circumstances
5. Learners from indigenous groups

Domain 4 – Curriculum and Planning | 5 strands:

1. Planning and management of teaching and learning process
2. Learning outcomes aligned with learning competencies
3. Relevance and responsiveness of learning programs
4. Professional collaboration to enrich teaching practice
5. Teaching and learning resources including ICT

Domain 5 – Assessment and Reporting | 5 strands:

1. Design, selection, organization and utilization of assessment strategies
2. Monitoring and evaluation of learner progress and achievement
3. Feedback to improve learning
4. Communication of learner needs, progress and achievement to key stakeholders
5. Use of assessment data to enhance teaching and learning practices and programs

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Domain 6 – Community Linkages and Professional Engagement | 4 strands:
1. Establishment of learning environments that are responsive to community contexts
2. Engagement of parents and the wider school community in the educative process
3. Professional ethics
4. School policies and procedures

Domain 7 – Personal Growth and Professional Development | 5 strands:

1. Philosophy of teaching
2. Dignity of teaching as a profession
3. Professional links with colleagues
4. Professional reflection and learning to improve practice
5. Professional development goals

FOUR CAREER STAGES OF A TEACHER

 The descriptors represent a continuum of development within the profession by providing a basis for
attracting, preparing, developing and supporting teachers.

Career Stage 1 or Beginning Teachers

 Have gained the qualifications recognized for entry into the teaching profession.
 They have a strong understanding of the subjects/areas in which they are trained in terms of content
knowledge and pedagogy.
 They possess the requisite knowledge, skills and values that support the teaching and learning
process.
 They manage learning programs and have strategies that promote learning based on the learning
needs of their students.
 They seek advice from experienced colleagues to consolidate their teaching practice

Career Stage 2 or Proficient Teachers

 Are professionally independent in the application of skills vital to the teaching and learning process
 They provide focused teaching programs that meet curriculum and assessment requirements.
 They display skills in planning, implementing, and managing learning programs
 They actively engage in collaborative learning with the professional community and other stakeholders
for mutual growth and advancement.
 They are reflective practitioners who continually consolidate the knowledge, skills and practices of
Career Stage 1 teachers.

Career Stage 3 or Highly Proficient Teachers

 Consistently display a high level of performance in their teaching practice.
 They manifest an in-depth and sophisticated understanding of the teaching and learning process.
 They have high education-focused situation cognition, are more adept in problem solving and optimize
opportunities gained from experience.
 Teachers work collaboratively with colleagues and provide them support and mentoring to enhance
their learning and practice.
 They continually seek to develop their professional knowledge and practice by reflecting on their own
needs, and those of their colleagues and students

Career Stage 4 or Distinguished Teachers

 Embody the highest standard for teaching grounded in global best practices,
 Exhibit exceptional capacity to improve their own teaching practice and that of others.

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  Recognized as leaders in education, contributors to the profession and initiators of collaborations and
partnerships.
 Create lifelong impact in the lives of colleagues, students and others
 Consistently seek professional advancement and relevance in pursuit of teaching quality and
excellence.
 Exhibit commitment to inspire the education community and stakeholders for the improvement of
education provision in the Philippines.

3 Types of Power of a Teacher

1. EXPERT POWER – When a teacher makes his students feel that he knows what he is talking about
2. REFERENT POWER – giving students a sense of belonging and acceptance
3. LEGITIMATE POWER – Persons-in authority

LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES OF STUDENTS

Learning Style – refers to the preferred way an individual processes information. Describes a person's
typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving

PERSPECTIVES ABOUT LEARNING-THINKING STYLES

1. SENSORY PREFERENCES
2. GLOBAL-ANALYTIC CONTINUUM

SENSORY PREFERENCES
1. Visual Learners
 These learners must see their teacher's actions and facial expressions to fully understand the
content of a lesson.
 They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view
 They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated
textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and handouts.
 During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners prefer to take detailed notes to absorb
information.

2 Types:
1.1 Visual-Iconic
o More interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to
solidify learning
o Usually have good "picture memory" a.k.a. iconic memory and attend to pictorial detail
o They would like to read a map better than to read a book
1.2 Visual Symbolic
o Feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written
word
o Prefer to read a book than a map
o Read about things than hear about them
o Tend to be good abstract thinkers who do not require practical means for learning

2. Auditory Learners
 Learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through, listening to what others
have to say
 Interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to the tone of voice, speed, and
other nuances
 Written information may have little meaning until it is heard.
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  Often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder

2 Types:
2.1 Listeners
o They remember things said to them and make information their own.
o They even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they
learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard others say.
2.2 Talkers
o Prefer to talk and discuss
o Find themselves talking to those around them
o In a class setting, when the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors
(talkers) tend to whisper comments to themselves.

3. Tactile Learners
 Learns through touch

GLOBAL-ANALYTIC CONTINUUM
1. ANALYTIC
 Tend toward the linear, step-by-step processing of learning
 Tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole
 They are the "tree seers"
 More comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information

2. GLOBAL
 Lean towards non-linear thought
 Tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements
 They are the "forest seekers" who give attention only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore
details

ROGER SPERRY'S MODEL

1. Left-brained dominant individual

 Portrayed as linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker
 Analytic in approach
 A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format, beginning
with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill.
 Successive Hemispheric style
 Verbal
 Responds to word meaning
 Sequential
 Processes information linearly
 Responds to logic
 Plans ahead
 Recalls people's names
 Speaks with few gestures
 Punctual
 Prefers formal study design
 Prefers bright lights while studying

2. Right-brained dominant individual

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  Viewed as global, non-linear, and holistic in thought preferences
 Holistic or global in approach
 A simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with a general concept and then
going on to specifics.
 Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
 Visual
 Responds to tone of voice
 Random
 Processes information in varied order
 Responds to emotion
 Impulsive
 Recalls people's faces
 Gestures when speaking
 Less punctual
 Prefers sound/music background while studying

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES – created by Howard Gardner

- A theory of "multiple intelligences," suggesting abilities seem to cluster in nine different areas:
1. Verbal – Linguistic Skills
2. Logical – Mathematical Skills
3. Bodily – Kinesthetic Skills
4. Visual – Spatial Skills
5. Interpersonal Abilities
6. Intrapersonal Abilities
7. Musical Abilities
8. Naturalistic Abilities
9. Existential Intelligence

Differentiated Instruction (DI) is a teaching theory based on the premise that instructional approaches should
vary and be adapted in relation to individual and diverse students in classrooms.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the learner
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas
3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience
4. Learning is a cooperative and collaborative
5. Learning is an evolutionary process.
6. Learning is sometimes a painful process
7. One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself.
8. The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual.
9. The process of problem solving and learning are highly unique and individual.

LAWS OF LEARNING
1. Law of Freedom – Things freely learned are best learned.
2. Law of Intensity – The more intense the material taught, the more it is likely learned
3. Law of Recency – Things most recently learned are best remembered
4. Law of Primacy – Things learned first create a strong impression. What is taught must be right the first
time.
5. Law of Readiness – Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready
to learn, and they do learn well if they see no reason for learning.
6. Law of Exercise – Things most often repeated are best remembered
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 7. Law of Effect – Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling.

Guiding Principles in Determining & Formulating Learning Objectives

 Begin with an end in mind.
 Share lesson objective with students
 Learning objectives must be in two or three domains- cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains
 Lesson objective must be aligned with the aims of education embodied in the Philippine Constitution
and other laws and on the vision mission statements of the educational institution.
 Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking
 For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART

Taxonomy of Objectives
S – Specific
M – Measurable
A – Attainable
R – Relevant/Result Oriented
T – Time-bounded/Terminal

BLOOM'S REVISED TAXONOMY

1. REMEMBERING
 The student can recall, define, recognize or identify specific information during instruction.
 Knowledge of terminology & conventions, trends & sequences Classifications, categories
 criteria & methodologies
Ex. Identify the capital of the Philippines

2. UNDERSTANDING
 The student can demonstrate understanding of information by translating it into a different form or by
recognizing it in translated form
Ex. Giving definition in his or her own words (paraphrasing), summarizing, giving an original example,
recognizing an example, interpreting, explaining, etc.
Example: Interpret a table showing the population density of the world

3. APPLYING
 The student can apply the information in performing concrete actions. These actions may involve
figuring, writing, reading, handling equipment, implementing, carrying out, executing, using, etc.
 Use of abstractions in particular situations
Ex. Predict the probable effect of a change in temperature on a chemical

4. ANALYSING
 The student can recognize the organization and structure of a body of information, break this
information down its constituent parts, and specify relationships between these parts.
 Comparing, organizing, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
Example: Deduce facts from a hypothesis

5. EVALUATING
 Student can apply a standard in making a judgment on the worth of something- an essay an action or a
design
 Judging in terms of internal evidence or logical consistency
 Justifying a decision or course of action
Examples: Checking, hypothesizing, critiquing, experimenting, judging
Ex. Recognize fallacies in an argument
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 6. CREATING
 Putting parts together in a new form such as a unique communication, a plan of operation
 The student can bring information from various sources to create a product uniquely his or her own.
 Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things
Examples: Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
Example: To produce an original piece of art

BLOOM'S 3 DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE

1. Cognitive – KNOWLEDGE - What will students know?
a. Example: Air Pollution
2. Psychomotor – SKILLS - What will students be able to do?
a. Example: Researching on the level of air pollution in the locality and on the causes of air
pollution
3. Affective – VALUES, ATTITUDES - What will students value or care about?

Kendall and Marzano's (2007)

THREE DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Information (Declarative Knowledge) – This is declarative Knowledge.
Example: Facts, concepts, generalizations, principles, and laws. EXAMPLE: (INFORMATION)
 Vocabulary - isosceles, equilateral, right triangle
 Generalization - All right triangles have one angle of 90 degrees

2. Mental Procedures (Procedural Knowledge) – This is PROCEDURAL Knowledge.

Example: Writing a term paper, reading map, algorithms like computing long division.
Specific Example: Conducting proofs and figuring the length of the side of a right triangle

3. Psychomotor/Physical Procedures (Motor Skills)

Specific example: Constructing a right triangle with a compass and a ruler. Playing basketball,
building furniture

These 3 domains are processed in six (6) different levels

6 LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE (Kendall and Marzano, 2007)
1. Retrieval (Cognitive System
2. Comprehension (Cognitive System)
3. Analysis (Cognitive System)
4. Knowledge Utilization (Cognitive System)
5. Metacognitive System
6. Self-System

David Krathwol's
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
1. RECEIVING
The student shows willingness to attend to particular classroom stimuli or phenomenon in the environment
Ex. to listen attentively to group discussion

2. RESPONDING
The student is required active participation based on the stimuli
Ex. to contribute to group discussion by asking questions

3. VALUING
The student displays definite involvement or commitment toward some experience.
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Ex. to argue over an issue involving health care
To support, to debate etc.

4. ORGANIZATION
The student has integrated a new value into his general set of values and can give it its proper place in a
priority system.
Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine.
Ex. To organize a meeting concerning a neighborhood's housing integration

5. CHARACTERIZATION
The student acts consistently according to the value and is firmly committed to the experience.
Ex. To display a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis.

Anita Harrow's
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
1. REFLEX MOVEMENTS
Students' actions can occur involuntarily in response to some stimuli
Examples include: flexion, extension, stretch, postural adjustments.

2. BASIC FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT

Students have innate movement pattern formed from a combination of reflex movements.
Examples are: walking, running, pushing, twisting, gripping, grasping, manipulating.

3. PERCEPTUAL ABILITIES
Students can translate stimulus received through the senses into appropriate desired movements.
Examples include: coordinated movements such as jumping rope, punting, or catching

4. PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
Students have developed basic movements that are essential to the development of more highly skilled
movements.
Examples are: all activities which require a) strenuous effort for long periods of time; b) muscular exertion; c) a
quick, wide range of motion at the hip joints; and d) quick, precise movements.

5. SKILLED MOVEMENTS
Students have developed more complex movements requiring a certain degree of efficiency.
Examples are: all skilled activities obvious in sports, recreation, and dance

6. NON-DISCURSIVE COMMUNICATION
Students have the ability to communicate through body movements
Examples include: body postures, gestures, and facial expressions efficiently executed in skilled dance
movement and choreographics.

Moore's
THREE LEVELS OF LEARNING PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
1. IMITATION – entry level
A student can carry out the rudiments of the skills with instructional support from the teacher

2. MANIPULATION
Students perform skills independently

3. PRECISION-HIGHEST LEVEL
Students can perform the skill accurately, efficiently and effortlessly,
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  Automaticity - ability to perform a skill with unconscious effort which then frees the student to
concentrate on other activities

How to Write Lesson Objectives

Objectives
 Are outcomes rather than instructional process.
 Are measurable outcomes statements
 If an outcome statement isn't precise enough to measure whether the outcome has been
achieved it isn't an objective. It is a GOAL.

Mager's
THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE:
1. PERFORMANCE
What the student should be able to do
Ex. Identify, compute, etc.

2. CONDITION
The conditions under which the performance will occur

3. ACCEPTABLE PERFORMANCE/CRITERION OF SUCCESS

The criteria by which the performance will be judged.
Examples
1. In an hour and given a light microscope, the teacher is able to demonstrate how to focus the
microscope under the I.p.o and the h.p.0.
2. Given a list of universities in the city, identify at least 3 which are government supported.
3. "Using the six descriptions of the elements of a good short story, identify in writing the six elements
in the short story by 'O. HENRY', with complete accuracy.

Selection & Organization of Content

 Our leaders in the basic education level came up with Philippine Elementary Learning
Competencies (PELCs) and Philippine Secondary Learning Competencies (PSLCs) – this is
where standards and competencies are laid down.
o This means that we are not entirely free in the selection of our content.

Guiding Principles in the Selection & Organization of Content

1. Observe the following qualities:
 Validity - means teaching the content that we ought to teach according to the national
standards in the Basic Education Curriculum
 Significance - the content we teach should respond to the needs and interest of the learners.
 Balance - content includes not only facts but also concepts and values (The three level
approach in teaching - facts - cognitive, concepts - psychomotor, values - affective domain)
 Self – sufficiency - Content should cover the essentials of the lesson and not "a mile – wide
and an inch - deep"
 Interest - the teacher considers the interest of the learners, their developmental stages, and
cultural and ethnic background.
 Utility - refers to the usefulness/application of the content to the life of the learner after it has
been learned by the learner.
 Feasibility - the content can be covered in the amount of time available for instruction.

2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts.

 Provide opportunities for experimentation

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  Let students present the ideas of others
 Emphasize conceptual understanding

3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill and affective elements

Structure of Subject Matter Content

1. Cognitive
 Facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories
COGNITIVE
1. Facts - is an idea or action that can be verified; basic unit of cognitive subject matter content
2. Concept - categorization of events, places, people, ideas.
3. Principle - relationship between and among facts and concepts
4. Hypotheses - educated guesses about relationships
5. Theories - refer to sets of facts, concepts, and principles that describe possible underlying
unobservable mechanisms that regulate human learning, development and behavior.
6. Laws - accepted scientific principles; true to all.

2. Skills
 Manipulative skills, thinking skills, metaphoric thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking
SKILLS
1. Manipulative skills
- This includes courses that are dominantly skill-oriented like Home Economics, PE, and the like. The
learning here begins with naive manipulation and ends up in expert and precise manipulation
2. Thinking skills
a. Divergent thinking
o Fluent thinking - characterized by generation of lots of ideas.
o Flexible thinking - characterized by a variety of thoughts in the kinds of ideas generated
o Original thinking - thought production is away from the obvious and is different from the
norm.
o Elaborative thinking - uses prior knowledge to expand and add upon things and ideas
b. Convergent thinking - have one single best thought
c. Problem solving
o Algorithm - uses step-by-step instruction
o Heuristic - uses general problem-solving strategy
3. Metaphoric thinking
- uses analogic thinking, figure of speech where a word is used in a manner different from its ordinary
designation to suggest parallelism or similarity.
4. Critical thinking
- involves evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth
5. Creative thinking
- involves producing something that is both original and worthwhile.
 Awareness - ability to notice the attributes of things in the environment.
 Curiosity - ability and inclination to wonder about things
 Imagination - ability to speculate about things that are not necessarily based on reality.
 Fluency - ability to produce a large quantity of ideas.
 Elaboration - ability to add on to an idea; build groups of related ideas or expand ideas
 Perseverance - ability to keep trying to find an answer.
 Originality - ability to produce new, novel, unique ideas

3. Attitudes and values

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DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND METHODS
APPROACH – set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of learning.
STRATEGY – long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal.
METHOD – systematic way of doing something which implies logical arrangement of steps
TECHNIQUE – teacher's particular style and well-defined procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or
task

TEACHING APPROACHES
TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH
- The teacher is perceived to be the only reliable source of information in contrast to the learner-
centered approach which is premised on the belief that the learner is also an important resource
because he/she knows something
- Teaching consists in teacher telling and prescribing what learners should do
- Learner is a passive recipient of instruction.

SUBJECT MATTER CENTERED APPROACH

- Subject matter gains primacy over that of the learner
- Teachers finish teaching subject matter as scheduled even if learners have not learned it.
- Sticking to course syllabi is priority of the said teachers.

TEACHER-DOMINATED APPROACH
- The teacher does what he/she planned without necessarily considering the learner's interests,
concerns, and situations. In contrast to learner centered classroom, the teacher makes adjustments
in his/her lesson plans to accommodate learner's interests and concerns.

BANKING APPROACH
- Teacher deposits knowledge into the "empty minds of students for students to commit to memory.
- The students are perceived to be empty receptacles waiting to be filled. These facts that are
deposited are withdrawn gradually every time quizzes/tests are given until at the end of the term
everything is withdrawn in the final exam thus students' minds are once emptier ready to be filled in
the next school year.

REFLECTIVE TEACHING
- Students/teachers learn through an analysis and evaluation of past experiences. Without analysis,
no new learning and ideas can be constructed.

Strategies of Reflective Teaching

 Self – analysis
 Writing journals
 Keeping a portfolio

METACOGNITIVE APPROACH
- From the prefix "meta" means beyond.
- Is an approach that goes beyond cognition.
- Thinking about thinking
- Has something to do with our students monitoring their thought processes while they are thinking. It
is allowing our students to think aloud.
- Research indicates that "effective problem solvers" subvocalize; that is, they talk to themselves
frequently.

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CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH
- View learning as an active process that results from self-constructed meanings.
- A meaningful connection is established between prior knowledge and the present learning activity
- Students here continue reflecting and evaluating accumulated knowledge with an end in view of
constructing new meanings.
- Teachers’ role is to facilitate learning environment
- Lessons are activity-centered in order for them to experience or gain personal knowledge through
active involvement.

INTEGRATED APPROACH
- Is intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary
 Intradisciplinary – when teachers integrate the subdisciplines within a subject area. Ex. Integrating
listening, speaking, reading and writing in language arts
 Interdisciplinary – or Content-Based Instruction- is done when two different subjects such as Aral
Pan and Science are integrated.
 Transdisciplinary – teachers organize the curriculum around students' questions and concerns.
Teaches using real-life context.

DIRECT / EXPOSITIVE INSTRUCTION APPROACH

 Direct instruction
 Deductive method
 Demonstration method

1. Direct Instruction/Lecture Method

 Aimed at helping students acquire procedural knowledge which is knowledge exercised in the
performance of some task.
Ex. Focusing the microscope, doing PowerPoint presentation, playing basketball, sewing jeans.

Instructional Characteristics of Direct Method

 Teacher directed
 Emphasis is on the teaching of skills
 Taught in a step-by-step fashion
 A form of learning through imitation, sometimes termed as "behavioral modelling"
 Used to teach facts, principles, and laws.
 Used if there is a large amount of information that needs to be studied
 Used if the materials studied is very difficult or if there is not enough resource materials.

2. Deductive Method
 from general to specific. Here the teacher starts discussing a rule then ends with giving examples.

3. Demonstration Method
 Here, the teacher or an assigned student or group shows how a process is done while the students
become observers.
 Is used when materials are not enough

GUIDED / EXPLORATORY APPROACH

 Inductive method
 Inquiry
 Problem solving
 Project
 Cooperative learning
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  Peer teaching/tutoring
 Partner learning
Indirect instruction is best used when the learning process is inquiry-based, the result is discovery and the
learning context is a problem

1. Inductive Method
- Is also referred to as indirect instruction
- It begins from specific to general
- It begins with questions, problems, and details and end up with answers, generalizations,
conclusions.
2. Advantages of Inductive Method
- Learners are more engaged in the teaching-learning process
- Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because of it begins with the experiences of the
learners
- Develops HOTS
3. Inquiry Method
- Is sometimes termed as "discovery, "heuristic" and "problem solving"
- Defined as a teaching method which is modelled after the investigative processes of scientists.
4. Instructional Characteristics of Inquiry method
- Investigative processes such as inferring, hypothesizing, measuring, predicting, etc. are employed.
- The procedure in gathering information is not prescribed by the teachers.
- Children are highly motivated to search
- The answers arrived are genuine products of their own efforts.
5. Problem Solving Method
- strategy that employs scientific method in searching for information.
The five basic steps of the scientific method or investigatory process are:
i. Sensing and defining the problem
ii. Formulating hypothesis
iii. Testing the likely hypothesis
iv. Analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of evidence
v. Formulating conclusion
6. Project Method
- Is a teaching method that requires the students to present in concrete form the results of
information gathered about a concept, principle or innovation.
- Sometimes referred to as "self-directed study”
7. Cooperative Learning
- Makes use of classroom organization where students work in groups or teams to help each other
learn.
- Students work in teams to tackle academic tasks.
- Reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually-oriented
- Teams are made up of mixed abilities- high, average, and low achievers
- Each individual learner is accountable for his/her learning
Elements of the Cooperative Learning Model
i. Positive Interdependence
ii. Face-to-Face Interaction
iii. Individual and Group Accountability
iv. Interpersonal and Small Group Skills
v. Group Processing
8. Peer Tutoring/Peer Teaching
- The best way to learn something is to teach it.
- Peer tutoring is commonly employed when the teacher requests the older, brighter and more
cooperative member of the class to tutor other classmates.
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 Tutoring Arrangement may be done:
a. Instructional tutoring - older students help younger ones on a one-to-one basis or
one-to-a-group basis
b. Same age tutoring - this works well with children who can act as interactive pairs,
i.e. More able ones to assist the less able.
c. Monitorial tutoring - the class may be divided into groups and monitors are
assigned to lead each group
d. Structured tutoring - a definite procedure is followed highly structured tutoring is
administered by trained tutors.
e. Semi-structured tutoring - combination of unstructured and structured where the
tutor guides his/her tutee through carefully planned learning guide
9. Partner Learning
- Is learning with a partner; having a study buddy
- Study buddies become responsible for each other's learning. However, each student is held
accountable for his/her own learning.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
The process of organizing and conducting the business of the classroom relatively free of behavior
problems. It is often perceived as related to the preservation of order and the maintenance of control.

Principles of Classroom Management

 Consistent, proactive discipline is the crux of effective classroom management.
 Establish routines for all daily tasks and needs
 Strike a balance between variety and challenge in students' activities
 As classroom manager, be aware of all actions and activities in the classroom (with-it-ness
principle)
 Resolve minor inattention and disruption before they become major disruption
 Make good use of every instructional moment. Minimize discipline time to maximize instructional
time

APPROACHES TO CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

ASSERTIVE APPROACH
- Expects teachers to specify rules of behavior and consequences for disobeying them and to
communicate these rules and consequences clearly
- Teachers expect them to behave in a certain way in class (Duke and Mechel)

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION APPROACH

- Strives to increase the occurrence of appropriate behavior through a system of rewards and reduce
likelihood of inappropriate behavior through punishments

BUSINESS ACADEMIC APPROACH

- Developed by Everton and Emmer
- Emphasizes the organization and management of students as they engage in academic work.
Ex. Clear communication of assignments and work requirements, monitoring student work, and
feedback to students.

GROUP MANAGERIAL APPROACH

- Based on Jacob Kounin's research.
- Emphasizes the importance of responding immediately to group student behavior that might be
inappropriate or undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with them after
they emerge.

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  Ripple effect
- occurs when a teacher corrects a misbehavior in one student and this positively influences the
behaviour of nearby students
 With-it-ness
- is the skill to know what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times; nothing is missed
- "Withit" teachers note and act quickly and accurately in curbing class disturbances. They prevent
minor disruptions from becoming major, and know who the instigator is in a problem situation.
- one has eyes in the back of one’s head
 Pygmalion Effect/Rosenthal Effect
- is the phenomenon whereby the greater the expectation placed upon people, the better they
perform. The effect is named after the Greek myth of Pygmalion, a sculptor who fell in love with a
statue he had carved,
- Hawthorne Effect (Also referred to as the observer effect)
i. is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their
behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
 John Henry Effect
- is the opposite of the Hawthorne effect: it is when a supposedly control group that gets no
intervention, compares themselves to the experimental group and through extra effort gets the
same effects or results.
 Placebo Effect
- A remarkable phenomenon in which a placebo -- a fake treatment, an inactive substance like sugar,
distilled water, or saline solution - can sometimes improve a patient's condition simply because the
person has the expectation that it will be helpful.
Ex. The teacher conditioned the children to behave because Santa Claus is coming with a lot of gifts
and if they want to be given some they have to behave well until such time Santa will have to finally come.
 Halo effect
- is a cognitive bias in which an observer's overall impression of a person, company, brand, or
product influences the observer's feelings and thoughts about that entity's character or properties
- It was named by psychologist Edward Thorndike in reference to a person being perceived as
having a halo. Thus, by seeing that somebody was painted with a halo, the observer can tell that
this must have been a good and worthy person.
Ex. Participants gave significantly better writing evaluations for the more attractive author

Fritz Redl’s
GROUP GUIDANCE APPROACH
3 Causes of Misbehavior
1. Individual Case history
2. Group condition
3. Mixture of individual and group cases

GROUP ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIDERED TO MAINTAIN GOOD DISCIPLINE:

1. DISSATISFACTION WITH CLASSROOM WORK
 The work is too easy or too difficult.
 The work load is too light or too heavy. Assignments are poorly planned or poorly explained
 Assignments are considered unfair by students because they have not been prepared for them
 Learning experiences emphasize verbalization, omitting motor skills, and manipulative activities
 Work is badly scheduled, badly sequenced or confusing

2. POOR INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

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  Problems are caused by friendships or tensions among individuals, cliques, or subgroups; by badly
filled group roles, and by student-teacher friction

3. DISTURBANCES IN GROUP CLIMATE

 The climate is punitive, tinged with partiality (certain children can do no wrongs, others are accused for
almost anything), too competitive (leading to hostile or defeatist attitudes), too exclusive (the group
rejects individuals who don't fit).

4. POOR GROUP ORGANIZATION

 The group is characterized by too much autocratic pressure or too little supervision and security.
Standards for group behaviour are too high or too low.
 The group is too highly organized (too many rules) or too unstructured. The group organization is out of
focus with the age, developmental maturity, social background needs, abilities of the group members.

5. SUDDEN CHANGE AND GROUP EMOTIONS

 The group is experiencing high level of anxiety (just before exam period). Contemporary events lead to
unusual depression, fear or excitement.

STUDENT PROBLEM TYPES BASED ON TEACHER DESCRIPTIONS

DISTRACTIBLE
 These children have short attention spans.
 They seem unable to sustain attention and concentration and are highly distractible.

Signs:
Has difficulty adjusting to changes
o Rarely completes a task
o Easily distracted by sights, sounds or speech

UNDERACHIEVER
 These do the "minimum" to get by.
 They do not value school work.

Signs:
Indifferent to schoolwork – Minimum work output
Not challenged by school work – Poorly motivated

LOW ACHIEVER
 These children have difficulty even though they may be willing to work.
 Their problem is low potential, or lack of readiness, rather than poor motivation.

Signs:
Difficulty following directions
Difficulty completing work
Poor retention
Progresses slowly

WITHDRAWN
These children avoid personal interaction but are rejected, ignored, or excluded

Signs:
Quiet and sober
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 Does not initiate or volunteer
Does not call attention to self
DEFIANT
 These children resist authority and carry on a power struggle with the teacher.
 They want to have their own way and not to be told what to do

Signs:
Resists verbally with statements, "You can't make me"
Derogatory statements about teachers and others
Resist non-verbally with frowns and grimaces
Looking away when spoken to
Mimics postures of teachers
Deliberately does what teacher says not to do.

REJECTED BY PEERS
 These children seek peer interaction but are rejected, ignored or excluded.

Signs:
Forced to work and play alone
Lacks social skills
Often picked on or teased

HOSTILE AGGRESSIVE
 These children express hostility through direct, intense behavior.
 They are not easily controlled

Signs:
Intimidates and threatens
Hits and pushes
Damages property
Hostile
Easily angered

PASSIVE AGGRESSIVE
 These children express opposition and resistance to the teacher, but INDIRECTLY.
 It is often hard to tell whether they are resisting, deliberately or not.

Signs:
Subtly oppositional and stubborn
Tries to control
Borderline compliance
Drags feet

HYPERACTIVE
 These children show excessive and almost constant movement even when sitting.
 Often their movements appear to be without purposes

Signs:
Blurts out answers and comments
Often out of seat
Bothers children with noises

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 Energetic but poorly directed
Excessively touches people or objects

FAILURE SYNDROME
 These children are convinced that they cannot do their work
 They expect to fail even after succeeding.

Signs:
Easily frustrated
Easily gives up
says., "I can't do it"

PERFECTIONIST
 These children are unduly anxious about making mistakes
 Their self-imposed standards are unrealistically high so that they are never satisfied with their work

Signs:
Often anxious
Fearful, frustrated
Holds back from class participation unless sure of self

Charles Lettteri
COGNITIVE STRUCTURES
List of seven comprehension or thinking skills that students can develop to enhance the way they process
information:

1. ANALYSIS (field dependence-independence)

- The ability to break down information into component parts for the purpose of identification and
categorization.
2. FOCUSING (scanning/concentration)
- the ability to select relevant or important information without being distracted or confused by
irrelevant secondary information.
3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS (reflective-impulsivity)
- the ability to select a correct item from among several alternatives and to compare information and
make proper choices.
4. NARROWING (breadth of categorization)
- the ability to identify and place new information into categories through its attributes (physical
characteristics, principles, or functions)
5. COMPLEX COGNITIVE (complexity-simplicity)
- the ability to integrate complex information into existing cognitive structures (long-term memory)
6. SHARPENING (sharpening-leveling)
- the ability to maintain distinctions between cognitive structures (including old and new information)
and to avoid confusion or overlap.
7. TOLERANCE (tolerant-intolerant)
- the ability to monitor and modify thinking, the ability to deal with ambiguous or unclear information
without getting frustrated

Weintein and Mayer

COGNITIVE FRAMEWORK

BASIC REHEARSAL STRATEGIES

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  The ability to remember names or words and the order of things

COMPLEX REHEARSAL STRATEGIES

 Making appropriate choices or selections (such as knowing what to copy when the teacher explains
something or what to underline or outline while reading)
BASIC ELABORATION STRATEGIES
 Such as relating two or more items (such as nouns and verbs)
COMPLEX ELABORATION STRATEGIES
 Analyzing or synthesizing new information with old information
BASIC ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES
 Categorizing, grouping, or ordering new information
COMPREHENSION MONITORING
 Checking progress, recognizing when one is on the right track or confused, right or wrong
AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES
 Being relaxed, yet alert and attentive during a test situation and when studying
SIX COMPONENTS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION
1. Modeling (called Introduction)
- The teacher identifies the skill required and shows how it is used.
- The teacher "shares a cognitive secret" of how to execute a strategy
2. Guided Practice
- Teachers and students work together on a skill or task and figure out how to apply strategy.
- The teacher stays in the background, but guides students by asking such questions as why
they have rejected or accepted some information.
3. Consolidation (extension)
- The teacher helps students to consider a skill in relation to several examples and to
determine whether the skills should or should not be used
4. Independent Practice
- The students' complete assignments by themselves, first in class with the teacher present to
provide aid if necessary and then at home or on their own WITHOUT the assistance of the
teacher
5. Application
- The teacher asks students to apply the skill in a new problem
6. Review
- The periodically reviews the when, why, and how of the skill.
- It is incorporated into classroom and homework assignments over an extended period

Adler’s
4 MISTAKEN GOALS OF MISBEHAVIORS
1. Goal is to get attention
2. Goal is to seek power
3. Goal is to get revenge
4. Goal is to isolate oneself

GOAL IS TO SEEK ATTENTION

(to keep others busy or to get special service)

Child's Characteristic
- disrupt the classroom.
- ask for favors.

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 - tattle on one another.
- refuse to work or are slow to finish assignments.
- request help when it is not required.
- Stops misbehavior temporarily, but later resumes same or another disturbing behavior
Child's belief
- I count (belong) only when I'm being noticed or getting special service
- I'm only important when I'm keeping you busy with me.

What the child needs and what adults can do to encourage

o Notice Me-Involve Me.
- Redirect by involving child in a useful task.
- "I love vou and_." (Example: I care about you and will spend time with you later.)
- Touch without words.
- Set up nonverbal signals
- ignore the misbehavior while encouraging appropriate behavior. Try to catch the student being good.

GOAL IS TO SEEK POWER

(to be boss)

Child's Characteristics
- argue.
- contradict.
- have temper tantrums.
- attempt to upset the teacher. Success brings more striving for power.
- Intensifies behavior
- Feels he/she's won when parents/teachers are upset

Child's Belief
- I belong only when I'm boss or in control, or proving no one can boss me.
- "You can't make me.
- Goal is to Seek Power
(to be boss)

What the Child's Needs and What adults can do to encourage

o Let Me Help--Give Me Choices.
- Get help from child to set reasonable and few limits.
- Acknowledge that you can't make him/her, and ask for his/her help.
- What the Child's Needs and What adults can do to encourage
- Redirect to positive power.
- Offer a limited choice
- Withdraw from conflict and calm down.
- Be firm and kind.
- Act. don't talk.

GOAL IS TO ISOLATE ONESELF

(assumed inadequacy- to give up and be left along)

Child's Characteristics
- withdraw from situations where they assume their inadequacy will be obvious.
- need to convince the teacher of their disability, so they will be left alone
- Retreats further
- No improvement
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 - No response

Child's Belief
- I don't believe I can so, I'll convince others not to expect anything of me.
- I am helpless and unable; it's no use trying because I won't do it right.
- Goal is to Isolate Oneself
(assumed inadequacy- to give up and be left alone)

What the Child's Needs

o Have Faith in Me – Don't Give Up On Me.
- Take time for training
- Take small steps.
- Make the task easier until the child experiences success.
- Show faith.
- What the Child's Needs and What adults can do to encourage
- Encourage any positive attempt, no matter how small.
- Don't give up
- Enjoy the child.
- Build on his/her interests.
- Encourage, encourage, encourage.
- Use family/class meetings.

GOAL IS TO SEEK REVENGE

(to get even)

Child's Characteristics
- may act in cruel, violent, and vicious ways.
- are paranoid and need to retaliate.
- when punished, feel justified in their original actions.
- Damages property
- Gets even
- Escalates the same behavior or chooses another weapon

Child's Characteristics
- I don't think I belong, so I'll hurt others as I feel hurt.
- I can't be liked or loved.

What the child needs and what adults can do to encourage

o Help Me – I'm Hurting.
- Apologize.
- Avoid punishment and retaliation.
- Show you care.
- What the Child's Needs and What adults can do to encourage
- Encourage strengths.
- Use family/ class meetings
- Deal with the hurt feelings.
- "Your behavior tells me you must feel hurt. Can we talk about that?"
- Use reflective listening.
- Don't take behavior personally.
- Share your feelings.

GOOD CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES:

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1. WITH-IT-NESS – is the skill to know what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times
2. OVERLAPPING – means handling two or more activities or groups at the same time. Essentially, it is the
ability to monitor the whole class at all times. It involves keeping a small group on task, for example, while also
helping other students with their seatwork
3. SMOOTHNESS – is the ability to make smooth lesson transitions, keep an appropriate pace, and involve all
students in a lesson. Smoothness should be present to prevent jerkiness (the disorderly flow of activities).

Jerkiness can be avoided by not observing any of the flowing:

1. Stimulus-bounded
The teacher is so immersed in a small group of students or activities that he or she
ignores other students or misses an event that is potentially disruptive.
b. Thrust
The teacher bursts into activities without assessing student readiness and gives orders,
statements or questions that only confuse students
c. Dangle
The teacher ends an activity or drops a topic before it is completed
d. Truncation
The teacher ends an activity ABRUPTLY.
e. FLIP-FLOP
The teacher terminates one activity, goes to another, and then returns to the previously
terminated activity. The teacher lacks clear direction and sequence of activities.
4. MOMENTUM – refers to the force and flow of a lesson. An effective lesson pulls the student along. Effective
teachers move through the lessons at a brisk pace and appear to have very few slowdowns in the flow of
activities
5. GROUP FOCUS – is the process where the whole class is involved with the use of the teacher's alerting
techniques.
 Antiseptic Bouncing is asking a student to leave the room if he or she is uncontrollably giggling or
misbehaving that affects the majority of the class.
 Program Restructuring is recognizing a poor lesson or activity and trying to replace it for something
else in order to restore a desired behaviour
 Humor Effect makes use of joke to release tension in a tensed situation.
 Proximity and Touch Control is placing the teacher's presence close to the misbehaving student.
 Interest Boosting is a response directed to a student that seems to be losing interest in a lesson, pay
some additional attention to other students and their work.
 Signal Interference refers to nonverbal response to stop students' misbehavior like for instance:
 Clear your throat, stare at the offender. Stop what you're saying in the mid-sentence.
 Planned Ignoring refers to ignoring an action that the student may be doing for attention
 Direct Appeal is responding when appropriate, pointing out the connection between the conduct or
misconduct and its consequences.

TYPES OF CLASSROOM MANAGER

1. AUTHORITATIVE/DEMOCRATIC (Warm, but demanding)

 Teachers who clearly and fairly communicates standards for discipline and performance to student.
 The democratic teacher is kind, caring, and warm, but also firm.
 Here, the teacher tries to provide stimulation from within through a sharing of responsibility and
encouragement, rather than demands. Self-esteem is developed by a sharing of responsibility, and
students are encouraged when they make mistakes

2. AUTHORITARIAN (Not warm, but demanding)

 Places firm limits and controls on the student is characterized by power, domination, pressure, and
criticism.
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  The authoritarian teacher assumes the sole responsibility for making all decisions for the class and
uses pressure, a sharp voice, and fear in forcing
 Students in this type of atmosphere often develop a fear of failure, low self-esteem, and a defeatist
attitude. Consequently, students tend to give up when they encounter a new or difficult task.
 Students in this class are likely reluctant to initiate activities since they feel powerless

3. PERMISSIVE/LAISSEZ FAIRE (Warm, but not demanding)

 Places few demands or controls on the students.
 The teacher accepts the students' impulses and actions and is less likely to monitor their behavior
 Is more concerned with the students' emotional well-being than he is with classroom control.
 Here, anything goes, which generally leads to chaos. The classroom is often disorganized, which
causes student frustration, a high level of stress, and a feeling of being totally overwhelmed and lost.

4. UNINVOLVED (Not warm, not demanding)

 Teachers who are indifferent and undemanding of student involvement

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