A A 02 Aim and Scope of Disaster Management

Aim and Scope of
Disaster Management
Guided Self-Study Course AA02
A first course for the University of Wisconsin

Disaster Management Center’s
Disaster Management Diploma
January 2016
Disaster Management Center

Department of Engineering
Professional Development
University of Wisconsin – Madison
Aim & Scope of Disaster Management
This publication was prepared by the University of Wisconsin-Disaster Management Center

(UWDMC) and InterWorks, with support from the USAID Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster
Assistance (OFDA).
The first edition (1986) of this course was prepared by Frederick C. Cuny. The Professional Review
Board included E.V. Bighinatti, American Red Cross; Robert White, UNHCR; and Katherine
Parker, Disaster Management Consultant. The second edition (1991) was edited by Don Schramm
and Richard Hansen. Text printed in Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 1993.
This third edition was updated by Don Schramm and Nancy Rebholz at UWDMC with substantial
revisions from Lynne Bethke, Paul Thompson and Alexander Zielske of InterWorks.
Copyright © 1986, 1991, 2013 by Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System
Produced by the University of Wisconsin-Madison
All rights reserved
University of Wisconsin-Madison provides affirmative action and equal opportunity in education,

programming and employment for all qualified persons regardless of race, color, gender/sex, creed,
disability, religion, national origin, ancestry, age, sexual orientation, pregnancy, marital or parental
status arrest or conviction record or veteran status.
Inquiries concerning this policy may be directed to the Office for Equity and Diversity, 179A
Bascom Hall, 500 Lincoln Drive, Madison, WI 53706.
For permission to reprint, please contact:
Disaster Management Center

Department of Engineering Professional Development
432 North Lake Street
Madison, Wisconsin 53706 USA
Phone: 608.262.5441 Fax: 608.263.3160 Email: dmc@engr.wisc.edu
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Acknowledgements
For this third edition, we would like to thank the following publishers and authors for granting us
permission to reproduce portions of materials from their publications:
United Nations Development Programme/United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs:
• Disaster Assessment, DMTP training module by Rob Stephenson.
• Disaster Mitigation, DMTP training module by A.W. Coburn, R.J.S. Spence and A. Pomonis.
• Disaster Preparedness, DMTP training module by Randolph Kent.
• Overview of Disaster Management, DMTP training module by Paul Thompson.
• Vulnerability and Risk Assessment, DMTP training module by A.W. Coburn, R.J.S. Spence
and A. Pomonis.
The Disaster Management Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison thanks the Office of
Foreign Disaster Assistance for early support of course development. In particular, Gudren Huden,
Denise Decker and Fred Cole deserve special recognition for their understanding of this innovative
education process. At the University of Wisconsin, Linda Hook, Darrell Petska, Susan Kummer,
Lolette Guthrie, Val Parish, and Angela Armstrong must be thanked for their efforts in editing,
design and production. The course development process is never over, and each of these people
understands that very well.
THIRD EDITION DEDICATION

The third edition of Aim and Scope of Disaster Management is dedicated to the memory of Fredrick
Cuny. He was the author of the original version along with many other early UWDMC courses.
The success of the UWDMC is dependent on many individuals and organizations. Fred Cuny was
the field engineering mentor and guide for the UWDMC from its inception until his untimely death
in Chechnya in 1995. See also the PBS Frontline program on Fred’s life and work:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cuny/
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Table of Contents
Welcome and Course Overview ...................................................................... 1
Course purpose............................................................................................................................. 1
How to use this course ................................................................................................................ 1
Pre-test ......................................................................................................................................... 1
Self-assessment questions and exercises ......................................................................................... 2
Final examination ........................................................................................................................ 2
Evaluating the course ................................................................................................................... 2
Course Pre-test ............................................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 1 Introduction to Disaster Management.................................................. 7
Learning objectives ....................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 7
Scope of disaster management ...................................................................................................... 7
Disaster management terms and definitions ................................................................................... 8
Objectives of disaster management ............................................................................................... 13
Key personnel and specialists ....................................................................................................... 14
Principles of disaster management................................................................................................ 14
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 16
Self-test ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 2 Activities of Disaster Management: Mitigation and Preparedness ........... 19
Learning objectives ...................................................................................................................... 19
Mitigation ................................................................................................................................... 20
Targeting mitigation where it has most effect ..........................................................................................22
The menu of mitigation actions .............................................................................................................22
Timing for mitigation ...........................................................................................................................24
Preparedness ............................................................................................................................... 25
Components of disaster preparedness ......................................................................................................26
Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters .............................................................................32
Self-test ....................................................................................................................................... 33
Chapter 3 Activities of Disaster Management: Response and Recovery ................... 36
Response ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance ........................................................................................37
Response activities ................................................................................................................................37
Exercise ...............................................................................................................................................40
Recovery ..................................................................................................................................... 43
Priorities and opportunities in recovery ...................................................................................................43
Self-test ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 4 Roles and Responsibilities of Disaster Management Actors ..................... 48
Affected population ..................................................................................................................... 49
Host government ......................................................................................................................... 50
Donors ........................................................................................................................................ 52
United Nations ............................................................................................................................ 53
International humanitarian coordination architecture .............................................................................53
Non-Governmental Organizations ............................................................................................... 56
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement .................................................................. 57
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Military forces in support of humanitarian operations ................................................................... 58

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 59
Self-test ....................................................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 5 Tools and Techniques for Disaster Management ................................... 62
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 62
Mapping ..................................................................................................................................... 62
Geographical Information Systems.........................................................................................................63
Remote sensing technology ....................................................................................................................65
Communications technology ....................................................................................................... 66
Satellite communications.......................................................................................................................66
Radios .................................................................................................................................................67
Cell phones, SMS, and Internet connectivity ...........................................................................................67
Information management ............................................................................................................ 69
Data sharing and security .....................................................................................................................69
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 71
Self-test ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
Course Conclusion ..................................................................................... 74
References ............................................................................................... 76
Examination Request Form .......................................................................... 79
Course Evaluation ..................................................................................... 81
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Welcome and Course Overview
Welcome to the University of Wisconsin-Disaster Management Center (UWDMC) self-study course
Aim and Scope of Disaster Management (AA02). This is a practical distance learning course about
hazards, disasters, and emergency management.
The identification of “disaster management” as a separate and unique profession is a relatively new
idea. The tasks of a disaster (or emergency) manager, however, have been around for a long time.
Typically, they have been thought of as disaster relief or assistance—the activities that follow a
catastrophic event. Disaster management, however, is more than relief; it also includes a spectrum
of activities aimed at rehabilitation, recovery, mitigation, and preparedness.
Disaster management is not necessarily a full-time activity. For many people in the field, disaster
management issues are only part of their total responsibilities. Similarly, this self-study course is
designed not just for the full-time emergency manager but also for individuals who expect to be
active in only some of the spectrum of disaster management activities.
Course purpose
The purpose of this course is to provide an overview of the aim and scope of disaster management,
broadly defined. This course presents helpful introductory information on the various forms of
disasters—including refugee and complex emergencies—for people who work for local or national
government, inter-governmental or non-governmental organizations.
How to use this course

Self-study is more demanding than traditional classroom instruction because each learner has to
provide an individual framework for study instead of having it imposed by the course or workshop
timetable. One of the problems with self-study courses is that people begin with great enthusiasm at
a pace that they cannot sustain. The best way to undertake this distance education course is to plan
your own study schedule over a pre-set period by thinking ahead and making your own clear,
planned schedule for study. The course is designed to take approximately 20 hours to complete.
This includes the time for reading, reflecting, answering the questions in the text, and taking the final
exam.
Pre-test
The pre-test included at the beginning of the course allows you to test your general knowledge about
disaster risk reduction. This test consists of 22 multiple choice or true/false questions. Taking the
test before beginning should stimulate you to compare your own thoughts about hazards and
disasters to those presented in the text. The pre-test allows you to quickly determine how much you
already know about the ideas presented here, and can help you to see which parts of the course you
can move through more quickly or those you may need to spend more time on. If you score very
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well on the pre-test, it is likely that you do not need to take this course for the purpose of learning
new information, although it may be a useful review.
Self-assessment questions and exercises

One drawback to self-study is that instant feedback from the instructor or your colleagues is not
possible. To address the need for feedback, each chapter has several multiple-choice questions.
Exercises are found throughout the chapters to help you reflect on your knowledge, apply concepts,
and get the most from the materials.
Final examination
When you have completed all the self-assessment tests and activities to your satisfaction, you may
request a final examination package.
A final examination in an independent study course is always taken under the supervision of a
proctor. The proctor administers the examination according to the instructions sent with it. You
must obtain a proctor and make arrangements for writing the examination. Normally there is no
charge for this service. Anyone in a position of educational or academic authority (for example, a
registrar, dean, counselor, school principal or education officer) may serve as your proctor.
Librarians and clergy are also acceptable proctors. Your immediate supervisor or someone else of
authority in your company or organization may also be your examination proctor.
Write the proctor’s name, title, and business mailing address on the REQUEST FOR FINAL
EXAMINATION form included at the end of this publication and send it to the University of
Wisconsin-Disaster Management Center. The UWDMC will mail the examination papers with
instructions to your proctor who will monitor your taking the test. You will be notified when it is
sent.
Upon receiving the notice, you should contact the proctor to make an appointment for the closed-
book examination and to obtain any instructions about writing the exam. After you have written the
examination, the proctor will mail it back to the University for grading. Upon successful completion
of the exam, the University will record your continuing education units (CEUs) on a university
transcript and prepare your certificate of completion. Your certificate will be mailed to your postal
address.
Evaluating the course

A course evaluation form is also included at the end of this module. Please take a moment to fill out
and return this form. Your reactions are important to help us improve future editions of these course
materials. We appreciate your taking time to share your thoughts with us.
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Course Pre-test
As you begin your studies of disaster management, take this course pre-test to help you understand
better what you may already know about the subject and how best to study the course material. If
you find you do well on parts of this self-test, you can move more quickly over that subject in the
study guide and leave yourself more time for other sections. If you don’t do well at first, do not
worry. It should become clear in time! Answers are at the end of this pre-test.
Multiple Choice
Mark ALL correct statements – more than one may apply.
1. As a disaster manager, you establish program objectives that will

A. reduce suffering from natural disasters
B. avoid economic losses from natural disasters
C. accelerate recovery
D. all of the above
2. Planning strategies for disaster mitigation
A. can adjust normal development programs to reduce loss
B. in agriculture should concentrate on mono cropping for ease of management
C. might develop “disaster resistant” economic activities in hazard-prone areas
D. a, b, and c
E. a and c only
3. The disaster manager’s responsibility is
A. in post-disaster activities
B. in pre-disaster activities
C. during the disaster event
D. a and c but not b
E. a, b, and c
4. Which United Nations agencies have specialized or emergency management offices?
A. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
B. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
C. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
D. World Health Organization (WHO)
E. all of the above
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5. The term “hazard” refers to a threat that can

A. occur frequently
B. be rare or extreme
C. only affect unpopulated areas
D. adversely affect human property
E. disrupt human activities
F. have natural and human-made causes
6. Maps that form an important part of a disaster manager’s resources include
A. topographic maps
B. demographic maps
C. land-use maps
D. all of the above
7. Ultimate responsibility for all aspects of disaster management rests with
A. the UN Disaster Management Team
B. the UN Emergency Relief Coordinator
C. the affected community
D. the national government
8. Disaster preparedness aims to minimize the adverse effects of a hazard. This is best
accomplished through
A. working to reduce vulnerabilities
B. anticipating a large degree of chaos
C. maintaining an extensive preparedness plan
D. all of the above
9. The military’s effectiveness in providing humanitarian assistance is limited by
A. its centralized command structure
B. its lack of training with respect to providing humanitarian assistance
C. its over-reliance on UN disaster assessments
D. its highly politicized role
E. all of the above
F. a, b, and d only
10. Disasters can offer opportunities for development because they generally
A. stimulate employment in the non-formal sector
B. create a favorable climate for business investment
C. divert resources from long-term to short-term objectives
D. increase political stability
E. mobilize people to take action
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11. Emergency relief refers to the process of

A. providing emergency medical care
B. providing shelter, clothing, water and food
C. locating people trapped in collapsed buildings
D. ensuring that security needs are handled by civil defense
True/False
Check T or F to indicate whether a statement is True or False.
12. T F Building codes and economic incentives are important strategies to use in hazard
management.
13. T F An emergency action manual often includes a compendium of standard operating
procedures (SOPs).
14. T F The most important preparedness tool is a disaster plan.
15. T F Vulnerability is the relative degree of probability that a hazardous event will occur.
16. T F Even national reconstruction agencies should include the position of disaster
manager.
17. T F The length of each period, or disaster phase, is a constant for all disasters.
18. T F Ongoing government commitment to support geographical information systems
should be obtained before investing in such systems.
19. T F Disaster management is highly dependent on accurate information collection and
interpretation.
20. T F Because most disaster survivors are mentally and physically worn, any attempt to
use their energy and manpower as a resource is always a last resort.
21. T F If well-planned disaster management takes a development-oriented approach, a
disaster can provide opportunities for accelerating the pace of development and for
making constructive changes.
22. T F In an immediate post-disaster environment, the most critical component of
resource management is material from international relief agencies.
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Answers
1. D
2. E
3. E
4. C
5. B, D, E, F
6. E
7. D
8. D
9. F
10. E
11. A, B, C
12. T
13. T
14. T
15. F
16. T
17. F
18. T
19. T
20. F
21. T
22. F
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Chapter 1
Introduction to Disaster Management
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• define the key terms of disaster management
• describe the objectives and principles of disaster management
• understand the key agencies and personnel or specialists working in disaster management
• describe the role of a disaster manager!
!
Introduction
This text maps the overall scope of disaster management while recognizing that no one person is
ever fully engaged with either the entire spectrum of disaster management activities or the full
sequence of preparing for, mitigating against, and responding to disasters. In fact, “large scale
disaster response requires multi-organizational, intergovernmental, and multi-sectoral collaboration.
Preparedness and recovery involve social networks in which authority is shared, responsibility is
diffused, and resources are widely distributed. The management of such systems is increasingly
referred to as governance rather than government.” (Waugh and Tierney, 2007) Other terms for this
perspective on disaster management are collaborative government or network management.
Scope of disaster management

Traditionally people tend to think of disaster management only in terms of post-disaster actions
taken by relief and reconstruction officials. Yet, disaster management covers a much broader scope
of activities. Many modern disaster managers may find themselves far more involved in pre-disaster
activities than in post-disaster response. Many of them may plan routine economic, urban, regional
or agricultural development projects that may also have disaster management responsibilities. For
example, housing specialists planning a low-income housing project in a disaster-prone area can
mitigate the impact of a future disaster by using disaster-resistant construction technologies.
Similarly, agricultural development projects can be planned so that they help stem environmental
degradation and thus lower farmers’ vulnerability to losses from droughts, floods, cyclones, or other
natural hazards. In dealing with natural hazards, the vast majority of disaster management activities
are related to development projects; and only a small portion is related to emergency response.
Disaster management also encompasses the field of emergency assistance and long-term
maintenance for refugees and other displaced persons. The refugee/displaced person field of
disaster management is highly specialized and requires many development skills as well as a broad
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awareness of sectoral, political, legal, and humanitarian issues that are distinct from management of
natural and technological disasters
Disaster management terms and definitions

Several disaster management terms are defined in this section in order to establish a common
understanding for this self-study text. Consensus regarding these definitions, however, does not
exist among all disaster management practitioners or academicians. For the purpose of this text, the
following definitions will be used, most of which are from the 2009 UNISDR Terminology on
Disaster Risk Reduction. They represent one effort toward developing a consensus. You are
encouraged to adopt these working definitions for the sake of uniformity but also to recognize other
groups’ definitions.
This section performs the dual objective of defining terms while also explaining many of the disaster
management concepts. Thus, the following section is key to this course and to understanding the
field of disaster management.
Q. Can you think of applications or examples of these terms as they apply to your organization?
Provide your examples for terms where indicated.
Disaster management
Disaster management is the body of policy, administrative decisions, and operational activities
designed to maintain control over disaster and emergency situations and to provide a framework for
helping at-risk persons avoid or recover from the impact of a disaster. Disaster management deals
with situations that occur prior to, during, and after a disaster.
A. ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Hazard
A hazard is a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity, or condition that may cause loss
of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage. The hazards of concern to disaster risk reduction
are hazards of natural origin and related environmental and technological hazards and risks. Such
hazards arise from a variety of geological, meteorological, hydrological, oceanic, biological, and
technological sources, sometimes acting in combination. In technical settings, hazards are described
quantitatively by the likely frequency of occurrence of different intensities for different areas, as
determined from historical data or scientific analysis.
A. ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Disaster
A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society causing widespread human, material,
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or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources.
Disasters are often classified according to their speed of onset (sudden or slow) and according to
their cause (natural or human-made). Therefore, a hazard does not become a disaster until the event
occurs and results in the disruption and loss as described in this definition.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Emergency
Whereas a disaster is bound by a specific period in which lives and essential property are
immediately at risk, an emergency can encompass a more general period in which
• there is a clear and marked deterioration in the coping abilities of a group or community, or
• coping abilities are only sustained by unusual initiatives by the group or community or by
external intervention.
Events that sometimes meet this definition of emergency include drought leading to famine or civil
conflict.
Some emergencies lead to population displacements. They are usually associated with crisis-
induced mass migration in which large numbers of people are forced to leave their homes to seek
alternative means of survival. Such mass movements normally result from the effects of conflict,
severe food shortages, or collapse of economic support systems. Climate change and environmental
degradation may also lead to population displacements.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Human-made disaster
A human-made disaster is a disaster or emergency situation where the principal, direct causes are
identifiable human actions, deliberate, or otherwise. Apart from technological and ecological
disasters, this mainly involves situations in which civilian populations suffer casualties, losses of
property, basic services, and means of livelihood as a result of war or civil strife. Human-made
disasters/emergencies can be of the rapid or slow onset type, and in the case of internal conflict, can
lead to complex emergencies as well. (See below for definition of complex emergency.)
An even broader definition of human-made disaster acknowledges that all disasters are caused by
humans because they have chosen, for whatever reason, to be where natural phenomena occur,
which results in adverse impacts on people.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
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Rapid onset disaster

A rapid onset disaster is a sudden calamity caused by a natural phenomenon such as an earthquake,
flood, tropical storm, or volcanic eruption. They strike with little or no warning and have an
immediate adverse impact on human populations, activities, and economic systems.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
The definitions below correspond to the time sequence following the occurrence of a rapid onset
disaster.
• The response phase is the period immediately following the occurrence of a sudden
disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onset situation) when
exceptional measures have to be taken to search for and rescue survivors as well as meet
their basic needs for shelter, water, food, and medical care.
• Recovery1 is the restoration, and improvement, where appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods
and living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce
disaster risk factors. The recovery tasks of rehabilitation and reconstruction begin soon
after the emergency phase has ended, and should be based on pre-existing strategies and
policies that facilitate clear institutional responsibilities for recovery action and enable
public participation. Recovery programs, coupled with the heightened public awareness
and engagement after a disaster, afford a valuable opportunity to develop and implement
disaster risk reduction measures and to apply the ‘build back better’ principle.
• Mitigation is the lessening or limitating of the adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters. The adverse impacts of hazards often cannot be prevented fully, but their scale
or severity can be substantially lessened by various strategies and actions. Mitigation
measures encompass engineering techniques and hazard-resistant construction as well as
improved environmental policies and public awareness.
• Preparedness is the knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional
response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate,
respond to, and recover from the impacts of likely, imminent, or current hazard events or
conditions. Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk
management and aims to build the capacities needed to efficiently manage all types of
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There is little agreement and much confusion about terminology that is referred to in this text as ‘recovery.’
“Historically the term has been loosely taken to mean restoration, rehabilitation, reconstruction, or even
restitution. However, each of these terms connotes something different for those who are affected by recovery
efforts. Restoration, for example, suggests a return to pre-disaster levels, although such a return may not
mitigate future risks. Rehabilitation, in contrast, hints at improvements. Reconstruction emphasizes the built
environment, whereas restitution connotes legal action.” (E. L. Quarantelli, 1991).
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emergencies and achieve orderly transitions from response through to sustained recovery.
Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and good linkages with early
warning systems and includes such activities as contingency planning, stockpiling of
equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation and
public information, and associated training and field exercises. These must be supported by
formal institutional, legal, and budgetary capacities. The related term “readiness” describes
the ability to quickly and appropriately respond when required.
Complex emergencies
Complex emergencies are a form of human-made disaster—internal political crises and/or armed
conflict—in which the cause of the emergency as well as assistance to the affected population are
complicated by intense levels of political considerations in addition to other social and economic
factors. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee of the United Nations also defines complex
emergencies as those emergencies that fall outside the mandate and competence of given UN
organizations. Others define complex emergencies as also a simultaneous occurrence of a natural
disaster and civil conflict.
Slow onset disaster
A slow onset disaster is a situation in which the ability of people to acquire food and other
necessities of life slowly declines to a point where survival is ultimately jeopardized. Such situations
are typically brought on or precipitated by drought, crop failure, pest diseases, or other forms of
“ecological” disaster, or neglect.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
The following terms are key to understanding slow onset disasters and their impact on populations.
• Early warning is the process of monitoring situations in communities or areas known to be
vulnerable to slow onset hazards. For example, famine early warning may be reflected in
such indicators as drought, livestock sales, or changes in economic conditions. The purposes
of early warning are to enable remedial measures to be initiated and to provide more timely
and effective relief including thorough disaster preparedness actions.
• The emergency phase is the period during which extraordinary measures have to be taken.
Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to support human needs,
sustain livelihoods, and protect property to avoid the onset of disaster. This phase can
encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster relief, and recovery periods. An emergency
phase can be quite lengthy, as in a slow onset disaster such as a famine.
• Recovery is the action taken after a slow onset disaster where attention must be given to the
issues of resettlement or returnee programs, particularly for people who have been displaced
for reasons arising out of conflict or economic collapse.
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Catastrophes
Catastrophes essentially are very large disasters, but differ from disasters in three ways. First, they
affect a geographic area and population so extensive that outside assistance is overwhelmed. Second,
levels of damage are very high and social, commercial systems, and community response
mechanisms are seriously disrupted. Third, most infrastructure systems fail simultaneously;
emergency responders must prioritize the restoration of critical services. Examples of catastrophes
include Hurricane Katrina in the US in 2005 and the Haitian earthquake in January 2010.
Transition
The concept of transition is important in disaster management. A transition is not a phase of
disaster management, but rather it is the passage from one phase to another. (It can also refer to the
time that this passage takes place.) Its importance to disaster managers is to recognize that effective
transitions require adapting approaches, staffing, programming, and budgeting to each changing
context or need while bridging the main disaster phases. For example, transition planning
anticipates the need to plan for the shift of personnel who focus on emergency response to personnel
with skills to link recovery strategies with a development agenda.
Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system, or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising
from various physical, social, economic, and environmental factors. Examples may include poor
design and construction of buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and
awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise
environmental management. Vulnerability varies significantly within a community and over time.
This definition identifies vulnerability as a characteristic of the element of interest (community,
system or asset) that is independent of its exposure. However, in common use the word is often used
more broadly to include the element’s exposure.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Risk
Risk is the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences. The word
“risk” has two distinctive connotations: in popular usage the emphasis is usually placed on the
concept of chance or possibility, such as in “the risk of an accident;” whereas in technical settings
the emphasis is usually placed on the consequences, in terms of “potential losses” for some
particular cause, place, and period. It can be noted that people do not necessarily share the same
perceptions of the significance and underlying causes of different risks. Risk is sometimes described
as the product of hazards and vulnerability.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
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Disaster risk reduction

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through
systematic efforts to analyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced
exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and
the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events.
A comprehensive approach to reduce disaster risks is set out in the United Nations-endorsed Hyogo
Framework for Action, adopted in 2005. The expected outcome is “the substantial reduction of
disaster losses in lives and the social, economic, and environmental assets of communities and
countries.” Note that while the term “disaster reduction” is sometimes used, the term “disaster risk
reduction” provides a better recognition of the ongoing nature of disaster risks and the ongoing
potential to reduce these risks.
Disaster risk reduction includes disciplines like disaster management, disaster mitigation and
disaster preparedness, but DRR is also part of sustainable development. In order for development
activities to be sustainable they must also reduce disaster risk. On the other hand, unsound
development policies will increase disaster risk and disaster losses. Thus, DRR involves every part of
society, every part of government, and every part of the professional and private sector.
Objectives of disaster management

The objectives of disaster management are to:
• reduce or avoid the human, physical, and economic losses suffered by individuals, by the
society, and by the country at large
• reduce personal suffering
• speed recovery
• support local capacity building and independence in disaster management.
When assisting refugees or displaced persons, an additional objective is to provide protection to
those whose lives or property are at risk from armed conflict, ethnic animosity, religious persecution,
or other threats.
Throughout this course, it will be important to consider two related and critical aspects regarding
effective disaster management. First, disasters have their greatest impact on the poor. While many
may lose their homes and belongings when a major disaster occurs, more affluent individuals and
families may be able to minimize their losses through insurance policies or financial resources that
can help them rebuild. Those with the fewest resources often lose all of their belongings and have no
resources available to help them rebuild. Therefore, disasters have their greatest effect on those
living in poverty. Likewise, disasters have their greatest effect on developing rather than developed
countries. Not only can disasters wipe out the efforts and gains of development programs;
improperly planned and executed development programs can also increase vulnerability to disasters.
Therefore, considering the relationship between disasters and development is essential for those
engaged in disaster management.
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Key personnel and specialists

The term “disaster manager” is applied to a person who has responsibility for planning and
managing pre- and/or post-disaster activities, either as their sole responsibility or as one aspect of
their total job. Disaster managers may be found in a variety of positions in many different types of
agencies. Disaster management specialists are found among personnel in government (national,
regional and local) disaster preparedness agencies; emergency or relief agencies; reconstruction
agencies; and emergency service agencies, departments, or ministries. They are also found within a
broad range of international and United Nations organizations, non-governmental organizations,
private industry, and donors. Chapter 4 discusses their roles and responsibilities in more detail.
Many people, serving in critical roles, provide useful services in disaster management. While they
are not considered disaster managers per se, their technological knowledge, skills, and experience
warrant recognition of their potential contribution and function in disaster management. Examples
include: city and regional planners, watershed management and water resource development
specialists, flood control engineers and specialists, code enforcement officials, public health
specialists, doctors and nurses, dietitians and nutritionists, economic and agricultural development
specialists, social scientists and welfare specialists, clergy and religious personnel, structural
engineers, architects, reforestation and range land management specialists, firefighters, police, and
development workers.
Although the above typically serve as decision makers, other specialists often have an impact on
disaster management decisions. These specialists include representatives from civic groups,
academia, and the media, persons from research institutions focusing on disasters or disaster
consequences, disaster management consultants, directors of development agencies, city managers,
and other government officials.
Principles of disaster management

There is no universally agreed set of principles of disaster management. However, it would be
helpful if there were because such an agreed statement would
• allow organizations to create more coherent sets of policies of procedures
• provide an ethical base for action
• guide the various elements in disaster planning and implementation.
Absent an agreed set of principles, the following are suggested as useful for readers of this text.
14
Core Principles of Disaster Management

Comprehensive: Disaster managers consider and take into account all hazards, all phases, all
stakeholders, and all impacts relevant to disasters.
Progressive: Disaster managers anticipate future disasters and take preventive and preparatory
measures to build disaster-resistant and disaster resilient communities.
Risk-Driven: Disaster managers utilize sound risk management principles: hazard identification, risk
analysis and impact analysis. Priorities and resources are assigned on the basis of this process.
Collaborative: Disaster managers create and sustain broad and sincere relationships among
individuals and organizations to encourage trust, advocate a team atmosphere, build consensus and
facilitate communication.
Integrated: Disaster Managers are responsible for ensuring, to the highest possible degree, a unity of
effort among all levels of government and all elements of a community.
Coordinated: Disaster managers synchronize the activities of all relevant stakeholders to achieve a
common purpose.
Flexible: Disaster managers rely on creative and innovative approaches to solving disaster challenges.
This is especially the case after disasters when pre-defined approaches may be inadequate to the
situation at hand.
Professional: Disaster managers value a science and knowledge-based approach based on education,
training, experience, ethical practice, public stewardship, and continuous improvement.
(Selves, 2012)
Additional and important principles are incorporated in the Good Humanitarian Donorship
initiative and the International Code of Conduct. In 2003, 16 donor governments plus international
organizations, NGOs, and academics agreed on a set of 23 Principles and Good Practice of
Humanitarian Donorship. These provide both a framework to guide official humanitarian aid and a
mechanism for encouraging greater donor accountability. They were drawn up to enhance the
coherence and effectiveness of donor action, as well as their accountability to beneficiaries,
implementing organizations and domestic constituencies, with regard to the funding, co-ordination,
follow-up, and evaluation of such actions. (To access the entire set of principles, see:
http://www.goodhumanitariandonorship.org/gns/principles-good-practice-ghd/overview.aspx.)
The International Code of Conduct has been adopted by the International Federation of Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) and many of the major international NGOs that work in disaster
assistance. Like most professional codes, it is a voluntary one. It lays down ten points of principle
that all humanitarian actors should adhere to in their disaster response work, and goes on to describe
the relationships that agencies working in disasters should seek with donor governments, host
governments, and the UN system.
15
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5+6(7($0*3$.*89:)*#$*;#)3)0("*4()&+$)(*!"+<"37)!
1. The humanitarian imperative comes first.
2. Aid is given regardless of the race, creed or nationality of the recipients and without adverse
distinction of any kind. Aid priorities are calculated on the basis of need alone.
3. Aid will not be used to further a particular political or religious standpoint.
4. We shall endeavor not to act as instruments of government foreign policy.
5. We shall respect culture and custom.
6. We shall attempt to build disaster response on local capacities.
7. Ways shall be found to involve program beneficiaries in the management of relief aid.
8. Relief aid must strive to reduce future vulnerabilities to disaster as well as meeting basic needs.
9. We hold ourselves accountable to both those we seek to assist and those from whom we accept
resources.
10. In our information, publicity and advertizing activities, we shall recognize disaster victims as
dignified human beings, not hopeless objects.
(IFRC, 2012)
Conclusion
Disaster management encompasses a wide range of disaster types, from slow to rapid onset, from
natural to human made (technological and conflict). It incorporates all aspects of mitigation,
preparedness, response, and recovery. It requires planning and implementation, organizational and
administrative skills. Sectors that are involved include (but not necessarily limited to) health, water
and sanitation, food/nutrition, agriculture, shelter/housing, economic development, social services,
education, logistics, and communication as well as cross cutting sectors and issues such as camp
management, early recovery, gender, protection, and human rights.
Disaster management consists of layers of people and organizations at the local, regional, national,
and international levels. It includes residents, government, non-governmental organizations,
donors, the private sector, and civil defense/military. Disaster management is often carried out
within a framework established by the national government, but must be responsive to the local
needs.
Q. In what ways does your current position involve disaster management? What are your disaster
management roles and responsibilities?
A. ___________________________________________________
16
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Self-test
Now that you have been introduced to the general concepts of disaster management, you should
evaluate your understanding by completing this self-assessment test. If there are parts you are not
able to answer, we suggest you go back and review the relevant material.
Multiple Choice:
Circle the best answer(s):
1. As a disaster manager, you establish program objectives that will:
A. reduce suffering from natural disasters
B. avoid economic losses from natural disasters
C. accelerate recovery
D. all of the above
2. Which of the following is not a cause of a human-made disaster?
A. technological accident
B. civil strife
C. deforestation
D. earthquake in an unsettled area
3. “Early warning” refers to:
A. an evacuation plan
B. a monitoring process
C. the prediction of rapid onset disasters
D. a communications system
4. Population displacements are usually associated with crisis-induced mass migration. Such mass
movements normally result from:
A. earthquakes and tsunamis
B. food shortages
C. civil conflict
D. economic collapse
17
True/False:
Indicate T or F
5. T F When a variety of relief agencies are trying to provide assistance, they should assist
the survivors of their choice.
6. T F Disaster management is more concerned with post-disaster response than with pre-
disaster activities.
7. T F Mitigation is the most important function in bringing disasters under control.
8. T F Risk” refers to the product of hazard and vulnerability.
9. T F Disaster management practitioners and researchers have agreed upon standard
definitions of the terms related to disaster management.
10. T F The emergency phase of a disaster during which extraordinary measures have to
be taken may require an extensive period of time.
Answers:
1. D
2. D
3. B
4. B, C, D
5. F
6. F
7. T
8. T
9. F
10. T
18
Chapter 2
Activities of Disaster Management:
Mitigation and Preparedness
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to describe:
• the principal management objectives of disaster mitigation and disaster preparedness

• several available disaster management techniques
• the role of vulnerability and risk assessment as a prerequisite to disaster mitigation
Traditionally, disaster management activities have been viewed as a series of phases on a disaster
management continuum. As illustrated in Figure 1, the various activities of disaster management—
preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation—are conceptualized as occurring in successive
phases. These phases are not a continuum, but are often overlapping. While it is true that response
activities will be more prevalent during the period directly following a disaster, it is also true, for
example, that recovery activities will begin while response activities are occurring and that
mitigation or preparedness measures can (and should) take place during the recovery/reconstruction
phase.
Figure 1
19
In refugee or complex emergencies, events may occur so rapidly that clear delineation of the
appropriate time period for undertaking certain activities is not possible. Therefore, another way of
conceptualizing disaster management activities is to recognize that these activities do not occur in
successive stages, in a particular order. Instead, one or more activities may take place
simultaneously, at different times either prior to or after a disaster occurs. For example, while
housing may be rebuilt as part of a reconstruction project, this same project may involve mitigation
efforts to rebuild houses that will be less susceptible to structural damage in future disasters.
It is also helpful to recognize that disaster management activities affect development.2 Effective
disaster management will incorporate development objectives within its response to facilitate the
transition from a focus on disaster response back to a focus on development. Ineffective disaster
management may drain vital development resources away from the affected population by providing
emergency assistance without thought to the long-term needs of the affected population. When the
approach is one of either development or disaster response, the net effect on the affected population
is that the situation (the “status quo”) does not improve over time. Gains that accrue as a result of
development activities may be wiped out when a disaster occurs. The simultaneous shifting of
resources from development to disaster response results in no net improvements over time.
This chapter describes various disaster management activities related to disaster mitigation and
preparedness. These should be implemented whenever appropriate in a given situation.
Mitigation
Mitigation3 is one of the positive links between disasters and development. Agencies, communities,
and individuals can use their development resources to reduce the risk of hazards through mitigation
projects. They can also ensure that their other development initiatives contain components that
mitigate against future disaster. Such approaches are best derived by integrating disaster risk
reduction strategies and measures within the overall development framework, viewing disaster risk
reduction as an integral component of the development process rather than as an end in its own
right.
In its broadest usage, mitigation has become a collective term that encompasses all actions taken
prior to the occurrence of a disaster (including long-term risk reduction and preparedness measures).
Many individuals and institutions, however, apply a narrower definition of mitigation. They use
mitigation to mean actions taken to reduce both human suffering and property loss resulting from
extreme natural phenomena or civil conflict. This concept of mitigation accepts the fact that a
hazard event may occur but tries to lessen the impact by improving the community’s ability to
absorb the impact with minimum damage or disruptive effect. For this group, mitigation is risk
reduction, or stated more positively, protecting assets.
2
For a more detailed discussion, see the UW-Disaster Management Center self-study course Disasters and
Development.
3
This section is adapted from the UNDP/UNDHA training module Disaster Mitigation by A.W. Coburn,
R.J.S. Spence and A. Pomonis, June 1991.
20
Mitigation applies to a wide range of activities and protection measures: from the physical, like
constructing stronger buildings or agricultural diversification, to the procedural, like standard
techniques for incorporating hazard assessment in land-use planning.
Until recently, disasters have been seen in much the same way as disease was in the early 19th
century: unpredictable, unlucky, and part of the everyday risk of living. Concentrations of people
and rising population levels across the globe are increasing the risk of disasters and multiplying the
consequences of natural and human-made hazards when they occur. However, the epidemiology of
disasters—the systematic science of what happens in a disaster—shows that disasters are largely
preventable. There are many ways to reduce the impact of a disaster and to mitigate the effects of a
possible hazard, accident, or conflict.
Just like the fight against disease, the fight against disasters has to be fought by everyone together. It
must involve public and private sector investment, changes in social attitudes, and improvements in
the practices of individuals. Governments can use public investment to improve their countries’
infrastructure and to promote a physical or social environment where a disaster or conflict is less
likely to occur. Individuals must also learn how to act to protect themselves. Just as public health
depends on personal hygiene, so public protection depends on personal safety. The type of cooking
stove individuals use, and their awareness that a sudden earthquake could tip it over, is more
important in reducing the risk of a disastrous fire than having the community maintain a large fire
brigade. The type of house individuals build and where they build affects the potential for disaster in
a community more than large engineering projects to reduce flood risk, landslide stabilization
efforts, or sophisticated typhoon warning systems. The saying “earthquakes don’t kill people,
buildings do” is basically true.
The worst effects of any disaster are the deaths and injuries caused to the population. The scale of
disasters and the number of people they are capable of killing is the primary justification for
mitigation. Understanding the way that people are killed and injured in disasters is a prerequisite for
reducing casualties.
Q. Summarize what you think are the principal objectives of mitigation.
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
21
Possible answers might include:

• long-term risk reduction
• reducing human suffering and property loss from extreme natural phenomena or civil conflict
• improving a community’s ability to absorb the impact of a hazard event
• protecting assets
Targeting mitigation where it has most effect

Understanding how the occurrence of a natural hazard, an accident, or a low intensity conflict turns
into a disaster enables us to forecast likely situations where a disaster is possible. For example, some
buildings (elements) are more vulnerable to earthquakes (hazard) than others. Similarly, some
ethnic rivalries are more volatile than others. Identifying the elements most at risk can indicate
priorities for mitigation.
Identifying locations and situations where multiple risk factors coincide helps indicate the elements
most at risk. Elements most at risk are the elements (buildings, networks, social groups) likely to
contribute most to the losses incurred in a future disaster or most likely to suffer from the effects of
the hazard. These elements may be the least able to recover after the event. Within a city, for
example, the portions of housing stock most likely to be damaged can be identified. Mitigation
measures applied to that sector will again have the most effect on reducing risk.
The menu of mitigation actions

The range of techniques that an authority might consider in order to assemble an appropriate
package for disaster mitigation can be classified into:
• engineering
• spatial planning
• economic
• management and institutionalization of disaster mitigation
• societal
• conflict reduction
Engineering
Engineering measures are those that result in stronger individual structures that are more resistant to
hazards. This is sometimes referred to as “hardening” facilities against hazard forces. Building codes
are critical defensive measures for achieving stronger engineered structures. Training techniques to
teach builders the practicalities of disaster resistant construction are now well understood and form
part of the menu of mitigation actions available to the disaster mitigation planner.
22
Spatial planning
Many hazards are localized with their likely effects confined to specific known areas. For example,
floods affect flood plains, and landslides affect steep soft slopes. If it is possible to avoid hazardous
areas being used for settlements or as sites for important structures, the effects of a hazard can be
greatly reduced. Urban planning needs to integrate awareness of natural disaster risk mitigation into
the normal procedures of planning a city. In addition, ongoing development programs can make
adjustments to reduce losses. For example, certain varieties of crops that are more wind-, drought-
or flood-resistant can often be introduced in areas prone to cyclones, drought or floods.
For populations displaced by hazards or conflict, opportunities to reduce their risk include the
identification of safe zones for resettlement in areas with adequate security and resources to support
displaced persons.
Economic
Economic development is key to disaster mitigation. A strong economy is the best protection against
a future disaster. A strong economy means more money to spend on stronger buildings, safer sites,
social development, and larger financial reserves to cope with future losses.
Mitigation measures can help a community reduce future economic losses. They can help members
withstand losses and improve their recoverability after loss. Measures that make it possible for
communities to afford higher levels of safety and security are important elements of an overall
mitigation program. Economic activities to help a community that hosts displaced persons absorb
this population can mitigate against the development of serious social or political problems.
Some aspects of economic planning are directly relevant to reducing disaster risk. Diversification of
economic activity is an important economic principle. A single-industry economy is always more
vulnerable than an economy made up of many different activities. Small island countries that
depend on exporting bananas, palm oil, or other tropical agricultural products are vulnerable to
extensive damage in a cyclone. Such countries could diversify into fishing, light manufacturing, or
other activities, for example. Diversification will help protect the economy against natural disasters
and also against unanticipated price fluctuations on the international market.
Some economic activities are relatively unaffected by certain types of disasters. For example,
recreational facilities are more suitably located in flood plains than manufacturing facilities. Efforts
should be made to identify and to encourage the development of enterprises that are less vulnerable
to anticipated hazards. Also, disaster managers should keep in mind that the linkages between
different sectors of an economy—the transportation of goods, the flow of information, and the labor
market—may be more vulnerable to disruption from a disaster than the physical infrastructure that is
the means of production.
Management and institutionalization of disaster mitigation

Disaster mitigation also requires certain organizational and procedural measures. The timescale over
which a significant reduction can be achieved in the potential impact of a disaster is medium and
long term. Changes in location of facilities and upgrades in structures and building stock are
processes that take decades. The objectives and policies that guide the mitigation processes have to
23
be sustained over a number of years. They have to survive the changes in political administration
that are likely to happen within that time and the changes in budgetary priorities and policies on
other matters. Institutionalizing disaster mitigation means accepting a consensus of opinion that
efforts to reduce disaster risk are of continual importance. Education, training, and the development
of professional expertise are necessary components of institutionalizing disaster mitigation.
Societal
The mitigation of disasters will only come about when there is a consensus that it is desirable. In
many places, the individual hazards that threaten do not result in disasters, the steps that people can
take to protect themselves are not known and the mandate of the community to have itself protected
is not forthcoming. Mitigation planning should aim to develop a disaster “safety culture,” one in
which the general public is fully aware of potential hazards, chooses to protect itself as fully as
possible and can readily support protective efforts made on its behalf.
Conflict reduction
In the disasters and emergencies created by conflict, mitigation must include conflict reduction.
Measures to reduce conflict must start with identifying and addressing the root causes of the conflict.
Negotiation will often be the primary tool of conflict reduction. Issues may arise over such root
causes as land tenure, employment, access to resources, and intolerance of ethnic or religious
differences. These issues need to be anticipated through a form of early warning and defused before
conflict erupts.
Timing for mitigation

While the risk reduction measures of mitigation are often considered pre-disaster activities, the most
opportune time to implement mitigation is in the period after a disaster. Public awareness of the
problems posed by hazards is high and the political will to act may also be at its peak. This period
probably will not last for more than two to three years before other development priorities take
precedence.
Components of a Strong Mitigation Program

• Preparation of hazard mitigation plans. In collaboration with community stakeholders, the
mitigation team must identify hazards and vulnerabilities and adopt strategies for dealing with
them.
• Management of development. To avoid putting people at risk in known hazards areas, the
community should use land use plans and development regulations to direct new growth away
from hazard areas. Existing buildings should be relocated from threatened areas to safe
locations.
• Protection of buildings and public facilities. Existing structures should be flood proofed, wind
proofed, and retrofitted to resist damage from earthquakes. New structures should be required
to meet the standards set in building and design codes. Defensive design should be incorporated
into public facilities and buildings.
24
• Conservation of natural areas. To reduce risks from hazards such as flooding landslides, and
erosion, the community should use techniques such as flood control structures, slope
stabilization, and shoreline setbacks.
• Limitation of public expenditures. To discourage development in high-risk areas such as

floodplains and coastal barrier islands, the community should withhold subsidies for roads,
bridges, sewage treatment systems, and other public facilities.
• Risk communication and public education. The community must ensure that residents, decision
makers, and prospective property buyers are notified about the location of hazard areas.
Residents must be informed about evacuation and shelter provisions, and builders and developers
should be educated about safe construction and mitigation techniques.
(David Godschalk, quoted in Waugh and Tierney, 2007)
Preparedness
The concept of disaster preparedness3is quite straightforward. Its objective is to ensure that, in times
of disaster, appropriate systems, procedures, and resources are in place to assist those afflicted by the
disaster and to enable them to help themselves.
The aims of disaster preparedness are to minimize the adverse effects of a hazard through effective
precautionary actions, and to ensure timely, appropriate and efficient organization and delivery of
emergency response following the impact of a disaster. Disaster preparedness in its starkest form
assumes that certain groups of people will nevertheless remain vulnerable, and that preparedness will
have to address the consequences of a hazard’s impact.
Disaster preparedness involves the use of “precautionary actions.” This means that disaster
preparedness is an active and continuing process; it is not just an act of preparing a static plan to be
filed until needed. Plans and strategies are required, but they must be dynamic ventures that are
frequently reviewed, modified, updated, and tested.
Timing is perhaps one of the most difficult aspects of disaster management, including the concept of
disaster preparedness. Speed and timeliness have often been treated synonymously—a major
conceptual flaw. Decisions related to timing must consider the relationship between relief inputs
and their effects. In some types of disasters, flood for example, there are certain basics such as
shelter and clothing that may be required immediately. In terms of alleviating immediate distress,
speed is critical. There are other forms of relief assistance, however, that under certain
3
For a more detailed discussion of preparedness, see the UWDMC course Disaster Preparedness.
25
circumstances may be disruptive unless delayed. Food assistance is one obvious example. Rushing
in massive amounts of food aid before a clear assessment of local market conditions and agricultural
prospects are known can create unwarranted dependency and undermine local economies.
Timeliness—not speed— should be the preparedness criterion.
Similarly, appropriate assistance demands careful scrutiny. The issue goes beyond the standard
stories of sending canned pork and high-heeled shoes to flooded Muslim communities. The issue
goes to the important and natural link between disaster preparedness, and recovery. Ultimately, we
need to ask if one of the key objectives of disaster preparedness—the provision of appropriate
assistance—is designed merely to ensure the immediate survival of affected communities, or, in
ensuring immediate survival, to simultaneously pave the way for recovery?
Efficient organization and delivery suggest obvious criteria for effective disaster preparedness.
Systematic planning, well-executed distribution, clear-cut roles and responsibilities are all vital. Too
often disaster situations create conditions of chaos. The best laid plans can mitigate but not
eliminate the sources of chaos and, equally as important, should try to anticipate what to do when
plans go awry. Efficiency becomes particularly important in the context of distribution. The key
here is to ensure that efficiency is measured in terms of the ability to deliver needed assistance to
those most vulnerable. All too often in disaster relief situations, food and non-food relief arrives at
the scene of a disaster, but no system or structure has been established to ensure that those in
greatest need are the beneficiaries. In the final analysis, the most important test of efficiency is that
those in need are adequately provided for.
Components of disaster preparedness

The following major components of disaster preparedness—assessing vulnerability, response
mechanisms, warning systems, public education and training and rehearsals—provide a framework
for developing a national disaster preparedness strategy.
Assessing vulnerability
Information is fundamental to all aspects of disaster management. It is a point that may appear
obvious, but is frequently overlooked. The disaster manager may know that a particular geographic
region or community is susceptible to the impacts of sudden or slow-onset hazards. In reality,
however, until a decision is made on systematic ways to compile and assess information about
disaster vulnerabilities, the manager is and will be working in a void.
Vulnerability is the propensity of things to be damaged by a hazard. People’s lives and health are
directly at risk from the destructive effects of the hazard. Their incomes and livelihoods are at risk
because of the destruction of buildings, crops, livestock, or equipment. Each type of hazard puts a
somewhat different set of elements at risk.
Vulnerability evaluation is the process of understanding which elements are most at risk from the
principal hazards which have been identified. Evaluating vulnerability is essential if development
planners are to act to reduce vulnerability.
26
Vulnerability assessment is the process of estimating the vulnerability to potential disaster hazards
of specified elements at risk. For general socio-economic purposes, it involves consideration of all
significant elements in society (physical, social and economic) and the extent to which essential
services will be able to continue functioning.
Especially in developing countries, the root causes of vulnerability to disasters are poverty and
inequitable development. Rapid population growth, urban or mass migration, inequitable patterns
of land ownership, lack of education, and subsistence agriculture on marginal lands lead to
vulnerable conditions such as unsafe siting of buildings and settlements, unsafe homes,
deforestation, malnutrition, unemployment, underemployment, and illiteracy. It is in the interface
between these vulnerable conditions and natural hazards (such as an earthquake, tropical storm,
drought, and heavy rains) where a disaster or protracted emergency results.
THE PROGRESSION OF VULNERABILITY DISASTER HAZARD
1 2 3
Underlying causes Dynamic pressures Unsafe conditions Trigger events
Poverty Lac k of Fragile physical environment Earthquake
Limited acces s to -- local institutions -- dangerous locations High winds
-- power structures -- education -- dangerous buildings and Disas ter
-- training Flooding
-- resources infrastructure = Volcanic eruption
-- appropriate s kills
Ideologies -- local investment Vulne ra bility Landslide
Fragile local economy
Ec onomic systems Drought
-- local markets -- livelihoods at risk +
General pre- -- press freedom -- low income levels War, civil conflic t
Macro forc es
Hazard
conditioning factors Technological
-- population expansion Public actions accident
-- urbanization
-- environmental
degradation
Figure 3. The Disaster Crunch Model

This material has been adapted from Blaikie, Cannon, Davis and Wisner, 1994.
At Risk: Natural Hazards, People‘s Vulnerability and Disasters.
Vulnerability derived from poverty can best be addressed by long-term development projects targeted
at the underlying reasons that large population groups remain poor, while at the same time
introducing measures to mitigate disaster effects.
Vulnerability may also be a result of factors more easily solved by specific risk reduction measures.
These factors include inappropriate building codes and materials and a lack of public awareness.
Many of these measures, however, depend on the extent of a society’s development. For example, it
is unrealistic to expect building codes to be enforced where governments do not have staff and
resources to carry out inspections. Likewise, public awareness depends, to some extent, on the
community’s educational level and the availability of communication facilities, which are frequently
deficient in developing countries.
27
Vulnerability and risk assessment provide the link between development project implementation and disaster
mitigation. A proposed development project should be examined against the vulnerability and risk of
the project location. If the location or the nature of the project design is inherently vulnerable to
disasters, then the location should be reconsidered or disaster mitigation/risk reduction measures
must be taken.
Risk evaluation.4 The first step in risk management is quantifying the probability of the risk. The
second step is evaluating the risk, that is, passing judgment on how serious it is. The importance a
community places on the risk of a disaster is likely to be influenced by the type and level of other
everyday risks it faces. Even if the risk from a natural hazard is quite significant, it is unlikely to
compare, for example, with the risk of child mortality in a society with minimal primary health care.
As societies develop economically, risk reduction is likely to assume greater importance.
Development itself can increase the likelihood of disasters, but as societies become richer more
resources can be made available to invest in some degree of protection. Protection of the
development process itself becomes a disaster mitigation issue.
Estimating risk and vulnerability. The estimation of probable future losses is a matter of increasing
interest to those concerned with development planning in hazard-prone regions. Fundamental to
disaster preparedness and mitigation planning is an understanding of what to expect. This needs to
be quantified, if only in a crude and approximate way, in terms of the degree of risk faced, the size of
event that is likely, and the consequences of an event if it occurs.
The calculation of risk generally needs to consider several types of loss. The most common
parameter of loss, and the one most easily dealt with, is economic cost. Cost is widely used because
many types of loss can be converted into economic cost. Effects that are considered in terms of
economic costs are known as tangible losses. In addition, there is a range of other effects resulting
from disasters that are important but which cannot be converted into a monetary equivalent; these
are referred to as intangible losses.
A full consideration of risk includes a complete range of effects, both tangible and intangible, and of
several qualitatively different types. Table 1 lists the range of undesirable consequences of natural
hazards that we might consider as loss parameters.
4
This section is drawn from the UNDP/UNDHA training module Vulnerability and Risk Assessment written by
A.W. Coburn, R.J.S. Spence and A. Pomonis.
28
Table 1. Loss Parameters for Risk Analysis

Losses
Consequences Measure Tangible Intangible
Deaths Number of people Loss of economically active Social and psychological

individuals effects on remaining
community
Injuries Number and severity of Medical treatment needs, Social and psychological pain
injuries temporary loss of economic and recovery
activity by productive
individuals
Physical Inventory of damaged Replacement and repair cost Cultural losses

damage elements, by number and
damage level
Emergency Number of person-days Mobilization costs, investment Stress and overwork in relief
operations employed, equipment and in preparedness capability participants
resources expended for relief
Disruption to Number of working days lost, Value of lost production, see Opportunities,
economy volume of production lost also “environmental impact” competitiveness, reputation
Social disruption Number of displaced persons, Temporary housing, relief, Psychological, social
homeless economic production contacts, cohesion,
community morals
Environmental Scale and severity Clean-up costs, repair cost, Consequences of poorer
impact jobs lost and income reduced environment, health risks, risk
because of lost access to of future disaster
environmental resources
How is risk determined? There are three essential components in the determination of risk, each of
which should be separately quantified:
1. hazard occurrence probability: calculating the likelihood of experiencing any natural or
technological hazard at a location or in a region
2. elements at risk: identifying and making an inventory of people, buildings or other elements
which would be affected by the hazard if it occurred, and where required, estimating their
economic value
3. vulnerability of the elements at risk: anticipating how damaged the buildings or injured the
people or other elements would be if they experienced some level of hazard.
There are several methods for presenting the above information to illustrate the data describing risk.
These can often be represented on a map, which is an essential tool in evaluating development
29
projects because it allows you to see if a project site is located in an area of high risk. The following
figure illustrates one example.
A risk map showing slope stability. Geodata developed by the Swedish Institute for Geological Research.
Reducing vulnerability for displaced persons. Much of the preceding discussion on vulnerability
and risk relates more to sudden onset disasters than slow onset disasters and population
displacements. Nevertheless, much of the assessment process and technologies apply to these other
situations as well. For example, mapping of hazards is also important for identifying areas subject to
drought or even civil conflict. Meeting the needs of a migrating population or one recently arrived at
a new location will be assisted by mapping the best routes and survival resources along the way.
Strategies for vulnerability reduction in zones of conflict might include development inputs that can
reduce the conflict, such as installing water points for nomads in areas where water is a scarce
resource subject to competition.
Response mechanisms
There are four basic functions that emergency responders must perform in response to a disaster;
assessment of the emergency, hazard operations, protection of the population, and overall
30
management, sometimes referred to as incident management or command. All of these functions

need to be described in an emergency operations plan that includes assigning responsibilities and
organizational structures.
The effectiveness of the response to warnings and disaster impacts is the ultimate test of a plan. At a
certain stage in the warning process, various responses will have to be mobilized. The staging of
responses becomes an essential factor in designing a preparedness plan. In the preparedness phase,
it is important to anticipate all of the mechanisms required to respond to a disaster/emergency. For
example, as part of a preparedness plan, an agency may stockpile certain emergency relief items,
such as plastic sheeting. In the event of a disaster/emergency, such stockpiles can be used to quickly
respond to emergency needs. The next chapter will discuss how such planned-for mechanisms can
be activated as part of an emergency response.
Warning systems
For most types of rapid onset disasters, a warning system can save many lives. When given
adequate notice of an impending disaster, an affected population can either escape the event or take
precautions to reduce the dangers. It must be assumed, however, that functioning communications
systems may not be available in times of a major disaster. Begin to plan a warning system around
that assumption. Consider what type of communications equipment will be needed and sustainable
if power lines and receiving stations are destroyed. Preparedness plans should include provisions for
access to alternative communication systems among police, military, and government networks.
Warning is also critical for slow onset disasters and population displacements. In this case, it is
called early warning and has to do with information and its distribution regarding either:
• giving timely notice of an impending crisis in the supply of food, or
• making ready for or preventing forced migration of people.
Public education and training

The focus of a disaster preparedness plan should be to anticipate, to the extent possible, the types of
requirements needed for action or responses to warnings and for a disaster relief operation. The plan
should also specify the most effective ways of ensuring that such requirements are met. Yet, the
process will only be effective if those who are the ultimate beneficiaries know what to do and what
to expect in times of disaster. For this reason, an essential part of a disaster preparedness plan is the
education of those who may be threatened by disaster. Such education takes many forms, such as:
• public education in schools for children and young adults that emphasizes what actions
should be taken in case of a disaster threat (for example, earthquake tremors)
• special training courses, designed for an adult population either specifically or as an extra
dimension of on-going programs such as Preventive Health Care or Maternal and Child
Health programs
• extension programs, in which community and village-based extension workers are instructed
to provide relevant information and trained for tasks they should undertake during the event
31
Public information through mass media (television, radio or print) will never really replace the
impact of direct instruction. If sensitively designed and presented, however, mass media may be a
useful supplement to the overall educational process.
Rehearsals (drills)
As military maneuvers cannot fully portray the reality of battle, neither can disaster preparedness
rehearsals portray the full dynamics—and potential chaos—of a disaster relief operation. That fact,
however, should not provide an excuse for avoiding the need to rehearse the disaster preparedness
plan. Not only will rehearsals reemphasize points made in separate training programs, they will also
test the system as a whole and, invariably, reveal gaps that otherwise might be overlooked.5
Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters

Preparedness activities for slow onset disasters often vary from those of sudden onset disasters. Slow
onset disasters may require more active involvement on the part of planners, especially in terms of
monitoring early warning systems, for famine, war, and civil strife. The remedial response to
problems indicated by the early warning (of potential disasters) is an extension of preparedness.
Q. On the following list of disaster preparedness components identify at least one responsibility
that you, in your official capacity, can or should assume for that component. If you have none, list
who is the most responsible agency in your community or country for that component.
A.
Assessing vulnerability ______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Estimating risk and vulnerability ______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Warning systems _____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Public education and training ______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Rehearsals ______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5
The preceding part of this chapter is drawn from the UNDP/UNDHA training module, Disaster Preparedness
by Randolph Kent.
32
Self-test
Now that you have been introduced to the general concepts of disaster mitigation and preparedness,
you should evaluate your understanding by completing this self-assessment test. If there are parts
you are not able to answer, we suggest you go back and review the relevant material.
Multiple Choice:
1. Disaster preparedness aims to minimize the adverse effects of a hazard. This is best
accomplished through
A. working to reduce vulnerabilities
B. stockpiling equipment
C. maintaining an extensive preparedness plan
D. anticipating a large degree of chaos
E. all of the above
2. In calculating risk, several types of loss need to be considered. Important aspects of loss might
include
A. economic costs of clean-up and repair
B. loss of community morale
C. economic costs of lost production
D. cultural losses
E. economic costs of medical treatment
F. A, C, E
G. all of the above
3. Which of the following could be considered an example of a mitigation technique?
A. agricultural diversification
B. implementing building standards
C. building a thriving, single-industry economy
D. incorporating hazard assessment into land-use planning
E. training builders in disaster resistant construction
4. Protection against the threats of disaster can be achieved by
A. removing the cause of the threat
B. modifying the cause of the threat
C. reducing the effects of the threat should it occur
D. reducing the vulnerability of elements likely to be affected
E. all of the above
F. c and d only
5. Match the mitigation technique from the first list with the phrase that best describes it from the
list below.
33
_____ Spatial planning

_____ Economic development
_____ Engineering
_____ Management and institutionalization of disaster mitigation
_____ Societal consensus building
_____ Conflict reduction
A. requires widespread public education about potential hazards and protection measures
B. addresses root causes such as land tenure systems; often utilizes negotiation
C. involves the identification of zones which are too hazardous for use as building sites
D. measures to ensure that individual structures are more resistant to hazards
E. diversification is an important component of this process
F. organizational and procedural measures that ensure program continuity
="/(>?3')(@*
Indicate T or F:
6. T F Where high-risk levels are associated with highly valued benefits, the acceptable
levels of risk are usually lower.
7. T F A sound economy offers the best defense against many types of disasters and
emergencies.
8. T F All significant elements in a society including physical, social and economic factors
should be considered in a vulnerability assessment.
34
Answers:
1. E
2. G
3. A, B, D, E
4. E
5. spatial planning—C
economic development—E
engineering—D
management and institutionalization of disaster mitigation—F
societal consensus building—A
conflict reduction—B
6. F
7. T
8. T
35
Chapter 3
Activities of Disaster Management:
Response and Recovery
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to describe:
• the principal management objectives of disaster response and recovery

• the aims and objectives of emergency and post-disaster assistance
• several disaster management techniques applicable to response and recovery
As discussed in Chapter 1, there are four primary categories of disaster management activities. In
the last chapter, we looked at disaster mitigation and preparedness; in this chapter we will consider
disaster response and recovery. As in the last chapter, it is important to keep in mind the
relationship between these disaster management activities and the development process.
Response
Disaster response6 is the sum total of actions taken by people and institutions in the face of disaster.
These actions commence with the warning of an oncoming threatening event or with the event itself
if it occurs without warning. Disaster response includes the implementation of disaster preparedness
plans and procedures, thus overlapping with disaster preparedness. Disaster response activities
diminish and transition to disaster recovery activities.
The principal activities of disaster response are, formally or informally, governed by a set of policies
and procedures, and each activity is typically under the auspices of a lead agency. As discussed in
Chapter 4, disaster response activities are implemented by a myriad of government organizations,
international and national agencies, local entities, and individuals. Each has its own resources, roles,
and responsibilities. Many of these individuals are referred to as ‘first responders,’ people with life
saving and other urgent tasks. They include search and rescue teams, emergency medical care,
evacuation, and firefighting. Mitigation of exposure to hazardous material and restoring vital
services occur simultaneously with these life saving efforts and include supply of food, water and
shelter, and a ‘command and control’ administrative unit. First responders in large urban disasters
6
For a more extensive discussion, see the UW-Disaster Management Center self-study course Disaster
Response.
36
may also require specialists such as heavy-equipment operators, construction safety personnel, and
transit workers.
Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance

The overall aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance are to:
• ensure the survival of the maximum possible number of the affected population, keeping
them in the best possible health in the circumstances
• re-establish self-sufficiency and essential services as quickly as possible for all population
groups, with special attention to those whose needs are greatest: the most vulnerable and
underprivileged
• repair or replace a damaged infrastructure and regenerate viable economic activities; to do
this in a manner that contributes to long-term development goals and reduces vulnerability
to any future recurrence of potentially damaging hazards
In situations of civil or international conflict, the aim is to protect and assist the civilian population,
in close collaboration with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and in compliance
with international conventions. In cases involving population displacements (due to any type of
disaster), the aim is to find durable solutions as quickly as possible, while ensuring protection and
assistance as necessary in the mean time.
Response activities
The following are typical activities of emergency response. There are important differences,
however, between sudden and slow onset disasters. Differences also emerge when comparing the
specific geographical situation and the disaster’s socio-political context.
Warning
Sudden onset. Warning refers to arrangements to rapidly disseminate information concerning
imminent disaster threats issued to government officials, institutions, and the population at large in
the areas of immediate risk. These warnings normally relate to tropical storms, floods, volcanic
eruptions, and tsunamis.
Slow onset. Early warning is the term used regarding slow-onset disasters, especially famines. It is
also used to indicate possible civil conflict leading to internally displaced populations or refugees.
Early warning activities include the process of monitoring the situation in communities or areas
known to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of droughts, crop failures, and/or changes in
economic conditions. An adequate warning will enable remedial measures to be initiated before
hardships become acute. When early warning activities fail to detect the warning signs or where
such signs were ignored, these activities become part of the disaster response and are used to
continually monitor the situation.
Evacuation/migration
Sudden onset. Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from zones at risk of an imminent
disaster to a safer location. Evacuation is most commonly associated with tropical storms but is also
37
a frequent requirement with volcanic eruptions, and technological or industrial accidents. For
evacuation to work there must be a timely and accurate warning system, clear identification of
escape routes, an established policy that requires everyone to evacuate when an order is given and a
public education program to make the community aware of the plan.
Slow onset. The movement of people from the zone where they are at risk to a safer site is not, in
fact, evacuation but crisis-induced migration. This movement is usually not organized and
coordinated by authorities but is a spontaneous response to the perception by the migrants that food
and/or security can be obtained elsewhere.
Search and rescue

Sudden onset. Search and rescue is the process of identifying the location of disaster victims that
may be trapped or isolated and bringing them to safety and medical attention. In the aftermath of
tropical storms and floods, this usually includes locating stranded flood victims, who may be
threatened by rising water, and either bringing them to safety or providing them with food and first
aid until they can be evacuated or returned to their homes. In the aftermath of earthquakes, search
and rescue normally focuses on locating people who are trapped and injured in collapsed buildings.
Emergency relief
Sudden onset. Emergency relief is the provision, on a humanitarian basis, of material assistance and
emergency medical care necessary to save and preserve human lives. It also enables families to meet
their basic needs for medical and health care, shelter, clothing, water, and food (including the means
to prepare and serve food). Relief supplies or services are typically provided free of charge in the
days and weeks immediately following a sudden disaster.
Slow onset. Emergency relief may need to be provided for extended periods in the case of neglected
or deteriorated slow-onset emergency situations and population displacements (refugees, internally
and externally displaced people). The impact of the disaster may be mitigated for these populations
through additional assistance to the host community as well.
Security
Sudden onset. Security is not always a priority issue after sudden onset natural disasters. It is
typically handled by civil defense or police departments.
Slow onset. The protection of the human rights and safety of displaced populations and refugees
can be of paramount importance, requiring international assistance and monitoring.
*
38
Disaster assessment
Assessment7 is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society. The first priority is to
identify the needs for immediate emergency measures to save and sustain the lives of survivors. The
second priority is to identify the possibilities for facilitating and expediting recovery and development.
Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases and involving on-the-spot surveys
and the collation, evaluation, and interpretation of information from various sources. These surveys
concern both direct and indirect losses as well as the short- and long-term effects. Assessment
involves determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be needed, but also
defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided to the victims.
Some assessments are specifically conducted as damage assessments. They include the preparation
of specific, quantified estimates of physical damage resulting from a disaster. The damage
assessment may also include an estimate of economic losses and recommendations concerning the
repair, reconstruction, or replacement of structures and equipment, as well as the restoration of
economic activities.
Rather than assuming that all property losses or survival needs must be replaced or furnished from
outside sources, the assessment must identify the local response capacity, including organizational,
medical, construction material, and logistical resources that can be used to meet the needs of the
affected population. After considering how existing resources can best be used and after identifying
the priorities of the affected people themselves, the assessment should then identify the resource gaps
that must be met through outside sources.
When people who are not from the disaster area conduct the assessment, they may have a difficult
time distinguishing chronic needs from problems created by the disaster. Knowledge of baseline data
is essential to identify the starting point for post-disaster needs. Similarly, knowledge of government
policies with regard to emergency assistance will also be valuable for the response agency if the
results of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster response program. These
policies will also affect the estimate of additional support required from national and international
sources for relief.
The following exercise is useful for determining a country’s level of preparedness and its capacity to
respond to a disaster or emergency.
7
For a more detailed discussion, see the UW-Disaster Management Center self-study course Damage and Needs
Assessment.
39
Exercise
Identify the priority types of disasters for your country. In the following matrix in the section labeled
“Agency has” indicate with a Yes or No whether each agency has such a plan, program, or focal point.
For each row in the “Activities” section place a “1” under the agency that has primary responsibility
for that activity and a “2” under each agency that has secondary responsibilities for that activity.
Country Preparedness and Response Capacity Matrix
other government ministries

ministry of planning/finance
Red Cross/Red Crescent

response focal point
ministry of public works

nat‘l gov‘t disaster
other organizations
international NGOs
Development Bank
ministry of housing
local population
other UN agencies
local government
ministry of health
national NGOs
civil defense
UNICEF
UNHCR
UNDP
police
WHO
FAO
Agency has:
preparedness plan
disaster mgmt.
training program
designated disaster
focal point
Activities
warning
evacuation
search and rescue
assessment
emergency relief
medical
public health
food
shelter
water
sanitation
clothing
logistics
40
fuel
roads
fishing
storage
airports
schools
security
industry
housing
handling
irrigation
railroads
electrical
transport
commerce
agriculture
construction
social services
critical facilities
communications
Activities continued
sea or river ports

info. management
economic recovery
mgmt. coordination
local population
local government
nat‘l gov‘t disaster

response focal point
civil defense
police
ministry of planning/finance
ministry of public works
ministry of housing
ministry of health
41
other government ministries
Red Cross/Red Crescent
Development Bank
UNDP
UNICEF
WHO
FAO
UNHCR
other UN agencies
international NGOs
national NGOs
other organizations
Q. Based on your analysis of the preceding matrix, which organizations seem least prepared to
respond to emergencies?
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Q. Which response activities do not have an organization with primary responsibility?
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Q. Which activities are most in need of coordination among the agencies because so many are
involved?
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Q. In which areas do you need further research to understand your organization’s strengths and
limitations?
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Transition planning
The shift of activities from disaster response to recovery is a critical, but not easily recognizable
process. Making the transition successfully is one of the more challenging aspects of disaster
management. The central concept of transition planning is that disaster response activities set the
stage for recovery. Some activities, though well intentioned, may set back recovery, such as the
distribution of free food in a way that depresses the local markets and discourages local farmers from
resuming agricultural production.
Instead, disaster response life saving activities must also set the stage for recovery and the
resumption of development. Referring again to the food supply example, a better approach may
have been to link food distribution to food-for-work (if appropriate in the specific situation) and also
to ensure farmers have the seeds and tools to resume agricultural production. This approach
requires that disaster response activities be designed from the outset to lay the groundwork for
recovery and development. It also means that agencies need to staff the disaster response with
individuals who understand the response-recovery-development linkages and are capable of
identifying response strategies that also foster development.
42
Recovery
Recovery focuses on activities that enable victims to resume normal, viable lives and means of
livelihood. It also includes the restoration of infrastructure, services, and the economy in a manner
appropriate to long-term needs and defined development objectives. After some disasters, there also
may be a need for continuing humanitarian assistance for selected vulnerable groups. This section
provides brief guidelines concerning assistance to recovery by viewing it as a closely linked sequence
of rehabilitation, reconstruction, and development following a disaster.
For some agencies it is important to distinguish between rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and local communities) to
resume more-or-less normal (i.e., pre-disaster) patterns of life. The scope of rehabilitation may be
limited to the repair of essential infrastructure (e.g. roads, bridges, irrigation systems), lifelines (e.g.,
water, electricity), and social services. It may be considered a transitional phase between immediate
relief and more significant, long-term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.
Reconstruction is the permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged physical
structures, the full restoration of all services and local infrastructure, and the revitalization of the
economy (including agriculture). Although the term may imply a focus on rebuilding physical
facilities, it can also encompass restoring financial, legal and public safety services, education, and a
social safety net.
Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing, long-term development plans, taking account
of future disaster risks. The possibilities of reducing those risks by incorporating appropriate
mitigation measures must also be considered. Damaged structures and services may not necessarily
be restored in their previous form or locations. Therefore, reconstruction may include the permanent
replacement of any temporary arrangements established as a part of the emergency response or
rehabilitation.
Under conditions of conflict, however, recovery may not be feasible. For obvious reasons of safety
and security, activities in rehabilitation and reconstruction may need to wait for peace.
Priorities and opportunities in recovery

A disaster may have created new opportunities for development by changing the environment and
the point of departure, both in terms of physical structures and/or social patterns and attitudes. It
will certainly have heightened awareness concerning disaster risks, and both the local populations
and national authorities are likely to be especially receptive to proposals for risk reduction and
preparedness measures. When planning recovery projects, as well as when formulating new, long-
term development programs, such opportunities must be recognized and seized. This concept is
often described by agencies as ‘build back better.’
Disaster recovery presents a wide range of priority needs. Typically, the most challenging are
housing reconstruction, economic recovery, environmental protection, restoration of infrastructure
and lifelines, and, in the short term, removal of debris and disposition of donations. In addition,
underlying these several dimensions of need are social and psychological conditions, which strongly
43
affect the recovery process as a whole and should not be ignored. (Phillips and Neal, quoted in
Waugh and Tierney, 2007).
Assistance to recovery must therefore be planned on the basis of a thorough assessment and
appraisal of the technical and social issues involved. While the planning of such assistance cannot be
unduly rushed, it must be accomplished as expeditiously as possible. There are two reasons for this:
• Certain recovery measures, if organized rapidly enough, can shorten the period for which
emergency relief assistance is needed and eliminate the need to invest resources in temporary
measures. These opportunities should be identified in the transition planning activity
described above.
• The “window of opportunity” may be short for the incorporation of risk reduction measures
in recovery (of housing, for instance) or for new development initiatives (especially social
aspects).
In all cases, assistance for recovery must incorporate public participation in its planning. Generally,
the local government should convene key stakeholders – residents, business owners, community
organizations – in a process that generates a shared vision for recovery. Such community
involvement has been shown to result in more successful outcomes than top-down decision making.
Seasonal factors must be considered and may determine the timetable for reconstruction. For
example, it may be necessary to replace emergency shelter or rehabilitate irrigation systems in time
for the next crop season.
The aim is to promote and assist recovery. Assistance during the post-disaster phase must be
planned and implemented with this clearly in mind. Damaged structures and services that are
essential to the society must be repaired or replaced, and duly protected against future risks. At the
same time, and no less important, ways must be found to help people recover, particularly those
people who have the fewest available resources.
As noted earlier, the majority of people affected by disasters are the poor.
“For the poor, disasters represent lost property, jobs, and economic opportunity. In real terms that
can represent an enormous economic setback. Therefore, reconstruction assistance should be
designed to:
• relieve economic constraints and reduce the cost of reconstruction

• inject capital into the community
• create employment opportunities
• support and strengthen existing economic enterprises.”
(Cuny cited by Davis, 1990)
Timely and imaginative planning is therefore required to dovetail rehabilitation and reconstruction
with short-term relief measures, and to make the most effective use of external financial resources,
44
materials, and technical assistance in achieving development gains while satisfying humanitarian
needs.
Danger of planning and conducting reconstruction in haste

“Post-disaster programs—even reconstruction programmes, are often planned and carried out in
haste. The rush may occur because of the reconstruction planners’ perceived need to return the
community to ‘normal’ as soon as possible or because of time constraints on donor funding. Thus,
the sort of careful planning and community involvement necessary for development planning is
often overlooked. Without such planning, these programmes may infringe on longer-term
development efforts or delay their implementation. Reconstruction programmes that are ill-
planned and merely return communities to the status quo may leave them almost as vulnerable
again to a future disaster, while at the same time creating a sense of complacency because
something has been seen to have been done.”
"#$%&'%&(%)!*++,-
Self-test
Now that you have been introduced to the general concepts of disaster response and recovery, you
should evaluate your understanding by completing this self-assessment test. If there are parts you
are not able to answer, we suggest you go back and review the relevant material.
Multiple Choice:
1. Evacuation involves the relocation of a population from a high risk zone to a safer location in
the face of impending disaster. A successful evacuation operation requires
A. panic induced mobilization
B. a timely and accurate warning system
C. clear identification of escape routes
D. effective public education
E. all of the above
2. The activities of search and rescue include

A. providing a clear and concise picture of the post-disaster situation
B. locating stranded and trapped victims
C. relocating a population from zones at risk
D. receiving, storing, and dispatching relief supplies
45
3. Emergency relief refers to the process of

A. providing material aid and emergency medical care
B. providing shelter, clothing, water, and food
C. locating people trapped in collapsed buildings
D. ensuring that security needs are handled by civil defense
4. The first priority of a disaster assessment team is

A. to collect as much information as possible
B. to collect data as rapidly as possible
C. to identify needs for immediate measures to save and sustain lives
D. to identify individuals from other organizations who should be part of the team
E. B and C
5. In disaster response, rehabilitation refers to

A. actions taken to enable basic services to resume functioning
B. actions taken to enable an affected population to resume pre-disaster patterns of life
C. the permanent construction or replacement of damaged physical structures
D. the pursuit of long-term development goals
E. the provision of medical assistance to people with injuries
True/False:
Indicate T or F:
T F 6. Ensuring efficient organization and delivery of emergency response following the

impact of a disaster is primarily a question of speed.
T F 7. Securing civil protection and human rights is typically a greater problem with slow
onset than sudden onset disasters.
T F 8. Post-disaster assessments cannot afford to be concerned with pre-disaster

conditions.
T F 9. When conducting a disaster assessment, it is useful to consider government policies

regarding emergency assistance.
T F 10. Rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts should forge ahead regardless of existing
conditions of conflict.
46
A$)B(")@**
1. B, C, D
2. B
3. A, B
4. C
5. A, B
6. F
7. T
8. F
9. T
10. F
47
Chapter 4
Roles and Responsibilities of Disaster
Management Actors
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter and, you should be familiar with the various actors in the disaster
management system. You will be able to describe:
• the general roles and capabilities of the affected population, host government agencies, donors,
United Nations and other international agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
• the role of the military as well as its strengths and limitations with regard to providing
humanitarian assistance!
!
There is no universally recognized disaster management system per se. Instead, the disaster
management actors are made up of a wide range of institutions and agencies that provide relief,
humanitarian assistance, and/or protection during emergencies. By gaining a better understanding
of the roles and capabilities of the players, each institution or agency can better prepare, plan for,
coordinate, and implement their emergency response. While there is a very large number of
institutional players, in this chapter they are grouped into the following general institutional families:
the affected population, host government agencies, donors, United Nations and other international
agencies, local and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the International Red
Cross and Red Crescent Movement, and military forces sanctioned by international or regional
authorities. Together they form a complex network, but, as in all aspects of a community, the
function of the network depends on individuals’ knowledge and personal relationships. “Knowing
whom to call, knowing what resources to ask for, and knowing how the intergovernmental system
works are crucial to effective and efficient action.” (Rubin 2007)
Q. What type of organization do you work for? What are its strengths in the area of disaster
management?
A. ___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Its limitations? ___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
48
________________________________________________________________________________________
What critical disaster management issues are facing your organization?!! """""""""""""""""""""""""!!
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Affected population
It is important for disaster managers to recognize that they, by virtue of their “official” status, are not
the only ones who are concerned with disaster management. Those affected by disasters are the
most concerned because they are the most invested in their community—their homes, their
livelihood, and their social and cultural roots. The affected population is always involved in disaster
management—whether by informally planning how to save their homes or their families from a
natural disaster or civil conflict, by helping their neighbors who have lost their homes in a disaster;
or by caring for those who have been injured in a disaster.
Disaster managers from outside the affected community must first recognize that the affected
population is already involved in disaster management. Especially when NGOs are not already
operating in the area in which the disaster occurs, local people are the most responsible for meeting
immediate needs, including rescuing and helping the wounded and beginning the process of
rebuilding. In sudden onset disasters, “most deaths occur within 24 to 48 hours of the impact. In
Tang Shan [earthquake], for example, the proportion of persons extricated alive from damaged
buildings dropped from 81 per cent within the first 24 hours to 33.7 per cent in the days that
followed. These findings underscore the critical importance of local preparedness compared to
external assistance. It is clear that it is virtually impossible to assure outside help, much less
international assistance, within the first 24-hour period” (Sapir, 1993, p. 260). Many immediate
responses occur before non-local NGOs even arrive in the community.
If outside disaster managers recognize that communities have their own mechanisms for coping with
disasters and work with those mechanisms, they can facilitate and make more effective their
response. Rather than ask, “How can we get the affected population to participate in the programs
we think are best?” disaster managers should instead ask, “How can we support the efforts of local
people to meet their immediate needs while also supporting their efforts to achieve social and
economic development?” (Anderson and Woodrow, 1989).
The following example illustrates how affected populations manage disasters themselves. It also
shows how an outside agency can work with the affected population in a way that does not increase
their future vulnerability and does not simply react to the disaster by a massive outpouring of
assistance without trying to understand how the community is already managing their
circumstances.
49
Example from Bangladesh

The floods covered two-thirds of Bangladesh. People were stranded on roofs and high ground and
needed food, clean water, and some medicines. Reports flowed out to other parts of the world
about these needs. Concerned people wanted to respond.
One report went like this: ‘It is a terrible and widespread natural calamity.’ But, of course,
Bangladeshis know that flooding is due each year, and the government and local agencies had
prepared for such an event. Food is available locally, having been stored in past good years in
water-tight warehouses, mostly on high ground. The thousands of small boats that people in
Bangladesh use to get around have been organized by local NGOs and other agencies to carry this
food to stranded people. They are taking drugs and water, too. Of course, it is difficult for them
to reach the most remote areas, but they have a better chance of doing so than airplanes which
still cannot land anywhere in the country since the runways are under water.
An appropriate NGO response might be, ‘I’d say the Bangladeshis have the immediate crisis well
under control. But, we can help in the aftermath. There will be a lot of work to be done,
dredging canals, cleaning up housing, redigging ditches, repairing wells. Bangladeshis can do all of
this, but if we help, it can be done more quickly and with less cost to local enterprise. We should
get resources together to help support this work, when the floods recede. When our airplanes can
finally get in, we also might help replenish the food supplies, so they will be ready the next time
the floods are so severe.’
(Anderson and Woodrow, 1989, p. 51)
In summary, external disaster management actors should recognize that neighborhood, family, and
individual preparedness efforts can greatly increase the local capacity to respond to and recover from
disasters. The role of external agencies is, therefore, to support these efforts.
Host government
In most instances, host governments have the primary responsibility for institutionalized disaster
management activities within their country. If host governments are to meet their responsibilities to
their citizens, they must be actively involved in disaster management activities. Responsibility for
disaster mitigation is usually assigned to a government ministry. For example, mitigation activities
for drought would normally be assigned to an agricultural ministry, while mitigation and
preparedness activities for earthquakes would typically be assigned to a housing or public works
ministry. Preparedness planning is usually carried out by an interministerial committee or by a unit
of government that specializes in planning and coordination. The latter may be an existing planning
group such as a central planning office.
During an emergency, disaster preparedness authorities may assume responsibility for coordination
of emergency activities, or a new emergency committee may be established. Depending on the type
of disaster, however, operational responsibilities will usually be assigned to one or more ministries,
usually those with some degree of operational capacity or with special equipment required for the
50
emergency period. For example, public works departments, which have trucks and engineering
equipment, are often assigned the lead responsibility during floods, while public health departments
are usually assigned the lead responsibility during famines or epidemics. During the post-emergency
phases and especially during reconstruction, operational responsibility may be shifted to another
government ministry or a combination of ministries. If the disaster has been particularly destructive
or widespread, special regional agencies may sometimes be formed with staff seconded from the
normal ministries. These regional, or disaster-specific, agencies tend to remain in existence for
about one to five years. They are then disbanded and the personnel return to their former jobs.
In large-scale emergency operations, host governments may establish a special ministry or other
entity charged with overall coordination of government humanitarian assistance and interaction
with international assistance entities. Such government coordination structures, when they exist, are
important counterparts for international humanitarian staff. Host government coordination
mechanisms may take different shapes; in some cases, primary responsibility may rest within the
Prime Minister’s office, another line ministry or with a Relief and Rehabilitation Commission.
Host government leadership depends on its governing capacity, resources, professional and
bureaucratic competence, and control over its territory. In Cyprus, for example, an extremely
capable and well- trained cadre of civil servants and professionals ensured effective management
capability during the Greek-Cypriot refugee crisis which resulted from the Turkish invasion of
Cyprus in 1974 (Zetter, 1992). Similarly, the Malawian government had a well-defined operational
framework in place before assistance was internationalized in 1987. This ensured that international
agencies would work through the government framework channeling their assistance through
appropriate government ministries (Zetter, 1995).
Host government leadership and involvement in assistance efforts can build national pride,
strengthen civil institutions, lend credibility to international efforts, ensure long-term sustainability
and reduce national fears related to loss of government autonomy. Host government leadership can
also enhance the likelihood that assistance will be appropriate (Minear, 1996). While external
agencies may focus on immediate relief, the host government is generally more interested in longer-
term solutions and emergency responses that are aligned with their recovery and development
efforts.
In some instances, the host government can best fulfill their disaster management role by calling on
the resources of the international community. Understandably, there is a variety of reasons why
host governments may fail to engage the larger humanitarian community. In cases where preserving
their autonomy is a prime consideration, host governments may downplay the scale of the
emergency or exaggerate their response capacity in an effort to ward off external interference in their
internal affairs. In other cases, governments may not be fully familiar with available international
resources and institutions. Consequently, international agencies which could have averted or
mitigated a major humanitarian emergency may not respond at all, or respond long after the worst
of the emergency has passed (Minear, 1996).
In some complex emergencies, the host government may be non-existent or lack the administrative
mechanisms and resources to regulate or coordinate international assistance. This was the case in
Kigali, Rwanda when more than 130 NGOs arrived between August and September 1994 and in
51
Somalia during the 2000s and early 2010s. The absence of government leadership allowed many
NGOs to effectively ignore the government when implementing their operations.
Donors
Donor governments and international and non-governmental organizations render foreign assistance
when the disaster relief and recovery requirements exceed the resources available in the affected
country. There are several different types of donors who contribute to disaster/emergency
management assistance. These include individuals, corporations, foreign governments, religious
organizations, and foundations. They may either make contributions to organizations that are
directly involved in disaster assistance, such as local governments, local or international NGOs, or
UN agencies. Or, in some cases, such as religiously-affiliated organizations, they may act as both
donors and program implementers.
Different donors may be more interested in providing different types of assistance depending on the
particular type of disaster and the planned disaster management activity. For example, major
foreign governments usually have a greater interest in disaster mitigation and preparedness than
non-governmental organizations. Most of the work in these activities has been stimulated by
government donor agencies responsible for disaster assistance. Foreign governments usually provide
bilateral assistance directly to the host government and may provide technical assistance for
planning or financial assistance in implementation.
When a disaster occurs, foreign governments may provide assistance through several different
methods, including bilateral assistance to the host government for general support or for specific
projects, and multilateral assistance through organizations such as the United Nations or various
regional groups. Donor governments may also fund NGOs to conduct specific projects.
The pattern of aid established during the emergency will usually carry over into recovery, but
emphasis on NGOs is generally replaced with more bilateral assistance directly to the host
government and its ministries. Technical assistance for project administration and planning is also a
common form of assistance.
While it is important to understand who provides donations for disaster assistance, it is equally
important to understand why they donate. Individual donors may give as a result of a specific
request from an organization or may give “spontaneously” as a result of a general appeal that may
be made known through the media—either in print, television, or the Internet. Foreign corporations
who conduct business in a country affected by a disaster may also give for humanitarian reasons, for
their desire to be seen as good ‘citizens,’ or for more self-interested reasons, such as ensuring
political stability in the affected area. While religiously-affiliated organizations act primarily out of
humanitarian concern, they too act out of self-interest. Perhaps their humanitarian concern can be
helpful in attracting new followers to their specific faith. The main point is that donors may have
multiple motivations, from humanitarian concerns to expanding their own influence and services. It
is important to consider the potential effect of these motivations, or donor values, on disaster
management activities.
52
United Nations
The host government is ultimately responsible for requesting and coordinating all international
assistance. It also has the authority to approve all programs and emergency work in its country.
The UN system, however, stands ready to assist upon request. Many UN organizations or agencies
are responsible for providing advice and assistance to the government of a disaster-prone or disaster-
affected country, in accordance with its mandate and the resources available to it. In so doing, each
agency is accountable to its own governing body, but is also called upon to act as a member of a
united team.
In major disasters, the UN coordinates its resources at the country level through the office of the
Resident Coordinator (RC)8 or the Humanitarian Coordinator (HC).9 After the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, a review of the humanitarian performance was undertaken and many reforms put into
place. The UN’s approach to humanitarian assistance is constantly evolving. The following
paragraphs describe the approach as of 2011.
International humanitarian coordination architecture

The Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC) has three primary tasks: humanitarian policy
development and coordination; advocacy of humanitarian issues and provision of guidance and
direction to RCs and HCs; and coordination of international humanitarian response.
The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), chaired by the ERC, is an inter-agency forum for
coordination, policy development and decision-making involving the key UN and non-UN
humanitarian partners, including United Nations agencies, the International Red Cross and Red
Crescent Movement, the International Organization for Migration, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), NGO consortia, and the World Bank.
Clusters, led and coordinated by Clusters Lead Agencies, are IASC-designated groupings of
humanitarian organizations (both UN and non-UN) in each of the main sectors of humanitarian
action. They operate at both global and country level. At the global level they are responsible for
strengthening system-wide preparedness and coordinating technical capacity to respond to
humanitarian emergencies in their respective sector. At the country level clusters ensure that
8
A United Nations Resident Coordinator is the highest United Nations official and usually is the chief of UN
diplomatic mission in a country. It confers the same rank as an Ambassador of a foreign state. The resident
coordinator is the designated representative of the UN secretary general and leader of United Nations Country
Team of Agencies such as UNICEF, WHO, WFP.
9
The Humanitarian Coordinator is the senior-most United Nations official in a country experiencing a
humanitarian emergency. The Humanitarian Coordinator is appointed by the United Nations Emergency
Relief Coordinator when a new emergency occurs or an existing humanitarian situation "worsens in degree
and/or complexity." In most cases, the function is performed by the United Nations Resident Coordinator.
The Humanitarian Coordinator is supported in almost every case by a local OCHA Office.
53
activities of humanitarian organizations are coordinated, serve as a first point of call for the
Government and the RC or HC, and as a provider of last resort in their respective sector.
The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), headed by the ERC, is a
Department of the UN Secretariat that supports the ERC at the global level and RCs and HCs at the
field level by coordinating humanitarian action, advocating for the rights of people in need,
developing humanitarian policy and analysis, managing humanitarian information systems, and
managing humanitarian pooled funds.
At country level, while the primary responsibility for coordinating humanitarian assistance rests with
national authorities, if international humanitarian assistance is required the HC – or, if a separate
HC position is not established, the RC – is responsible for leading and coordinating the preparedness
and response efforts of humanitarian organizations (both UN and non-UN), whenever possible in
support of and in coordination with national and local authorities. The ERC may choose to
designate the RC as HC, in consultation with the IASC, if the situation so requires.
The Humanitarian Management Team (HMT), chaired by the RC or HC, is an operational
decision-making forum composed of operationally relevant humanitarian organizations (both UN
and non-UN) and focusing on common strategic and policy issues related to humanitarian action in
country. (IASC, 2010)
Disaster-Related Roles of the Core Members of the UN Humanitarian Management Teams

(HMTs), including the International Organisation for Migration (IOM)
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization. Provides technical advice in reducing

vulnerability and helps in the rehabilitation of agriculture, livestock, and fisheries,
with emphasis on local food production. Monitors food production, exports and
imports, and forecasts any requirements of exceptional food assistance.
IOM International Organisation for Migration. Though not a United Nations

organization, it frequently coordinates and collaborates with the UN and often sits
on the Humanitarian Management Team. Its mandate is to serve migrants, but in
practice supports many disaster response activities and is a member of the UN
Global Cluster Approach to disaster management.
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. See above.
UNDP UN Development Programme. Promotes the incorporation of disaster mitigation in

development planning, and funds technical assistance for all aspects of disaster
management. Provides administrative support to the Resident Coordinator and the
UN Humanitarian Country Team.
54
UNISDR Is the UN Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. Its
mandate is to serve as the focal point in the United Nations system for the
coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure synergies among disaster reduction
activities.
UNHCR UN High Commissioner for Refugees. Assures the protection of refugees and seeks
durable solutions to their problems. Helps to mobilize and assure the delivery of
necessary assistance in the country of asylum if it is a developing country. Assists
with internally displaced populations in countries where there is civil conflict when
required by the Secretary General.
UNICEF UN Children’s Fund. Attends to the well-being of children and women, especially
child health and nutrition. Assistance activities may include: social programs, child
feeding (in collaboration with WFP), water supplies, sanitation, and direct health
interventions (in collaboration with WHO). Provides related management and
logistical support.
WFP World Food Programme. Provides targeted food aid for humanitarian relief and to
support rehabilitation, reconstruction, and risk-reducing development programs.
Mobilizes and coordinates the delivery of complementary emergency and program
food aid from bilateral and other sources.
WHO World Health Organization. Provides advice and assistance in all aspects of
preventive and curative health care, including the preparedness of health services for
rapid response to disasters.
World The World Bank has two units of interest to disaster management: the Disaster Risk
Bank Management Team and the Fragile and Conflict-Affected Countries Unit. The
Disaster Risk Management team aims to reduce human suffering and economic
losses caused by natural and technological disasters by helping the World Bank
provide a more strategic and rapid response to disasters and promoting the
integration of disaster prevention and mitigation efforts into the range of
development activities. The Fragile and Conflict-Affected Countries Unit has
similar objectives, but with the focus indicated by its name.
The UN system is unique as an organization with the international political stature, resources and
managerial capacity required to mount and coordinate a multi-faceted, system-wide international
relief effort. United Nations’ leadership and involvement in emergencies can lend legitimacy, attract
funds, and strengthen fledgling relief efforts. The United Nations is capable of consolidating
humanitarian appeals on behalf of host governments, UN agencies, and their NGO partners. Host
government and NGO emergency warnings and appeals for assistance often capture international
attention only after the UN has embraced their cause.
55
Non-Governmental Organizations
In the last three decades, there has been a proliferation of NGOs providing humanitarian assistance.
Generalizing about NGOs is difficult as they vary widely in structure, resources and mission. Some
are small faith and solidarity-based organizations providing food and shelter to refugees in only one
particular area of the world. Others are large international organizations with hundreds of
professional staff, multi-million or even billion dollar budgets, and operations in several countries at
once. This diversity means that larger, global NGOs with a large staff and programs in several
countries, such as Save the Children or CARE International, have more in common with UN
specialized agencies than they do with smaller NGOs, such as Project Minnesota-Leon which is
governed by a volunteer Steering Committee in Minnesota, USA, and directed by one to two staff
persons in Leon, Nicaragua. An incomplete, but representational, list of major NGOs that work in
disaster management are CARE International, Caritas, Catholic Relief Services, Church World
Service, Concern, Médecins sans Frontières, OXFAM, the Salvation Army, the various national
organizations of Save the Children, Terre des Hommes, and World Vision.
Some NGOs deal exclusively with disasters, others focus more on development and work in
disasters only when one strikes where the agency has a program in operation. In general, NGOs
should be regarded as specialized service agencies, that is, they have special skills or interests that are
generally focused in a specific sector or community. Some agencies have their own programs
administered by a professional staff, supplemented in disasters by volunteers, or a roster of specialists
on stand-by. Others operate through local counterpart organizations, though in a few cases they do
have their own programs. Their interests are not restricted to any one sector. NGOs have entered
health, housing, agriculture, small business, and many other fields, both in normal and in post-
disaster times.
During a disaster, NGOs often become prominent in dispensing humanitarian assistance because of
their flexibility and inherent ability to respond quickly to an emergency. Since their funding is
dependent on public support and interest in a particular disaster, they usually provide assistance for
only limited periods, primarily during the emergency and during rehabilitation.
NGOs tend to work in person-to-person types of activities and generally prefer to do small-scale,
short-term projects rather than long-term activities that require large capital expenditures. In order
to make the most of scarce resources, governments often prefer to turn over large segments of
humanitarian efforts to these agencies so that government resources can be channeled into longer-
term, and more expansive recovery activities.
While many development agencies participate in development activities that might mitigate
disasters, few would see this as their primary role. Likewise, few participate directly in disaster
preparedness planning. Since the reconstruction period offers opportunities for advancing
development goals, development agencies may become involved during this phase. As discussed in
Chapter 3, involvement in reconstruction efforts may contribute to future disaster mitigation and
preparedness activities as well as further development goals. However, some NGOs, especially
larger ones, have a more holistic approach to disaster management and are engaged with their
communities through all phases of disaster management.
56
NGO critics believe that increased donor reliance on international NGOs over host government
institutions has resulted, in many cases, in international NGOs competing with, weakening and
supplanting host government institutions and local NGOs. Furthermore, NGO neutrality and
impartiality is compromised when the NGO partnership with donor agencies results in these NGOs
being used as instruments of foreign policy. While NGOs are praised for their flexibility, innovation
and dedication, many are also criticized for their lack of accountability, mutual competitiveness,
poor coordination, “crowding out” of government services, and inflated claims of successful skill
and technology transfer to local populations.
While many Northern or international NGOs are committed, in principle, to supporting and
strengthening local institutional counterparts, many have been increasing their staffs and presence
in-country in order to better monitor and control the implementation of their projects. Even when
willing, international and local NGO partnerships may be difficult to establish and sustain. While
Northern NGOs may be willing to work with and through local partners, local NGOs often are
either non-existent or lack the administrative capacity, training and accountability to implement
projects. In addition, local NGOs may have different values, priorities and objectives than their
Northern counterparts causing Northern NGOs to worry about their funds being misappropriated or
diverted. Finally, Northern NGOs may shy away from working with local NGOs if they feel that
local NGOs are simply extensions of, or severely controlled and limited by, the government.
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement

The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is comprised of three parts. The
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and the National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. The
entire movement subscribes to the following fundamental principles:
1. Humanity—The Movement aims to prevent and alleviate human suffering wherever it may
be found.
2. Impartiality—The Movement does not discriminate as to nationality, race, religious beliefs,
class or political opinions.
3. Neutrality—The Movement may not take sides in hostilities or engage at any time in
controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature.
4. Independence—The Movement is independent in that National Societies must always
maintain their autonomy from the States in which they are located.
5. Voluntary service—The Movement is based on voluntary service not motivated by desire for
financial gain.
6. Unity—Only one Red Cross or Red Crescent may exist in any one country.
57
7. Universality—All National Societies within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Movement have equal status and share equal responsibilities and duties in helping each other
(ICRC, 1993).
The IFRC consists of more than 150 National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies worldwide. It
encourages its member Societies to engage in all forms of humanitarian activities that prevent and
alleviate human suffering. The two major functions of IFRC are 1) to assist National Societies in
pre-disaster planning, and 2) to organize and coordinate Red Cross and Red Crescent international
operations.
The vast majority of the activities of the National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies involve
preparing for and responding to disasters/emergencies. Ideally, a National Society will have many
regional and local chapters, all of which have undergone some form of emergency training. In many
cases, these are supported by a system of national emergency supplies that can be quickly augmented
from international stockpiles maintained by the IFRC or obtained from its member societies through
international disaster appeals.
ICRC has a special mandate to provide protection and relief to displaced civilians, prisoners of war,
and victims of both international and internal conflict. In many emergencies, such as in Somalia,
they work closely with national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. ICRC goes to great lengths
to negotiate cease-fires and humanitarian access with all factions in a conflict.
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a vast network of over 250 million staff
and volunteers. Consequently, one of the major strengths of the Movement is its ability to mobilize
a large number of volunteers to respond to disasters. In addition, its principle of neutrality often
enables the Movement to provide humanitarian assistance when other organizations cannot gain
access to an area. ICRC is often the only organization operating in insurgent held territory and the
only agency which is able to mount operations within a country experiencing civil strife. In 2010,
Somalia was characterized by famine, bitter clan warfare, and a paucity of UN and NGO
humanitarian agencies. Amidst this anarchy, deprivation, and near total absence of international
humanitarians, ICRC and its most significant local partner, the Somalia Red Crescent Society
(SRCS) were able to address emergency needs of more than 700,000 people.
Military forces in support of humanitarian operations

Since the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s, the use of military force in support of humanitarian
operations has been increasing both in numbers of operations and in scope of activities. In the
absence of an effective host government and in the face of civil conflict, a multi-lateral sanctioned
military operation may impose control of strategic links in the assistance logistical chain as well as
restore public order. In other cases, their role may be to protect humanitarian assistance providers
and escort the delivery of relief.
The military possesses the resources and organizational capacity to mount and implement an
effective emergency response on short notice and can significantly enhance humanitarian emergency
responses. In complex emergencies, many humanitarians, politicians and diplomats see
58
internationally sanctioned military intervention as the only way to restore order, establish safe
havens for affected populations, ensure the safety of personnel and secure access for effective and
large-scale humanitarian operations.
The military has a logistics capacity that is unequaled in its ability to deliver the supplies and
personnel required to mount large-scale relief operations. In responding to the displacement of the
Kurds and other minority groups during the 1991 Gulf Crisis, the military made many unique
contributions to the refugee relief effort, including rapidly organizing an orderly food and tent
distribution system, helping to improve the water and sanitation facilities, and providing prevention-
oriented, community-based health care.
Because the military structure is self-contained and most effective when it has clear and narrowly
defined objectives, it inevitably tends to assume full responsibility rather than becoming one part of
the overall international humanitarian effort. When collaboration is attempted, cultural differences
may arise between the military and NGOs.
In addition, military personnel who have been trained for military and war operations rather than
humanitarian assistance may experience a ‘training gap’ when they are asked to provide
humanitarian assistance. Military health care personnel trained in surgical procedures appropriate
for warfare will lack the experience required to deal with typical endemic diseases that afflict
refugees and displaced populations. In 1995 in Haiti, for example, the military mobilized surgical
units for mass casualties rather than mobile units for routine essential health care.
Because use of the military engages international and national political structures, the context in
which humanitarian assistance is provided becomes increasingly politicized. Humanitarian agencies
that place themselves under the protective umbrella of the military jeopardize their neutrality and
independence. Even those humanitarian agencies that distance themselves from the military may be
suspected, denied access and/or threatened by warring factions which fail to distinguish between
one type of foreign intervention and another. However, there are various mechanisms for
communication and coordination between the military and humanitarian agencies. For example,
the UN Humanitarian Coordinator is directed to appoint a UN Humanitarian Civil-Military
Coordination (UN-CMCoord) Officer to assist with the adoption of a civil-military coordination
strategy and liaise with domestic and foreign military forces in-country.
Conclusion
All of the actors discussed in this chapter comprise a network that must work together to achieve the
goals of disaster management, which include “devise policy and to implement programs that will
reduce vulnerability, limit the loss of life and property, protect the environment, and improve multi-
organizational coordination in disasters. The degree to which the emergency management
community collaborates before a disaster is a strong determinant not only of the success of
mitigation and preparedness activities, but also of the effectiveness of management during the crisis
and recovery periods.” (McEntire and Dawson quoted in Waugh and Tierney, 2007).
59
Self-test
Multiple Choice:
1. Host government leadership depends on all of the following except

A. Professional and competent civil servants
B. A popular leader
C. Governing capacity
D. Level of resources
2. Which UN agencies are primarily involved in providing and/or coordinating humanitarian

assistance and protection during emergencies?
A. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
B. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
C. International Labour Organisation (ILO)
D. World Food Programme (WFP)
E. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
F. all of the above
3. Which of the following applies to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement?
A. National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies respond to disasters as directed by the IFRC
in Geneva
B. The principle of neutrality applies only to the ICRC not to IFRC or any national Red Cross
or Red Crescent Society
C. The Movement is primarily concerned with preventing and alleviating human suffering
D. none of the above
E. all of the above
4. The affected population engages in which of the following disaster management activities?
A. Search and rescue
B. Caring for injured neighbors
C. Rebuilding damaged shelters
D. all of the above
60
True/False:
Indicate T or F:
T F 5. Ensuring efficient organization and delivery of emergency response Host

governments are generally more interested in short-term emergency responses.
T F 6. The affected population is usually the most involved in meeting immediate needs
following a disaster.
T F 7. A primary responsibility of OCHA is to improve coordination among UN

humanitarian agencies.
T F 8. Specific donors may be more interested in funding one type of disaster assistance
than another (for example, funding an early warning system rather than a
reconstruction project).
T F 9 ICRC is often able to gain access to contested territories because of its long-
standing adherence to the principle of neutrality.
T F 10. NGOs are seldom seen as instruments of foreign policy.
Answers:
1. B
2. B, D,
3. C
4. D
5. F
6. T
7. T
8. T
9. T
10. F
61
Chapter 5
Tools and Techniques for Disaster
Management
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify general types of disaster management technology

• Describe the uses and importance of various disaster management tools
• Describe information management challenges in the field of disaster management
Introduction
Improvements in technology and information management have resulted in many powerful tools
and techniques for disaster managers to utilize in the disaster management process. With creative
combinations of geographical information systems, remote sensing technologies, and web-based sites
for crowd-sourcing data successfully implemented in disasters around the world, disaster managers
must at a minimum be aware of these technologies and their general use. Additionally, while the
increased power of these systems is impressive, disaster managers must also be aware of the
limitations of such systems, including specific information management concerns such as
information security and crowd-sourced data verification.
This chapter will present the reader with a basic introduction to the various tools and techniques
used in the field of disaster management. Each tool or technique has been grouped into one of three
general categories; i) mapping, ii) communications technology, and iii) information management.
Overall, disaster managers should recognize that these tools and techniques are utilized in a rapidly
evolving field of work, and that new systems will continue to appear while others become obsolete.
Mapping
Disaster management relies heavily on the use of maps and mapping techniques for disaster
planning and response. By utilizing different mapping tools and techniques, disaster managers can
create an informational foundation upon which planning and response decisions can be based.
Physical and digital maps are usually made accessible to other emergency personnel, and, depending
on the mapping tool utilized, these maps can be a near-actual reflection of the current situation on
the ground. Computer-generated maps can be especially useful and are utilized in almost every step
of the disaster management process, including areas such as risk analysis, vulnerability analysis,
evacuation planning, flood monitoring, damage assessment, and reconstruction planning. For
example, computerized maps can be used to monitor up-to-the-minute riverine flooding and guide a
disaster manager who must decide when to evacuate certain areas. The manager can likewise
62
determine where to focus flood control activities. At a minimum, disaster managers should be
familiar with the variety of maps and mapping tools currently available. Disaster managers should
also know how to plot information accurately, and how to interpret trends from that information.
Geographical Information Systems

A Geographical Information System (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking,
manipulating, analyzing, and displaying data that is spatially referenced to the earth. While many
GIS packages are pre-designed and marketed for specific purposes, any system of components that
are linked together to meet the above definition is a GIS. Geographic information systems are
typically used to map and track changes in topography, political and economic land use,
demographic concentrations, and numerous other characteristics of land use patterns. Such
computerized mapping is of interest to disaster managers primarily from the point of view of
resource management and changes in land use patterns as a result of large displacements.
A GIS output of InterAction’s mapping initiative in Haiti. This system is designed to provide participating
partners with detailed geo-spatially referenced information on their efforts to reduce poverty and human
suffering. This map shows which communities have health-related projects and how many are in each
community. Info from http://haitiaidmap.org/about, screenshot from
http://haiti.ngoaidmap.org/sectors/8.
In the case of the Haiti 2010 example, information on who is doing what and where could be
accessed by organization, cluster or sector, and location at the commune level. Members could
63
create maps and easily share them with others, identify potential partners and underserved areas,
access more than 20,000 data sets from organizations such as the United Nations or World Bank,
and overlay project information on their maps with relevant statistical information, such as child
malnutrition rates. In general, GIS are also supported by other technology resources such as
computer-aided design systems (CAD), database management systems (DBMS), and, for many uses,
global positioning systems (GPS) (Sahu, 2012). The advantage of combining GIS with other
methods of technology such as GPS is that it can be used to generate new maps as well as to
reference observed conditions to a prepared baseline map to track events or to prepare “real time”
updates.
GIS in El Salvador and Guatemala
Two departments of El Salvador and two in Guatemala, under the guidance of the Ministries of
Health, have set up a geographic information system (GIS) for hospitals. The system uses GIS to
attain information on health service networks, hospital capacity, hospital safety in disaster
situations, population centers, major road networks, basic services and infrastructure, among
other features.
The tool, developed by PAHO/WHO, with the technical support from the Center for the Humid
Tropics of Latin America and the Carribean (CATHALAC), will provide useful information for both
planning and rapid response to emergencies and disasters.
To carry out geographic referencing, information is being collected from ministries of health as
well as directly from health facilities. Technical and scientific institutes in the countries involved
in the project are sharing information on health facilities that are exposed to natural hazards as
well as hazards posed by human activity. The hospital safety indices that have been applied in
particular facilities will be integrated into the information system.
Currently, the system includes information on the following topics:
. Health facilities that have been identified are represented by points, where each point
represents a category of facility (hospital, health post, health center, or other)
. Topography
. Geo-political divisions (municipalities, districts, departments, etc.)
. Hazards such as landslides, seismicity, and volcanic activity causing mud or debris flow
(lahars), and flood zones
(PAHO, 2011)
For implementation, disaster managers should consider the required equipment (computers and GIS
software) and the training needs that such systems may require. Thankfully, powerful GIS software
64
has become increasingly accessible and user-friendly. Many inexpensive and even free open-source
systems are available to disaster managers and the public at large, with examples such as
OpenStreetMap, ArcGIS and Google MapMaker that are utilized in disaster relief efforts around the
world (CMS, 2010). However, as in all database systems, the primary limitation to remember is
“garbage in…garbage out.” This means that the system is only as good as the data on which it is
based. Major constraints to the construction of these systems have been the lack of reliable
information and the difficulties associated with sharing and receiving important information with
other entities that may be doing similar or related work. In many instances, GIS and the high-tech
maps they can generate have been criticized for presenting poor information in a format that looks
“professional.” Since the underlying data is not sound, decision-makers may be misled about the
value or accuracy of the presented information. Disaster managers should begin their discussions of
the potential use of GIS with questions concerning problem definition, data sources, and intended
users of the information, rather than focusing right away on hardware and software. Planners
should also ascertain ongoing government commitment to support the system on a long-term basis
before scarce resources are programmed for the effort.
Remote sensing technology

Remote sensing is an investigative technique that uses a recording instrument or device to measure
or acquire information on a distant object or phenomenon (Sahu, 2012). Weather radar, weather
satellites, seismographs, sono buoys, and digital cameras are all examples of remote sensing
technology. Aerial photography is also a form of remote sensing, but in disaster management the
term generally refers to the use of satellites equipped with imaging systems. Disaster managers must
know how to interpret aerial photography and how to apply it to both pre-disaster planning and
post-disaster response activities.
Pre-disaster uses include risk analysis and mapping; disaster warning, especially cyclone tracking,
drought monitoring, volcanoes, large-scale fires and agricultural production; and disaster
assessment, especially flood monitoring and assessment, estimation of crop and forestry damages,
and monitoring of land-use changes in the aftermath of a disaster. Meteorological satellites monitor
weather patterns, detect and track storm systems, and monitor frosts and floods.
65
Haiti Earthquake 2010 Damage Assessment Map from the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre.
Accessed March 2010 at http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/index.cfm?id=5620
Communications technology
Once a disaster has occurred, local infrastructure – including microwave, cellular and other
communication facilities – is often inoperative. Additionally, emergency repairs to existing
infrastructure and energy availability may still be insufficient for emergency response needs, a
problem further compounded by the location and impact of the disaster itself. The ability to utilize a
wide array of communications equipment dependent on the situation is thus critical for disaster
managers. At a minimum, disaster managers should be aware of the communications technologies
typically used throughout emergency operations.
Satellite communications
Satellites play a central role in all stages of disaster management. In disaster mitigation, satellites are
paired with GIS mapping efforts to assist in the production of vulnerability maps. In disaster
preparedness efforts, satellites are employed in early warning systems. In disaster relief operations,
aid workers transmit data on needs, resources, and security assessments via satellite
communications.
66
While hard-lined voice and data communications technology (computer to computer) are widely
used, in remote operations where local infrastructures cannot support these communications needs,
relief workers often transmit via satcoms—small, portable communications systems that make use of
the International Maritime Satellite or INMARSAT facilities. Satcoms provide almost worldwide
communications for voice, data, and fax using a system of satellites. Mobile satellite systems have
proved extremely valuable for initial rapid needs assessments and, depending on the system utilized,
they can be operational in a matter of minutes without need of expert technical staff (Sahu, 2012).
When linked with high-frequency radios or other cellular technology, satcoms can provide
international communications for an entire network of users.
Radios
Radio technology remains an important component in the prevention of natural disasters and in the
execution of relief operations. National, community, and even amateur radio stations are able to
reach large audiences for the dissemination of preparedness and response information (Sahu, 2012).
Additionally, receiving information via radio does not require literacy, and for isolated communities
it may be the only communication technology available.
Hand-held radios are a cost-effective communications device for field staff in many emergency
response operations. HF or high-frequency radio is available for long distance voice
communications, is not dependent upon unobstructed line of sight conditions, and can be operated
anywhere in the world. VHF (very high frequency) or UHF (ultra-high frequency) radios are also
available for voice communications and can be adapted for data communications. VHF/UHF
usage is for communications limited to a one to three kilometer range with a clear, unobstructed line
of sight, but their range may be extended through the use of repeaters and higher transmitter output
power. The major difficulties in setting up VHF/UHF systems are posed by potential lack of host
government cooperation.
Cell phones, SMS, and Internet connectivity

The exponential increase in the number of cell phones in use around the world has contributed
heavily to the use of cell phones as an important platform for disaster warning systems and disaster
response info collection. Disaster managers may employ specific “telephone trees” or UN “cluster
contact lists” to distribute information via calls or mass Short Message System (SMS) texts. It is
important to note that SMS messages also have a distinct advantage over phone calls, as SMS texts
can be sent or received even when phone lines are congested. Just as good coordinators generally
take the time to ask every person they meet for his/her phone number, a phone-tree’s strength rests
in the reach of its contacts, and notifications are only as effective as the contacts listed within the
system. As soon as important issues arise, calls can be made immediately to the appropriate persons,
potentially saving lives and resources.
67
Cell Phone as Disaster Management Tool

Thanks to technological changes from the time of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami response,
vulnerable villages in Bihar, India may now be better prepared for their annual monsoon season.
Disaster managers have applied powerful new tools and techniques in Bihar, specifically in the use
of cell phones, texting, and various Internet-based information sharing platforms, to help prepare
villagers be more resilient in the face of natural disaster.
The project began with community meetings. Cell phones were distributed to a task force of
community leaders and government officials. Anurag says the project has built a closer bond
between the community and local government. About a dozen residents were trained to collect
data, assess the damage and people's needs, and use the phone system. ‘The technology has
strengthened their preparedness and made them more confident,’ Anurag says.
Residents and task force members use text messages to relay information to a central database,
which task force members and relief agencies, including CRS, can access through the web. The cell
phone pilot program began in June of 2008 in five of Bihar's most flood-prone areas. The project is
expected to serve about 28,400 people, or approximately 5,400 households.
(Arceneaux, 2008)!
In addition to having a well-organized network, increasing Internet connectivity around the world
has enabled disaster managers and response agencies to communicate faster and more flexibly.
Alongside the growth of cell phones with Internet capability, the Internet has become a critical
coordination tool for disaster managers. Potential issues with cell phones and Internet connectivity
can include the congestion of data lines, literacy rates, and the impact of infrastructure damage
immediately following disasters, but increasing web connectivity in rural areas (though nowhere
near complete) has promoted disaster monitoring and agency websites as a cost-effective means of
rapid, automatic, and global dissemination of disaster related information.
Social media
Paired with improvements in communications technology, the role of social media in disaster
management has become increasingly important. Web-based platforms, with organized posting and
geo-referenced information referral systems based on cell-phone and other data entries have made
information easily accessible to both affected individuals and professionals involved in the disaster
management process. Communities are increasingly linked to each other through social media,
giving disaster managers with online presence an advantage.
Disaster management agencies and relief organizations have utilized social media to both
disseminate information through their online social media platforms, and to collect crowd-sourced
data from individuals in their areas of interest. Specific platforms such as Ushahidi or Twitter have
played important roles in disaster planning and response activities, but there is still a perceived gap
between the technological ability to gather crowd-sourced data and the ability to turn that
68
information into meaningful action on the part of responders (TTC, 2012). However, social media
continues to be a powerful tool that disaster managers can utilize at relatively low-cost. The use of
social media and crowd-sourced information after the 2010 earthquake in Haiti is informative in this
regard, as indicated by the following case study.
Ushahidi – Disaster Management Social Network

“A nascent, virtual CrisisMappers network utilized an open source interactive mapping platform
known as Ushahidi (Swahili for “witness”), to gather, extract and plot geo-referenced data on a
public website. Over the course of the [Haitian] disaster, Ushahidi and volunteer diaspora
translators received over 80,000 text messages; approximately 3,000 were used in some way
during the response. Other geo-referenced data were gleaned from Twitter, blogs, the news
media and humanitarian situation reports to provide situational awareness products, including
maps. The US Coast Guard, the 22nd US Marine Expeditionary Unit and other first responders used
these social media platforms to support their emergency assistance operations. Individuals from
the US government, the UN, and some NGOs were also connected to this network.”
- Dennis King, US Department of State, Humanitarian Information Unit
(HEM, 2010)
Information management
Data sharing and security
When information is shared among actors in an emergency, time is saved and better analysis can be
achieved. With advances in information technology, Internet-based information systems and social
networking, ever greater amounts of up-to-the-moment information are now readily available to
both emergency responders and the population at large. However, as the ability to gather and access
greater amounts of data improves, the need to manage this information effectively also becomes ever
more important.
Alongside growing interest and options for collaboration on access and use of data, concerns over
individual privacy and the detailed nature of the information collected for disaster management
systems have also come to the forefront of the discussion. Given the sensitive nature of some
preparedness information, (such as the specific locations of building entry points, government
capacity, potable water intakes, or resource pipelines), disaster managers are faced with a critical
information management challenge, whereas the method utilized for sharing and/or securing data
can interfere with the effectiveness of the disaster response or the interests of national security.
Additionally, the willingness of managers and agencies to share information with each other is
affected by notions of power, control, and finance, where there is reluctance to share data gathered
69
at a cost to the agency with other entities for free. Some disaster management entities have opted for
greater data security over open-access to the public, with state and local governments increasingly
restricting the use of certain types of data. Others have opted for greater sharing and openness with
the public. This debate is an important issue for disaster managers around the world.
Data standardization – forms and templates

Standardized forms or templates for collecting, analyzing and presenting emergency assessment
data, and planned and actual response activities, are critical to coordination efforts. When actors
collect their own assessment data using unique formats and varying levels of detail, the combined
analysis is often confusing and results may be questionable. Therefore, actors need to develop,
adapt, or adopt existing templates and conventions to be used in the emergency response, and –most
critically – agree to use them.
For example, utilizing alphanumeric place-codes, (“P-codes”), for specific locations instead of
general names, (of which there may be spelling variations or confusing spelling similarities with
nearby towns), promotes coordination efforts and improves the credibility of the data. Additionally,
adherence to any regional or national information standards already in place may promote
interoperability between agencies. Regardless of the standardization approaches utilized, disaster
managers must ensure that the final form is both and appropriate for the specific emergency and
implemented successfully.
A place-code (“P-Code”) table is used to simplify naming conventions and information for specific
geographic locations. Source: GIS-AE, Mapping_ESC_Training_Geneva_July2008.ppt
70
Conclusion
This chapter is a basic introduction to some of the tools and techniques available to disaster
managers. Implementation of any of these systems will require disaster managers to make an
informed assessment of the costs and benefits of each system in relation to their particular area of
work. Variables can depend greatly upon local factors such as literacy, existing infrastructure, and
the capacity to collect data on the disaster itself. Disaster managers should also remain aware of any
new tools and techniques that could be applied in the rapidly evolving field of disaster management.
While new systems will appear alongside older ones, disaster managers should recognize that the
general application of technology in the field of disaster management will continue to increase.
71
Self-test
Multiple Choice:
1. In disaster management, a geographic information system is best defined as:

A. a cluster of electronic sensors attached to an object to measure movement
B. a control system for geo-stationary weather satellites.
C. a system of hardware and software used for measuring and analyzing data related to
geographic and natural phenomena.
D. aerial photography
2. In disaster management, social media is increasingly used to:

A. entertain local aid workers
B. gather relevant crowd-sourced information
C. disseminate disaster response information
D. boost VHF signals via repeaters
E. b and c
True/False:
Indicate T or F:
3. T F Effective GIS software is often too expensive for disaster management applications.
4. T F Satellite communications equipment can be used for both voice and data
transmission.
5. T F Social media is an ineffective medium for gathering and distributing disaster

preparedness information.
72
Answers:
1. C
2. E
3. F
4. T
5. F
73
Course Conclusion
In this course, you have learned a great deal about disaster management: who’s involved; what their
responsibilities are; what actions can be taken to mitigate, prepare for, and respond to disasters; and
what strategies, systems and techniques can be used by disaster managers. There are multiple actors
involved in disaster management—either directly by providing disaster assistance or indirectly
through donations. No matter the specific role each actor plays, it is important to keep in mind the
primary objectives of disaster management:
• reducing or avoiding human, physical, and economic losses suffered by individuals, the
society, and the country at large
• reducing personal suffering
• speeding recovery
• supporting local capacity building and independence in disaster management
• for refugees and displaced persons, providing protection to those whose lives or personal
property are at risk from armed conflict, ethnic animosity, religious persecution, or other
threat.
In Chapter 1, we asked you to consider the impact of disasters on those in poverty and the link
between disasters and development as you continued through the course. There is increasing
disaster awareness and recognition of the importance of developing coherent disaster management
plans in the international community. Nevertheless, it often takes the actual or imminent
occurrence of a large-scale destructive event to stimulate individual governments to think about a
developmental approach. Thus, a disaster can serve as a catalyst for introducing mitigation
activities.
Disasters can provide opportunities in the development field since they often create a political and
economic atmosphere wherein extensive changes can be made more rapidly than under normal
circumstances or they may highlight high-risk areas where action must be taken before another
disaster strikes. The realization of vulnerability can motivate policy-makers and the public to
participate in mitigation activities. Disasters may also highlight serious under-development in the
affected country that may result in increased attention and funding from donor communities for
long-term development (Henderson, 1990).
While disasters can afford unique opportunities for development, improper development can increase
vulnerability to natural disasters. Even programs resulting from a disaster, such as reconstruction
projects, may increase rather than decrease vulnerability. For example, a housing reconstruction
program may increase the demand for wood, which may result in deforestation leading to mud
slides and possibly long-term environmental changes. Similarly, projects designed to increase
employment opportunities, and thus income, may attract laborers who migrate to the area thereby
increasing the population. Low-income people may then seek housing in previously avoided areas,
such as on hillsides or in floodplains. The costs of such disaster assistance then can easily outweigh
74
the benefits to the affected community. For these reasons, effective disaster managers must consider
the effects of their actions on the development of the affected community, but they must also
consider how their actions will help reduce vulnerability to future disasters if they hope to reduce
suffering and make a true contribution to long-term recovery.
This text has tried to clarify and explain the aim and scope of disaster management, but it has not
tried to simplify it. Disaster management is complex and requires a sophisticated understanding of
its components in order to succeed at preparing for, mitigating against, and appropriately responding
to and recovering from disasters. This is not an effort that can be undertaken or achieved by single
organizations; rather, it requires working with networks of volunteers and public, private, and
nonprofit organizations. Collaboration and flexibility are essential to successful disaster
management.
75
References
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paper.
Ferris, Elizabeth. 1993. Beyond Borders: Refugees, Migrants, and Human Rights in the Post-Cold War Era.
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Finucane, Aengus. 1993. “The Changing Roles of Voluntary Organizations” in A Framework for
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Assistance.” Disasters 18(1):48-57.
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International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies: A Strategic Assessment”
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HEM. 2010. "The Haiti Earthquake: Breaking New Ground in the Humanitarian Information
Landscape." Humanitarian Exchange Magazine 48.
76
InterAction. 2012. "About NGO Aid Map." Haiti Aid Map. InterAction. Web. Accessed Feb.
2012. <http://haiti.ngoaidmap.org/about>.
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77
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Waugh, William L, and Kathleen Tierney. 2007. Emergency Management, Principles and Practice for
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Over.” International Peacekeeping 2(2):157-74.
Wenger, Dennis, E. L. Quarantelli, and Russell Dynes. 1989. “Is the Incident Command System A
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Refugees from 1974.” Cyprus Review 4(1):7-39.
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Examination Request Form

This exam must be proctored (supervised) just as it would be for a course taken on campus.
Generally, proctors do not charge for this service. In all cases the academic department offering
the course must approve the choice of proctor. Qualified proctors include university or college
registrars, deans or counselors or professors; high school principals or counselors; directors of
educational services at universities, other educational organizations, correctional institutions or
the armed services; certified librarians in a supervisory position; or the delegated officials at
university testing centers. Students residing outside of the United States may also request, as
their proctor, a local director of educational services or an officer of the United States embassy
or consulate. Please copy this form as needed.
Date Submitted ________________________________________________

Course Title AA02 - Aim & Scope of Disaster Management
Student Information:
Name ________________________________________________
Mailing Address ________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Proctor Information:
Name ________________________________________________
Title ________________________________________________
Organization ________________________________________________
Complete Mailing Address (Please provide street address, in case courier service is used.)
________________________________________________
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________________________________________________
Phone Number
OR Email Address ________________________________________________
Please return this form by mail or fax, or send the information via e-mail to:
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USA Fax: 1-608-263-3160, E-mail: dmc@engr.wisc.edu
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Course Evaluation
Date you finished the course: ______________________________________
What is your present position? ______________________________________
How many years have worked in disaster management? _____________
How many years of formal education do you have? (Circle your answer.)
0 to 6 years 7 to 12 years 12 to 16 years more than 16 years
How was the content level of this course? (Circle your answer.)
too difficult about right too easy
Was the course material relevant to your work? (Circle your answer.)
Yes No
How useful were the self-assessment tests to you? (Circle your answer.)
very useful OK not useful
How valuable was the total course? (Circle your answer.)

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Additional comments:
Please return this form by mail or fax, or send the information via e-mail to:
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Aim and Scope of

A first course for the University of Wisconsin

Disaster Management Diploma

Disaster Management Center

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University of Wisconsin-Madison provides affirmative action and equal opportunity in education,

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THIRD EDITION DEDICATION

Military forces in support of humanitarian operations ................................................................... 58

How to use this course

Self-assessment questions and exercises

Evaluating the course

1. As a disaster manager, you establish program objectives that will

5. The term “hazard” refers to a threat that can

11. Emergency relief refers to the process of

Scope of disaster management

Disaster management terms and definitions

Rapid onset disaster

Disaster risk reduction

Objectives of disaster management

Key personnel and specialists

Principles of disaster management

Core Principles of Disaster Management

• the principal management objectives of disaster mitigation and disaster preparedness

Q. Summarize what you think are the principal objectives of mitigation.

Possible answers might include:

Targeting mitigation where it has most effect

The menu of mitigation actions

Management and institutionalization of disaster mitigation

Timing for mitigation

Components of a Strong Mitigation Program

• Limitation of public expenditures. To discourage development in high-risk areas such as

(David Godschalk, quoted in Waugh and Tierney, 2007)

Components of disaster preparedness

THE PROGRESSION OF VULNERABILITY DISASTER HAZARD

Figure 3. The Disaster Crunch Model

Table 1. Loss Parameters for Risk Analysis

Consequences Measure Tangible Intangible

Deaths Number of people Loss of economically active Social and psychological

Physical Inventory of damaged Replacement and repair cost Cultural losses

management, sometimes referred to as incident management or command. All of these functions

Public education and training

Preparedness for slow onset and sudden onset disasters

Estimating risk and vulnerability ______________________________________________________

Warning systems _____________________________________________________________

Public education and training ______________________________________________________________

_____ Spatial planning

• the principal management objectives of disaster response and recovery

Aims of emergency and post-disaster assistance

Search and rescue

Country Preparedness and Response Capacity Matrix

other government ministries

Red Cross/Red Crescent

ministry of public works

search and rescue

sea or river ports

nat‘l gov‘t disaster

ministry of public works

Red Cross/Red Crescent

Priorities and opportunities in recovery

• relieve economic constraints and reduce the cost of reconstruction

(Cuny cited by Davis, 1990)