‌
D
‌ one‌‌by:-‌‌Harsha‌‌vardan‌  ‌
‌Class:-‌‌11‌‌B  ‌‌ ‌
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  ‌

 ‌
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Chemistry‌‌project‌  ‌
Grade:-‌‌11‌‌B ‌ ‌
  ‌ ‌

This‌‌is‌‌to‌‌certify‌‌that‌‌{Harsha‌‌Vardan}‌‌student‌‌of‌‌grade‌‌11‌‌ 
B‌‌has‌‌successfully‌‌completed‌‌research‌‌on‌‌the‌‌project‌‌of‌‌ 
the‌A‌ tmospheric‌c‌ hemistry‌u ‌ nder‌‌the‌‌guidance‌‌of‌‌
 
chemistry‌‌teacher‌‌during‌‌the‌‌year‌‌2021-2022‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
  ‌ ‌

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Teacher’s‌‌signature‌ s‌ tudent‌‌signature‌  ‌
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Atmospheric‌‌chemistry‌  ‌
 ‌

Atmospheric‌‌chemistry‌‌is‌t‌ he‌‌study‌‌of‌‌the‌‌  
components‌‌of‌‌planetary‌‌atmospheres‌,‌‌particularly‌‌  
that‌‌of‌‌the‌‌Earth.‌‌It‌‌specifically‌‌looks‌‌at‌‌the‌‌composition‌‌
 
of‌‌planetary‌‌atmospheres‌‌and‌‌the‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌  
interactions‌‌that‌‌drive‌‌these‌‌dynamic‌‌and‌‌diverse‌‌  
systems.‌  ‌

Atmospheric‌‌chemistry‌‌‌is‌‌a‌‌branch‌‌of‌a ‌ tmospheric‌‌  
science‌‌‌in‌‌which‌‌the‌c‌ hemistry‌‌‌of‌‌the‌E‌ arth's‌‌atmosphere‌‌  
and‌‌that‌‌of‌‌other‌‌planets‌‌is‌‌studied.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌a‌m
‌ ultidisciplinary‌‌
 
approach‌‌‌of‌‌research‌‌and‌‌draws‌‌on‌e ‌ nvironmental‌‌  
chemistry‌,‌p ‌ hysics‌,‌m
‌ eteorology‌,‌c‌ omputer‌‌modeling‌, ‌‌
oceanography‌,‌g ‌ eology‌‌‌and‌v‌ olcanology‌‌‌and‌‌other‌‌  
disciplines.‌‌Research‌‌is‌‌increasingly‌‌connected‌‌with‌‌other‌‌  
areas‌‌of‌‌study‌‌such‌‌as‌c‌ limatology‌. ‌ ‌
The‌‌composition‌‌and‌‌chemistry‌‌of‌‌the‌‌Earth's‌‌atmosphere‌‌is‌‌  
of‌‌importance‌‌for‌‌several‌‌reasons,‌‌but‌‌primarily‌‌because‌‌of‌‌  
the‌‌interactions‌‌between‌‌the‌‌atmosphere‌‌and‌l‌iving‌‌  
organisms‌.‌‌The‌‌composition‌‌of‌‌the‌‌Earth's‌‌atmosphere‌‌  
changes‌‌as‌‌a‌‌result‌‌of‌‌natural‌‌processes‌‌such‌‌as‌v‌ olcano‌‌  
emissions,‌l‌ightning‌‌‌and‌‌bombardment‌‌by‌‌solar‌‌particles‌‌  
from‌c‌ orona‌.‌‌It‌‌has‌‌also‌‌been‌‌changed‌‌by‌‌human‌‌activity‌‌
 
and‌‌some‌‌of‌‌these‌‌changes‌‌are‌‌harmful‌‌to‌‌human‌‌health,‌‌  
crops‌‌and‌‌ecosystems.‌‌Examples‌‌of‌‌problems‌‌which‌‌have‌‌  
been‌‌addressed‌‌by‌‌atmospheric‌‌chemistry‌‌include‌a ‌ cid‌‌rain‌, ‌‌
ozone‌‌depletion‌,‌p ‌ hotochemical‌‌smog‌,‌g‌ reenhouse‌‌gases‌‌  
and‌g ‌ lobal‌‌warming‌.‌‌Atmospheric‌‌chemists‌‌seek‌‌to‌‌ 
understand‌‌the‌‌causes‌‌of‌‌these‌‌problems,‌‌and‌‌by‌‌obtaining‌‌  
a‌‌theoretical‌‌understanding‌‌of‌‌them,‌‌allow‌‌possible‌‌solutions‌‌  
to‌‌be‌‌tested‌‌and‌‌the‌‌effects‌‌of‌‌changes‌‌in‌‌government‌‌policy‌‌  
evaluated.‌  ‌

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 ‌
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Atmospheric‌‌composition‌  ‌
 ‌

 ‌

Average‌c
‌ omposition‌o
‌ f‌d
‌ ry‌a
‌ tmosphere‌(‌ m
‌ ole‌f‌ ractions‌) ‌ ‌

Gas‌  ‌ per‌N
‌ ASA‌  ‌ Dry‌c
‌ lean‌a
‌ ir‌n
‌ ear‌s
‌ ea‌l‌evel‌  ‌

(standard‌I‌SO‌2
‌ 533‌-‌ ‌1
‌ 975)‌  ‌

Nitrogen‌,‌N
‌ 2‌
‌  ‌ 78.084%‌  ‌ 78.084%‌  ‌

[2]‌ 20.946%‌  ‌ 20.946%‌  ‌

Oxygen‌,‌O
‌ 2‌
‌  ‌

Minor‌c
‌ onstituents‌(‌ mole‌f‌ ractions‌i‌n‌p
‌ pm‌) ‌ ‌

Argon‌,‌A
‌ r‌  ‌ 9340‌  ‌ 9340‌  ‌

[a]‌ 400‌  ‌ [b]‌

Carbon‌d
‌ ioxide‌*‌ ,‌C
‌ O‌2‌  ‌ 314‌   ‌

Neon‌,‌N
‌ e‌  ‌ 18.18‌  ‌ 18.18‌  ‌

Helium‌,‌H
‌ e‌  ‌ 5.24‌  ‌ 5.24‌  ‌

Methane‌[a]‌,‌C
‌ H‌4‌  ‌ 1.7‌  ‌ 2.0‌  ‌
Krypton‌,‌K
‌ r‌  ‌ 1.14‌  ‌ 1.14‌  ‌

Hydrogen‌,‌H
‌ 2‌
‌  ‌ 0.55‌  ‌ 0.5‌  ‌

Nitrous‌o
‌ xide‌,‌N
‌ 2‌
‌ O‌  ‌ 0.5‌  ‌ 0.5‌  ‌

Xenon‌,‌X
‌ e‌  ‌ 0.09‌  ‌ 0.087‌  ‌

Nitrogen‌d
‌ ioxide‌,‌N
‌ O‌2‌  ‌ 0.02‌  ‌ up‌t‌o‌0
‌ .02‌  ‌

Ozone‌*,‌O
‌ 3‌
‌ ,‌i‌n‌s‌ ummer‌  ‌  ‌ up‌t‌o‌0
‌ .07‌  ‌

Ozone‌*,‌O
‌ 3‌
‌ ,‌i‌n‌w
‌ inter‌   ‌ up‌t‌o‌0
‌ .02‌  ‌

Sulphur‌d
‌ ioxide‌*,‌S
‌ O‌2‌  ‌  ‌ up‌t‌o‌1
‌  ‌ ‌

Iodine‌*,‌I‌2‌
‌   ‌ 0.01‌  ‌

Water‌  ‌

Water‌v‌ apour‌* ‌ ‌ Highly‌v‌ ariable‌(‌ about‌0

‌ –3%);‌  ‌

typically‌m
‌ akes‌u
‌ p‌a
‌ bout‌1
‌ %‌  ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌
 ‌

History‌  ‌
 ‌

Schematic‌‌of‌‌chemical‌‌and‌‌transport‌‌processes‌‌related‌‌to‌‌atmospheric‌‌
 
composition‌  ‌

The‌‌ancient‌G ‌ reeks‌‌‌regarded‌‌air‌‌as‌‌one‌‌of‌‌the‌f‌our‌‌elements‌.‌‌The‌‌
 
first‌‌scientific‌‌studies‌‌of‌‌atmospheric‌‌composition‌‌began‌‌in‌‌the‌‌18th‌‌  
century,‌‌as‌‌chemists‌‌such‌‌as‌J‌ oseph‌‌Priestley‌,‌A ‌ ntoine‌‌Lavoisier‌‌
 
and‌H ‌ enry‌‌Cavendish‌‌‌made‌‌the‌‌first‌‌measurements‌‌of‌‌the‌‌  
composition‌‌of‌‌the‌‌atmosphere.‌  ‌
In‌‌the‌‌late‌‌19th‌‌and‌‌early‌‌20th‌‌centuries‌‌interest‌‌shifted‌‌towards‌‌
 
trace‌‌constituents‌‌with‌‌very‌‌small‌‌concentrations.‌‌One‌‌particularly‌‌  
important‌‌discovery‌‌for‌‌atmospheric‌‌chemistry‌‌was‌‌the‌‌discovery‌‌of‌‌  
ozone‌‌‌by‌C ‌ hristian‌‌Friedrich‌‌Schönbein‌‌‌in‌‌1840.‌  ‌
In‌‌the‌‌20th‌‌century‌‌atmospheric‌‌science‌‌moved‌‌on‌‌from‌‌studying‌‌  
the‌‌composition‌‌of‌‌air‌‌to‌‌a‌‌consideration‌‌of‌‌how‌‌the‌‌concentrations‌‌  
of‌‌trace‌‌gases‌‌in‌‌the‌‌atmosphere‌‌have‌‌changed‌‌over‌‌time‌‌and‌‌the‌‌  
chemical‌‌processes‌‌which‌‌create‌‌and‌‌destroy‌‌compounds‌‌in‌‌the‌‌air.‌‌  
Two‌‌particularly‌‌important‌‌examples‌‌of‌‌this‌‌were‌‌the‌‌explanation‌‌by‌‌  
Sydney‌‌Chapman‌‌‌and‌G ‌ ordon‌‌Dobson‌‌‌of‌‌how‌‌the‌o‌ zone‌‌layer‌‌‌is‌‌
 
created‌‌and‌‌maintained,‌‌and‌‌the‌‌explanation‌‌of‌p ‌ hotochemical‌‌  
smog‌‌‌by‌A ‌ rie‌‌Jan‌‌Haagen-Smit‌.‌‌Further‌‌studies‌‌on‌‌ozone‌‌issues‌‌led‌‌  
to‌‌the‌‌1995‌‌Nobel‌‌Prize‌‌in‌‌Chemistry‌‌award‌‌shared‌‌between‌P ‌ aul‌‌  
 ‌
Crutzen‌,‌M ‌ ario‌‌Molina‌‌‌and‌F ‌ rank‌‌Sherwood‌‌Rowland‌.‌
In‌‌the‌‌21st‌‌century‌‌the‌‌focus‌‌is‌‌now‌‌shifting‌‌again.‌‌Atmospheric‌‌  
chemistry‌‌is‌‌increasingly‌‌studied‌‌as‌‌one‌‌part‌‌of‌‌the‌E ‌ arth‌‌system‌. ‌‌
Instead‌‌of‌‌concentrating‌‌on‌‌atmospheric‌‌chemistry‌‌in‌‌isolation‌‌the‌‌  
focus‌‌is‌‌now‌‌on‌‌seeing‌‌it‌‌as‌‌one‌‌part‌‌of‌‌a‌‌single‌‌system‌‌with‌‌the‌‌rest‌‌
 
of‌‌the‌a
‌ tmosphere‌,‌b ‌ iosphere‌‌‌and‌g ‌ eosphere‌.‌‌An‌‌especially‌‌
 
important‌‌driver‌‌for‌‌this‌‌is‌‌the‌‌links‌‌between‌‌chemistry‌‌and‌c‌ limate‌‌
 
such‌‌as‌‌the‌‌effects‌‌of‌‌changing‌‌climate‌‌on‌‌the‌‌recovery‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ozone‌‌ 
hole‌‌and‌‌vice‌‌versa‌‌but‌‌also‌‌interaction‌‌of‌‌the‌‌composition‌‌of‌‌the‌‌
 
atmosphere‌‌with‌‌the‌‌oceans‌‌and‌‌terrestrial‌e ‌ cosystems‌. ‌ ‌
 ‌

 ‌

Laboratory‌‌studies‌  ‌
Measurements‌‌made‌‌in‌‌the‌‌laboratory‌‌are‌‌essential‌‌to‌‌our‌‌  
understanding‌‌of‌‌the‌‌sources‌‌and‌‌sinks‌‌of‌‌pollutants‌‌and‌‌naturally‌‌  
occurring‌‌compounds.‌‌These‌‌experiments‌‌are‌‌performed‌‌in‌‌  
controlled‌‌environments‌‌that‌‌allow‌‌for‌‌the‌‌individual‌‌evaluation‌‌of‌‌  
specific‌‌chemical‌‌reactions‌‌or‌‌the‌‌assessment‌‌of‌‌properties‌‌of‌‌a ‌‌
particular‌‌atmospheric‌‌constituent.‌‌Types‌‌of‌‌analysis‌‌that‌‌are‌‌of‌‌  
interest‌‌includes‌‌both‌‌those‌‌on‌‌gas-phase‌‌reactions,‌‌as‌‌well‌‌as‌‌  
heterogeneous‌‌‌reactions‌‌that‌‌are‌‌relevant‌‌to‌‌the‌‌formation‌‌and‌‌  
growth‌‌of‌a‌ erosols‌.‌‌Also‌‌of‌‌high‌‌importance‌‌is‌‌the‌‌study‌‌of‌‌
 
atmospheric‌p ‌ hotochemistry‌‌‌which‌‌quantifies‌‌how‌‌the‌‌rate‌‌in‌‌which‌‌  
molecules‌‌are‌‌split‌‌apart‌‌by‌‌sunlight‌‌and‌‌what‌‌resulting‌‌products‌‌  
are.‌‌In‌‌addition,‌t‌hermodynamic‌‌‌data‌‌such‌‌as‌H ‌ enry's‌‌law‌‌ 
coefficients‌‌can‌‌also‌‌be‌‌obtained.‌  ‌
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Trace‌‌gas‌‌composition‌  ‌
Besides‌‌the‌‌more‌‌major‌‌components‌‌listed‌‌above,‌‌Earth's‌‌
 
atmosphere‌‌also‌‌has‌‌many‌‌trace‌‌gas‌‌species‌‌that‌‌vary‌‌
 
significantly‌‌depending‌‌on‌‌nearby‌‌sources‌‌and‌‌sinks.‌‌These‌‌  
trace‌‌gases‌‌can‌‌include‌‌compounds‌‌such‌‌as‌C ‌ FCs/HCFCs‌‌  
which‌‌are‌‌particularly‌‌damaging‌‌to‌‌the‌‌ozone‌‌layer,‌‌and‌H ‌  ‌ ‌
2‌S‌‌which‌‌has‌‌a‌‌characteristic‌‌foul‌‌odor‌‌of‌‌rotten‌‌eggs‌‌and‌‌can‌‌  
be‌‌smelt‌‌in‌‌concentrations‌‌as‌‌low‌‌as‌‌0.47‌‌ppb.‌‌Some‌‌  
approximate‌‌‌amounts‌‌near‌‌the‌‌surface‌‌of‌‌some‌‌additional‌‌  
gases‌‌are‌‌listed‌‌below.‌‌In‌‌addition‌‌to‌‌gases,‌‌the‌‌atmosphere‌‌  
contains‌‌particulates‌‌as‌a ‌ erosol‌,‌‌which‌‌includes‌‌for‌‌example‌‌  
droplets,‌‌ice‌‌crystals,‌‌bacteria,‌‌and‌‌dust.‌  ‌
 ‌
Modeling‌  ‌

In‌‌order‌‌to‌‌synthesise‌‌and‌‌test‌‌theoretical‌‌understanding‌‌of‌‌
 
atmospheric‌‌chemistry,‌‌computer‌‌models‌‌(such‌‌as‌c‌ hemical‌‌
 
transport‌‌models‌)‌‌are‌‌used.‌‌Numerical‌‌models‌‌solve‌‌the‌‌
 
differential‌‌equations‌‌governing‌‌the‌‌concentrations‌‌of‌‌chemicals‌‌
 
in‌‌the‌‌atmosphere.‌‌They‌‌can‌‌be‌‌very‌‌simple‌‌or‌‌very‌‌
 
complicated.‌‌One‌‌common‌‌trade‌‌off‌‌in‌‌numerical‌‌models‌‌is‌‌
 
between‌‌the‌‌number‌‌of‌‌chemical‌‌compounds‌‌and‌‌chemical‌‌
 
reactions‌‌modeled‌‌versus‌‌the‌‌representation‌‌of‌‌transport‌‌and‌‌
 
mixing‌‌in‌‌the‌‌atmosphere.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌a‌‌box‌‌model‌‌might‌‌
 
include‌‌hundreds‌‌or‌‌even‌‌thousands‌‌of‌‌chemical‌‌reactions‌‌but‌‌
 
will‌‌only‌‌have‌‌a‌‌very‌‌crude‌‌representation‌‌of‌‌mixing‌‌in‌‌the‌‌
 
atmosphere.‌‌In‌‌contrast,‌‌3D‌‌models‌‌represent‌‌many‌‌of‌‌the‌‌
 
physical‌‌processes‌‌of‌‌the‌‌atmosphere‌‌but‌‌due‌‌to‌‌constraints‌‌on‌‌
 
computer‌‌resources‌‌will‌‌have‌‌far‌‌fewer‌‌chemical‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌
 
compounds.‌‌Models‌‌can‌‌be‌‌used‌‌to‌‌interpret‌‌observations,‌‌test‌‌
 
understanding‌‌of‌‌chemical‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌predict‌‌future‌‌
 
concentrations‌‌of‌‌chemical‌‌compounds‌‌in‌‌the‌‌atmosphere.‌‌One‌‌
 
important‌‌current‌‌trend‌‌is‌‌for‌‌atmospheric‌‌chemistry‌‌modules‌‌to‌‌
 
become‌‌one‌‌part‌‌of‌‌earth‌‌system‌‌models‌‌in‌‌which‌‌the‌‌links‌‌
 
between‌‌climate,‌‌atmospheric‌‌composition‌‌and‌‌the‌‌biosphere‌‌
 
can‌‌be‌‌studied.‌  ‌

Some‌‌models‌‌are‌‌constructed‌‌by‌‌automatic‌‌code‌‌generators‌‌  
(e.g.‌A ‌ utochem‌‌‌or‌K
‌ inetic‌‌PreProcessor‌).‌‌In‌‌this‌‌approach‌‌a‌‌set‌‌
 
of‌‌constituents‌‌are‌‌chosen‌‌and‌‌the‌‌automatic‌‌code‌‌generator‌‌  
will‌‌then‌‌select‌‌the‌‌reactions‌‌involving‌‌those‌‌constituents‌‌from‌‌a ‌‌
set‌‌of‌‌reaction‌‌databases.‌‌Once‌‌the‌‌reactions‌‌have‌‌been‌‌  
chosen‌‌the‌o ‌ rdinary‌‌differential‌‌equations‌‌‌that‌‌describe‌‌their‌‌
 
time‌‌evolution‌‌can‌‌be‌‌automatically‌‌constructed.‌  ‌
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