PP (7) 03102022

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION I
Dr. Abdullah K. Okab

Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering
 WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN

THIS COURSE…
University of Thiqar/College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Departement/ 3th Class
The goal of the course is to to know the
Petroleum & Gas production processes after
completion of the wells, and then transfer it to
the sources of distribution or manufacturing and
consumption
 EDUCATION
OBJECTS A class presentation in PETROLEUM
PRODUCTION at University of Thi-
 Review of casing design concepts.
Qar/College of Engineering/Petroleum& Gas
 Well completions: various completion designs.
 Reservoir and mechanical considerations. Engineering department.
 Perforations, production packers.
 Tubing strings, liners.
,
 Subsurface completions.
 Production control equipment’s and completion
fluids.
 Wellhead and subsurface components
installation.
 Piping systems, valves, chokes, fittings,
 Surface production facilities.
 Separators, stock tanks.
 Gathering systems and individual well flow rate
allocation.
 Fluid Separators: separator components, types
and factors influencing separator capacity.
 Tubing and flow line behavior: Tubing size,
maximum possible flow rate and flow line size.
 Sand control procedures.
 SKILLS
Get a knowledge about the Petroleum & Gas
production processes
 REFERENCES
1- ''Petroleum Production system'' 2nd
edition / Michael j.
2- ''Applied petroleum reservoir
engineering''2nd edition/ B.C.Craft,
M.Hawkins.
3- OTHER
1
Contents
1- Review of casing design concepts........................................................................................... 9
2- Well completion........................................................................................................................ 45
3- Reservoir and mechanical considerations............................................................................54
4- Perforation................................................................................................................................ 61
5- Tubing Strings, Liners............................................................................................................. 85
6- surface Completion.................................................................................................................. 93
7- Production control equipment's and Completion fluids.......................................................99
8- Wellhead and subsurface components installing...............................................................107
9- Piping System......................................................................................................................... 113
10- Surface production facilities.................................................................................................................118
11- Tank batteries and metering.............................................................................................. 127
-21 separators ,stock tanks..................................................................................................... 130
13- Surface gathering system.................................................................................................. 138
14- Tubing and Flowline Behavior........................................................................................... 144
15- Sand Production Problems................................................................................................ 153
Petroleum and Natural Gas

The word “Petroleum” has its origin in the Greek words “petra” for “rock” and “oleum”
for “oil”. Petroleum, or crude oil, is a naturally occurring liquid found in porous rocks
(reservoirs) below the earth’s surface. It is an organic material comprised
2
of hydrocarbon molecules (molecules formed by hydrogen and carbon atoms) with
possible inorganic contaminates,
such as nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and others.
Crude oil is found in subsurface rock formations known as oil reservoirs. It is typically
found in the presence of natural gas (associated natural gas). Associated natural gases are
hydrocarbon gases that co-exists with the crude oil and may be present as: (1) gas
dissolved in the crude oil (solution gas), (2) a distinct gas phase in contact with the
crude oil (free gas), or (3) both. Natural gas may also exist with no crude oil present
(non-associated gas) in natural gas reservoirs. In the context just described, the terms
“associated gas” and “non-associated gas” refer to the association of the gas with a liquid
hydrocarbon phase. This is illustrated in Figure .
3
Oil and Gas Professions University of Thiqar/College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Departement/ 3th Class
The petroleum and natural gas engineering profession is normally divided into three
major areas of specialization based on the tasks assigned to the engineer. these areas are:
drilling or drilling and completions (d&c) engineers, production engineers, and reservoir
engineers.
4
Drilling Engineers, or Drilling and Completions Engineers
Drilling Engineers, or Drilling and Completions Engineers, are responsible for
planning, designing, and executing the drilling operations of a well. Drilling a well may
take several years to properly plan. This is because of the depths and quality of the steel
tubulars (drill pipe, casing, and production tubing) that are required by the oil and gas
industry. For example, a ten-well drilling campaign to a total depth of 12,000 ft per well
in a high temperature, high pressure, highly corrosive environment will take several miles
of high-grade steel tubulars which cannot be purchased “off-the-shelf” from steel
manufactures. These items are “Long Lead Time” items in the well design and must be
considered years in advance of the actual drilling operations. In fact, an aggressive
drilling campaign in a single oilfield may exhaust the world’s supply of a particular steel
grade for several years. Coordinating the design of the well with the suppliers of the
well components is an integral part of the planning process performed by the drilling
engineer.
During drilling
operations, the drilling engineer
must also determine the
appropriate drilling fluids to use
to allow for safe drilling
operations and select the
appropriate drill bits to use to
allow for optimal drilling
efficiency (cost, speed, etc.). The
drilling engineer must also
decide on the appropriate depths to set casing and the appropriate steel grades of the
casing to protect both the wellbore and the environment (Casing is used to isolate the
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well from the various geologic rock formations and aquifers that a well encounters and
to isolate the individual rock formations from each other.).
Once the wellbore has reached the predetermined total depth and the final casing
string has been cemented in place, the drilling engineer works with the production
engineer to implement the well’s completion. The well completion is the portion of the
well that connects the wellbore to the reservoir. This aspect of the well design has many
considerations in order to achieve the long-term objectives of the well. Important
considerations of a completion design include: selecting the appropriate size and grade
of the production tubing; determining the need to stimulate the reservoir (hydraulic
fracturing, acidizing, etc.) to allow for economical production rates from the reservoir to
the well, and selecting the appropriate artificial lift system (natural lift, pump, gas lift,
etc.) to aid in “lifting” the produced fluids from the reservoir to the surface. Production
Engineer
The role of the Production Engineer is to monitor individual wells or groups of

wells to ensure that they are producing (or, in the case of injection wells, injecting)
optimally. Over time, downhole equipment may fail, produced hydrocarbons fluids may
deposit waxes or asphaltenes on downhole equipment and tubing, minerals in produced
water may create a scale on downhole equipment and tubing, steel tubing may corrode or
erode, etc. All of these phenomena can negatively affect the performance of the well. In
addition, due to changing reservoir conditions, equipment and tubing sizes that were
optimal at the beginning of production may be suboptimal at depleted reservoir
conditions.
To monitor wells, production engineers may install permanent downhole sensing

equipment to continuously observe well performance in real time. In addition, the
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production engineer may perform discrete tests on the well by sending monitoring tools
down the well to observe well performance as a “snapshot in time.” These discrete tests
can either be (1) well logs, where tools are sent downhole that measure properties of
interest to the engineer such as flow rates, temperatures, internal tubing diameters etc., or
(2) well tests, where pressure gauges are sent downhole, well rates are adjusted in a
controlled, known manner, and the corresponding pressure responses are recorded and
analyzed. The analysis of the pressure responses during a well test provides a valuable
insight into the near-well performance of the reservoir.
If a problem is identified with the well, it is then up to the production engineer to

determine the appropriate remedial actions to resolve the issue. These well remediations
may take the form of simple “wireline workovers” or more complex “major rig
workovers (MRWO).” In a wireline workover, all work is performed with tools lowered
into the well at the end of an electrical cable (wireline). Using a wireline, perforations
(connections to the reservoir) can be added, tubing plugs can be set or retrieved, packers
(downhole equipment
used to isolate reservoir
zones) can be set or
retrieved, valves can be
opened or closed, etc. In a
major rig workover, a
drilling rig or specialized
workover rig is moved on
location above the well
and is used to re-enter the well to retrieve the original tubing or completion equipment,
cement off depleted reservoir zones (to establish zonal isolation), or to restimulate the
well.
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In addition to monitoring wells and performing well remediations, production engineers
look after the artificial lift systems used in the well. Typical artificial lift systems include
beam pumps, downhole electrical submersible pumps (ESPs), or gas lift.
By the nature of their jobs, production engineers interact with oilfield service providers to
ensure that the appropriate technologies are applied to optimize well production or
injection.
Reservoir Engineers : While production engineers focus on individual wells or groups
of wells, Reservoir
Engineers attempt to
optimize production of the
reservoir as a whole.
Reservoir engineers work
with geologists, drilling
engineers, and production
engineers to ensure that
the entire reservoir system
is running optimally. Typical tasks performed by reservoir engineers include: working
with geologists to determine the original-oil-in-place in the reservoir and identifying
future well locations; identifying the drive mechanisms (the physical phenomena which
cause the oil and gas to migrate to the production wells); estimating the reservoir reserves
(volumes of oil and gas that can be technically and economically extracted from the
reservoir), recommending the appropriate development plans for a reservoir (and
recognizing when it is time to modify a plan); forecasting future production and injection
rates from the reservoir in its entirety; and determining the need for applying Improved
Oil Recovery (IOR) or Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) methods.
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1- REVIEW OF CASING DESIGN CONCEPTS
Introduction to Gas and Liquid Flow through Well Tubing
In oil and gas production, Tubing is the pipe or conduit where fluids are
transported from the reservoir to the surface. This is shown Figure . Figure shows the
Wellbore Schematic for a typical vertical well. This figure is a schematic cross-section
through the axis of the well.
This schematic shows two
types of pipe, casing and
tubing. The casing is used and
installed during the drilling
process.
The tubing is the inner most
string of pipe in the well. this is
the conduit that connects the
reservoir to the surface.
Reservoir fluids flow from the
reservoir, through the
perforations, into the tubing,
and the up the well. In this well
schematic, fluids are prevented
from flowing through the
Annular Space between the
tubing and Production Casing
String with a Packer (a packer is a device that seals the annular space between the
production casing and tubing and mechanically prevents fluids from flowing through the
annulus).
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Wells drilled for oil and gas production (or fluid injection) are not always straight,
vertical wells. Wells can be designed to be straight, deviated, or horizontal. This is shown
in Figure for three common well types: vertical wells, deviated wells, and horizontal
wells. In addition to wells that were planned to be deviated, wells that were planned to be
straight, vertical wells often deviate from the true vertical direction during the drilling
process.
In figure below depicts three wells. In this figure, the Kelly Bushing is the
mechanical assembly that rotates on the rig floor causing the drill pipe and drill bit to
rotate. This figure shows four common measurements used in the oil and gas industry for
the well lengths and depths:
TVD: True Vertical Depth is the depth (or length) in the true vertical direction measured
from the Kelly Bushing to the point of interest.
TVD ss: True Vertical Depth sub-sea is the depth (or length) in the true vertical direction
measured from the mean sea level to the point of interest.
MD: Measured Depth is the path length of the depth (or length) measured from the Kelly
Bushing to the point of interest.
KBE: The Kelly Bushing Elevation is the elevation of the Kelly Bushing measured from
the sea level.
As we will see, these measurements can have a significant impact on the tubing
hydraulics once the well is put onto production or injection. For example, gravity (and
hydrostatic pressure) and the geothermal gradient will act in the true vertical direction
(TVD), while friction will act along the total length of the tubing (MD).
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In the field, the measurement of the three-dimensional path of a well is called
a Directional Survey. A directional survey can be performed with either magnetic or
gyroscopic instrumentation. The data recorded during a directional survey include:
1. the True Vertical Depth, TVD
2. the Measured Depth, MD
3. the well inclination from the vertical (0° for a vertical well and 90° for a horizontal
well). Note, for our flow calculations, we will use inclination from the horizontal
4. the well direction N-S-E-W or 0 - 360°)
The objectives of the directional survey are to:
 determine the exact bottom-hole location;

 monitor the well’s progress during drill to ensure the well will reach the intended
target;
 orient the deflection of any tools run in the well to ensure tools can traverse the well
path;
 establish the relationship of TVD and MD for in support of well logging and
wellbore hydraulics modeling; and
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 calculate the TVD of various geologic formations to allow for proper geological
mapping.
As oil enters the well and begin flow upwards several Flow Regimes or Flow Patterns
can occur in the tubing. These flow patterns in vertical flow are shown in Table below.
Vertical Cross-section Description

Mist Flow:
 The incompressible liquid occupies a much smaller volume than the
compressible gas.
 The liquid is evenly distributed as a mist.
 The gas and liquid velocities are approximately the same (liquid drops may try
to settle).
 Flow is stable.
Annular Flow:
 Liquid forms a somewhat uniform layer on the pipe walls.
 Liquid may form a wavy flow.
 Gas forms a continuous path in the center of the tubing.
 Flow is more stable than churn flow.
Churn Flow:
 Gas bubbles coalesce further and begin to form a continuous path in the center of
the tubing.
 Gas velocity is high pushing liquid upwards, but liquid density is high causing counter-
current liquid flow downward.
 Flow is foam-like.
 Flow is very unstable.
Slug Flow:
 Gas bubbles expand as pressure decreases.
 Gas bubbles begin to coalesce.
 Discontinuous as slugs form toward the center of the tubing.
 Flow is unstable.
Bubble Flow:
 The pressure drops below the bubble-point pressure, and gas comes out of solution.
 Bubbles are evenly distributed.
 Flow is very stable with gas and liquid velocities approximately equal.
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Single-Phase Flow:
 Liquid enters the tubing as a single phase.
 Tubing pressure is above the bubble-point pressure.
Flow Patterns for Horizontal Flow through Tubing
Cross-Section Longitudinal-Section Description
Single-Phase Flow:
 Liquid enters the tubing as a single phase.
 Tubing pressure is above the bubble-point
pressure.
Bubble Flow:
 The pressure drops below the bubble-point
pressure, and gas comes out of solution.
 Small bubbles distributed everywhere
in cross-section.
 Due to buoyancy, bubbles migrate to top of
tubing.
 Bubbles act like foam at high velocities
Plug Flow:
 Gas bubbles expand as pressure
decreases.
 Gas bubbles begin to coalesce to form
plugs.
 Due to buoyancy, plugs flow toward the top
of the tubing.
Stratified Flow:
 Due to buoyancy, phases completely
separate into two continuous phases.
 Interface between phases is relatively
smooth.
 This flow regime on occurs at low velocities.
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Wavy Flow:
 Begins at higher velocities.
 Waves and ripples appear at the phase
boundaries.
 Waves tunnel in the direction of the liquid.
Slug Flow:
 At higher velocities, liquid waves reach top
of the tubing cutting off the cross-section to
gas.
 The difference in momentum of the phases
(due to different phase velocities) results in
sudden pressure changes when the path
closes.
 Shocks and vibrations occur.
 This flow regime should be avoided if
possible.
Annular Flow:
 Liquid coats the pipe wall.
 Due to gravity, coating is non-concentric
with thinner coating on top and thicker
coating on bottom.
 Liquid flows along the pipe walls.
 Gas flow in the center of the tubing.
Spray Flow:
 Due to gas expansion (or high initial GORs)
gas volume is much greater than oil
volume.
 The liquid droplets evenly distributed as a
mist in gas phase.
 Phase velocities are approximately the
same.
 Flow is stable.
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Pipe Flow Calculations
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Illustration of Bernoulli’s Energy Balance for a Production Well
Source: Greg King © Penn State, is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
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A Moody diagram contains multiple curves of constant relative roughness (ε/D) plotted over
a range of Reynold’s numbers.
Moody Diagram of the Darcy-Weisbach Friction Factor
Source: Wikipedia: Moody Diagram (CC BY-SA 4.0)
In the laminar flow regime (Re<2,000), the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is a function of the
Reynolds Number only and can be determined by:
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DARCY-WEISBACH EQUATIONS CALCULATOR
FLUID MECHANICS HYDRAULICS FORMULAS
18
Example:
Room temperature water is flowing at steady state in a cast iron pipe with a diameter of 50 mm at a
rate of 0.002 cubic meters per second. What is the pressure loss per meter of pipe?
Ans:
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2
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
Example:
Example:
The Casing
After drilling each cavity, the pipe must be lined or sealed with steel pipes. These pipes
perform the following functions:
a) Preventing the destruction of the well wall and providing support for weak and
cracked structures.
b) Isolating the porous medium containing different fluids and preventing pollution of the
producing layers. This can be eliminated by the presence of cement behind the lining
pipes.
c) Protection of freshwater pollution near the surface.
d) Inventory and identification of production by securing a corridor for hydrocarbon
fluids.
e) Achieve appropriate linkage to the wellhead and Christmas tree equipment.
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f) Allows the connection of the surge suppressors during drilling operations.
g) securing a well with a diameter and depth to allow the completion equipment to be
removed.
h) Facilitate the installation and installation of the required equipment inside the well,
especially if the production is by artificial lift.
Operating window : The area between the pore pressure and the fracture pressure in the
certain lithology.
Fracture pressure: is the

minimum pressure that causes the
rocks to be fracked. Therefore, the
drilling fluids starts to flow out of
the wellbore to the formation.
This is called lost circulation.
22
Pore Pressure: Is the formation fluids pressure which is caused by the overburden
pressure or other reasons.
Overburden pressure: is the weights of the upper rocks. Therefore, when the drilling
goes deeper, the pressure increase due to the weight of the rocks.
The pore pressure and the

fracture pressure changes with depth,
so that, it is impossible to drill very
long section by using the same
properties of mud. So, it is need to
separate the depth to several ranges.
Every range has to have the same
drilling fluids density.
Every range is run by a specific size of pipe called casing. Then, the casing is cemented .
After that, the new size of hole is drilled.
23
Types of casing strings
The cost is much less to drill a single well to the total depth and may be a single diameter
dredger and then the well to the surface is extended to the total depth with one
diameter pipes. However, the presence of high pressure areas and weak non- coherent
layers or areas containing Take down the liner to remove and remove these problematic
areas and allow drilling to continue naturally so it is necessary to drop the lining of
different diameters to lock different sections of the well.
Description of casing strings :
1- Conductor pipe: is the first casing that is run in the well. This casing is usually large
diameter. The primary purpose of the conductor casing is to serve as flow line, allowing
mud to return to the pits and stabilizing the upper part of a hole, which may be composed
of loose soil. The depth of the conductor pipe is usually in the range of 100mTVD and
diameter 18-32 in . it also provides a point for instillation of a blow out preventer (BOP).
24
2- Surface Casing: the well is drilled out from the conductor pipe to depth below the
shallow freshwater sands. The surface casing string is run through the conductor pipe at
depth 500m TVD and diameter 13.5-20 in .It has some basic purposes:
-cover fresh water sands.
-maintain hole integrity by preventing caving.
-cover the weak zone.
-minimize lost circulation into shallow –permeable zone.
-provide a means for attaching the blowout preventers.
-support the weight of all casing string (except liners)run below the surface pipe.
3- Intermediate casing :the primary applications of intermediate casing involve
abnormally high formation pressure . since higher mud weights are required to control
these pressure the shallower weak formations must be protected to prevent lost
circulation or stuck pipe . It is used to isolated salt zone or zone those cause hole
problems such as heaving and sloughing shale.The diameter of this casing 9.5 in and
depth 1000m TVD
4- The production casing is often called the oil string .The pipe may be set at a depth
slightly above , or below the pay zone with depth 1500m TVD and diameter 7in . The
pipe has the following purposes:
-Isolate the producing zone from the other formations .
-provide a work shaft of a known diameter to the pay zone .
-protect the producing tubing equipment.
5- Liners: Do not run this column to the surface ,it suspended a short distance above the
previous casing shoe and will be cemented along its whole length to insure a good seal
isolating the annulus. Often a liner top packer can be set as a precautionary second
barrier. This casing pipe has the following advantage :
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-Reduce the total cost of the production casing column and the costs of downloading
and cementing are less
disadvantage.
-the possibility of leakage through the column pillar lining.
-difficult to obtaining good initial cementing process because the narrow space between the
liner casing and the wall of the well.
Types of the liner casing:
 Drilling liners: are used to isolate lost circulation or abnormally pressured zone
to permit deeper drilling.
 Production liners: are run instead of a full casing to provide isolation across the
production or injection zone .
 The tie-back liner : is a section of casing extending upwards from the top of an
existing liner to the surface . it may or may not ,be cemented in place.
 The scab liner: is a section of casing that does not reach the surface . it is used to
repair existing damaged casing. it is normally sealed with packers at top and
bottom.
 The scab tie-back liner : is section of casing extending from the top of an existing
liner but dose reach the surface . The scab tie-bake is normally cemented in place.
Casing physical properties:
The properties of oil-field tubular
goods include grade , weight ,length
and inner diameter.
26
Steel Grade:
The grade reflects the material composition and yield strength of the casing material.
API casing grades are listed in the table below:
27
Nominal Weight:
Nominal weight is the average linear weight of the tubing, connection included.
It is expressed in lb/ft or kg/m and it determines the tubing wall thickness that in turn
determines the nominal inner diameter.
WL=(WPC L)+ew
W=calculate weight of a pipe of length L, Ib
L=length of pipe, ft
WPC=plian-end, ft
ew=weight gain or loss due to end finishing, lb
Length:
Casing usually comes in lengths between 40 and 46 ft (12-14 m).
Inner Diameter:
Because the inner diameter is nominal, a guaranteed inner diameter called the drift
diameter is also specified. The drift diameter is typically 1/8″ (3.2 mm) less than the
nominal inner diameter. Equipment with a larger diameter than the drift diameter should
not be run into a well.
Burst :is a condition where amount of internal pressure exceeds pressure loading.
Minimum burst rating pressure (internal yield pressure) can be calculated by the
following equation. Where:
PB – Minimum internal yield pressure (psi)

Yp – Minimum yield strength (psi)
t – Nominal wall thickness (in)
D -Nominal outside diameter of the pipe (in)
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Example: Calculate the tensile strength of the following pipe. 4-1/2” casing, weight 9.5
ppf, grade J-55
Ans: PB = 4,385 psi

Example: Calculate the internal yield burst pressure for 26.4 lb/ft,N-80,7.625 inch pipe
.assume it has a wall thickness (t) of 0.328 inch .Use the API minimum wall thickness
factor of 0.875 .Recalculate the result and use 95% wall thickness.
Ans:
a)the internal yield stress is calculate as:
Pb=0.875[(2*80000psi)*0.328inch)/7.625inch]
Pb=6020psi
Collapse Pressure: is the pressure which is supplied from the outside of a pipe. When
the Collapse Pressure is higher than the rated or designed Collapse Pressure of the pipe,
then the pipe crushes or collapses. In other words, when the differential pressure from
outside to inside the tube or vessel increases, the tube deforms catastrophically
29
1-plastic collapse:
Example: An engineer must calculate the collapse rating for rating for the following
section of pipe . Using API calculate the collapse pressure to the nearest 10 psi. Pipe
diameter :9.625, wall thickness :0.472, Grade :N-80 ,weight :47lb/ft.
Ans: determine the D/t ratio:
D/t= 9.625inch/0.472 inch=20.392
Form table ( )
A=3.071: ,C=1955
Pp=Yp[(A/(D/t))-B]-c
Pp=80000[(3.071/(20.392)-0.0667]-1955
Pp=4756 psi.
Collapse pressure - with axial stress
 
  
 S 2 1/ 2 S 
Y  Y 1 0.75  A    0.5  A 

PA P Y   Y 
 
   P   P 
 
YPA = yield strength of axial stress equivalent grade, psi Yp
= minimum yield strength of pipe, psi
SA = Axial stress, psi (tension is positive
Example: the engineer must calculate the collapse pressure for the following pipe characteristics:
Size :7 inch OD, weight :26lb/ft, Grade: P-110, SA:11000 psi, t=0.362 inch.
Ans:  
 S 
S 2 1/ 2 
Y  Y 1 0.75  A    0.5  A 

PA P Y   Y 
 
   P   P 


YPA=[SQRT(1-0.75(11000/110000)2)-0.5(11000/110000)110000
YPA=104.082 psi
D/t=?
D/t=7/0.362 =19.34
A=3.181 B=0.0819 C =2852
PP=YP[(A/Dt)-B]-C
PP=104082[(3.181/19.34)-0.0819]-2852
PP=5742 psi
Tubing Length Change due to Thermal Load
Tubing Shorten by Tubing Lengthen by

Temperature Temperature Increase
Decrease
Difference in temperature causes steel to contract or expand. If tubing is free to
move, length of the tubing will be either longer or shorter due to thermal expansion. On
the other hand, if the tubing is not free to move, there will be a change in axial force due
to the temperature effect.
Figure 1 illustrates an increase in length due to heat and Figure 2 demonstrates a decrease
in length because of cooling.
If tubing is anchored, the force generated by temperature change is calculated by the

following equation.
FTemp=CT*E*ΛT*As
FTEMP = Force generated by change in temperature (inch)
CT = Thermal expansion coefficient (1/F)
E = Young’s Modulus of material (psi)
ΔT = Average temperature change from the initial condition to the final condition
As = Cross sectional area of tubular (inch2)
Average Temperature = (Surface Temperature + Bottom Hole Temperature) ÷2 (F)
If tubing is free to move, the force generated by temperature change is calculated by the following
equation.
ΛLTemp= CT*L*ΛT Where;

ΔLTEMP = Length change due to thermal effect (inch)
CT = Thermal expansion coefficient (1/F)

L = Length of tubing (inch)
ΔT = Average temperature change from the initial condition to the final condition (F)
32
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Average Temperature = (Surface Temperature + Bottom Hole Temperature) ÷2 (F)
Thermal changes can happen during the
life of the well. While producing, heat
from the reservoir will expand the length
of the tubing, whereas an injection
operation will contract tubular due to
cooling down the temperature. Figure 3
shows the difference in temperature
gradient while the well is on production
or injection. Therefore, it is important to
understand how thermal will affect
changes in length or force in the tubular.
Figure / Temperature Gradient During Life of The Well
Example: This example will demonstrate how to

calculate a length change due to thermal effect.
Tubing is free to move.
Packer setting depth is 10,000 ft.
C = 6.9×10 (1/F)
T
-6
At the initial condition

Surface temperature (F) = 60F
Bottom hole temperature (F) = 150 F
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At the final condition
Surface temperature (F) = 90F
Bottom hole temperature (F) = 150 F
Ans:
Length of tubing (inch) 12 × 10,000 = 120,000 inch
Average Temperature at Initial Condition = (60 + 150) ÷2 = 105 F
Average Temperature at Final Condition = (90 + 150) ÷2 = 120 F
ΔT = 120 – 105 = 15 F
ΔLTEMP = 12.42 inch
Conclusion
Length of tubular will increase by 12.42 inches due to thermal affect based on the given
information.
34
Questions1
Fill the blanks:
1-(…………………)is often called the oil string .The pipe may be set at a depth slightly
above , or below the pay zone.
1- 2-The depth of the Intermediate casing is(…….. )and the diameter is( …….)
Ans:
1- The production casing.
2- The depth 1000m TVD ,The diameter 9.5 in.
What are Types of the liner casing? explain Production liners?
Ans:
1- Drilling liners
2- Production liners: are run instead of a full casing to provide isolation across the
2-
production or injection zone .
3-The tie-back
liner 4-The scab
liner
5-The scab tie-back liner
What are the purposes of the surface casing?
Ans:
1- cover fresh water sands.
2- maintain hole integrity by preventing caving.
3- 3-cover the weak zone.
4- minimize lost circulation into shallow –permeable
zone. 5-provide a means for attaching the blowout
preventers.
6-support the weight of all casing string (except liners)run below the surface pipe.
What are the disadvantage of liner casing?
Ans:
4-
1-the possibility of leakage through the column pillar casing .
2-difficult to obtaining good initial cementing process because the narrow space between
the liner casing and the wall of the well.
35
What are the most important Casing physical properties?
Ans:
5-
1-Steel Grade:
2- Nominal Weight:
3- Length:
4- Inner Diameter:
5 –Burst
6-collaps
What the difference between the Pore Pressure and,
Fracture pressure?
Ans:
Fracture pressure: is the minimum pressure that causes the rocks to be fracked .
6-
Therefore, the drilling fluids starts to flow out of the wellbore to the formation. This
is called lost circulation. Pore Pressure: is the formation fluids pressure which is
caused by the overburden pressure or other reasons.
What the purposes of the production casing?

Ans:
7-
1-Isolate the producing zone from the other formations .
2-provide a work shaft of a known diameter to the pay zone
. 3-protect the producing tubing equipment.
Explain the Conductor casing?
Ans:
Conductor pipe: is the first casing that is run in the well. This casing is usually large
8-
diameter. The primary purpose of the conductor casing is to serve as flow line, allowing
mud to return to the pits and stabilizing the upper part of a hole, which may be
composed of loose soil. The depth of the conductor pipe is usually in the range of
100mTVD and diameter 18-32 in . it also provides a point for instillation of a blow out
preventer (BOP).
36
3
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
3
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
3
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
4
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
4
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
4
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
4
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
4
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
Exampl
2- WELL COMPLETION
Well completion : can be defined as the process of preparing a well for production/
injection of oil and gas. This involves preparing the required bottom hole specifications
and running in of the production tubing and its associated down hole tools and
equipment’s .
The Fig. (Completion Equipment)
 Production Tubing : Production, control and download of measuring devices .

 Liner : Control of sand problem and Economy costs .
45
 Production Packer : Insulation , production and it protection the casing and
isolate the tubing from casing due to its location between casing and tubing.
 Sliding Sleeve : Production , fluid circulation and control in the well .
 X-mas tree : Controls the internal pressure of the well and controls the proc-
ess of completion.
 Subsurface Control Equipment : Control flow direction, quantity and control
of injection wells and others.
Types of Completion Fluids
1- Oil Base Fluids , Hydrocarbon Fluids
- Crude Oil
- Diesel ,Gas Oil
2-Water Base Fluids ,Clear Water Fluids
- Formation Salt Water
- Sea Water
- Prepared Salt Water
Types of Complete wells
There are two types of completion in the wells :
A-Open completion
1- is the completion in which the lining of the production above the reservoir layer
containing hydrocarbons (oil) before drilling and the production or injection directly
without casing.
2- Greater production of hydrocarbons.
3- The possibility of production through the tubing.
4- Less commonly used.
5- Absence of additional costs due to casing , Cementing , and perforation.
6-It can be replaced by any other type of Completion.
7- It is completed through only one layer.
8- Difficulty in controlling the production of gas or wate and sand .
9- It is not possible to implement recovery and stimulate the well
operations for specific locations in the product section.
10-needs to be cleaned from time to time.
B- cased completion
1- In this type of completion , after drilling the production zone , a casing is run and
cemented opposite the layer , then it is perforated.
46
2- Production of hydrocarbons is less compared to open completions.
3- Production is done through the tubing or the packer or other methods (explained
later).
4- More use and safety.
5- Additional costs for casing, cementing and perforating.
6-It can be replaced by another type of completion.
7- The possibility of completion on more than one productive layer
8- Easy to control the production of water or gas and sand.
9- Possibility of recovery and stimulation of the well.
10- not need permanent cleaning.
The Fig. Open hole completion
The fig. Well completion
47
Conventional completion
Single zone completion :
In single zone completion as opposed to multiple one,the well is equipped with single
tubing.
There are two main types of single zone completion, depending on whether the tubing
has production packer on its lower end.
Single zone completion with just tubing and no production packer:
Used when the only aim is to have the right pipe diameter with respect to flow rate by
this we mean obtaining enough velocity to lift the heavy part of effluent but not too much
in order to limit pressure drops.
Single zone completion with tubing and production packer: Are the most widely used
because of:
- The safety due to the packer(government regulation and company rules
increasingly stipulate that a packer is to be used particularly offshore in
conjunction with a subsurface safety valve on the tubing.
- Their relative simplicity in comparison with multiple or other type of completion.
Note: This type of completion is produce less amount compared with previous due to
packer.
48
The fig. Single zone and multi zone well completion
Multiple zone completion:

Double zone completion are most common,but there can be three,four and even more
levels produced separately.
There are large number of systems , but let us simply consider these three type are:
A-Parallel tubing string completion:
Parallel dual string completion with two tubing,one for each of two levels and two
packer . In order to avoid problems :
* In operation and production due to frequent wireline jobs.
* Of safety and operation during workover.
B-Tubing annulus completion:
49
With one single tubing and one packer, which is located between the two levels that are
to be produced,with one level produced through the tubing and other through the tubing
casing annulus .
Are very few and far between. through they have good flow capability, this system
does not protect the casing ,among other drawbacks.
Alternate selective completions:

Here the idea is to produce several levels In the same well separately but one after the
other though the same tubing without having to resort to workover. Production alternates
in fact and wireline techniques are used to change levels This type of completion is
specially suited to a situation where one of the two levels is a secondary objective (very
rapid depletion, simple)
observation from time to time ,etc.) which would not warrant drilling a well.
Be sides Packers this technology also require esextra downhole equipment such as:
* circulating device consisting of a sliding sleeve to open or obstruct communication
ports between the inside of the tubing and the annulus.
* a landing nipple allowing a Plug to be set in the well.
50
* Parallel tubing string and alternate selective completion
Systems can be combined.
For example two parallel tubings, each equipped for two levels in an alternate selective
manner ,can produce four levels separately Provided that only two are produced at the
same time
51
Questions 2
9- Define well completion.
Ans:
Is the process of preparing a well for production / injection of oil and gas. This
involves preparing the required bottom hole specifications and running in of the
production tubing and its associated down hole tools and equipment’s.
10- Numerate the completion equipment.
Ans:
1-Production lining(casing).
2-Lining production reducer (liner).
3-Sliding sleeve.
4-Production pipe (tubbing).
5-Subsurface control equipment.
6-Christmas tree(X-mass tree)&wellhead assembly.
7-Production packer.
11- Give the job to
1-Sliding sleeve. 2-Subsurface control equipment.
Ans:
1- Sliding sleeve: Production, fluid circulation and control in the well.
2- Subsurface control equipment: Control flow direction ,quantity and control
of injection wells and other.
12- In single zone completion the production through tubing and with packer is less
than production through tubing with no packer.
Ans:
-Because it depends on the presence packer, where in the first type is has tubing and
packer then the production well be through just tubing and that lead the amount of
production less ,while in the second type just has tubing without packer and then the
production through the tubing and annulus and that lead the production amount be
greater than first case.
52
13- The type of multiple completion are?
Ans:
1-paralle tubing string completion.
2-Tubing annulus completion.
3-Alernate selective completions.
14- Choose the correct answer :
1-Alernate selective completion through: (single zone, double zone, triple zone,
more than that).
2- one of the advantage of open completion:(sand control, greater costs, complete
control, greater production of hydrocarbons).
15- Put (True)in front correct answer and(false)in front incorrect answer.
1- Cased completion doesn't need casing.
False .Why?(take Ans. From Group.lec.2)
2- The possibility of combining between alternate completion and completion of more
than two layer.
True.
3- Tubing annulus completion with one single tubing and two packer.
False. Why?(take Ans. From Group.lec.2)
16- Give three differences between open and cased completion.
Ans:
Open completion:
1-Greater production of hydrocarbon.
2-Less commonly used.
3-It is completed through only one layer.
Cased completion:
1-production of hydrocarbons is less.
2-More use and safety.
3-The possibility of completion on more than one productive layer.
53
3- RESERVOIR AND MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Well Completion Design
 The well is our only communication with the reservoir.
 The effectiveness of that communication is a large factor in reservoir drainage as
well as overall economics.
 The individual well completion must be designed to yield maximum overall
profitability on a field basis.
Factors Influencing Well Completion Design
 The ideal completion is the lowest cost completion (initial and operating costs)
 To design a well completion, a reasonable estimate of the producing
characteristics during the well life must be made. Both reservoir and mechanical
considerations must be evaluated.
54
Reservoir Considerations:
The reservoir considerations involve the location of various fluid in the formations
penetrated by the wellbore, the flow of these fluids through the reservoir rock, and the
characteristics of the rock itself.
 Producing rate to provide maximum economic recovery is the starting point for
well completion design.
 Multiple reservoirs penetrated by wellbore pose the problem of multiple
completion in one drilled hole.
 Reservoir drive mechanism may determine whether or not the completion
interval will have to be adjusted as gas-oil or water-oil contacts move.
Reservoirs energies:
To produce oil or gas from oil and gas reservoirs there must be a natural reason for this
and this is the result of the presence of forces and energies driving the oil and gas affect
the reservoir and these forces are:
55
1. Drive water in the bottom of the oil in the pores of the water-bearing layer is under
high pressure due to the pressure of the water column or the weight of the ground
layers. Water in turn puts pressure on the surface of the oil / water contact and
makes the oil under constant pressure.
2. payment of free gas expansion (( gas dame) The gas trapped in the gas dome
above the oil puts pressure down on the surface of the gas and oil, pushing the oil
down towards the producing wells.
3. Gas in solution drive When the pressure of the reservoir is reduced (due to
production) under saturation pressure, the dissolved gas is released in the oil and
collects at the top, putting pressure on the oil to push it towards the wells. A part
of the gas released in the oil in the vicinity of the well will The oil in front of it is
producing wells.
4. Extend oil and rock The pressure of the reservoir expands and the size of the beads
increases. The size of the pores decreases, and the size of the oil and gas expands.
5. Gravity drive by gravity, oil flows to the bottom of the reservoir. A denser
component of the gas, while the gas moves to the top of the reservoir, which is
less dense. As a result of this movement, the oil flows into the wells and rises to
the surface due to gas pressure.
56
 Secondary recovery needs may require a completion method conductive to
selective injection or production.
 Stimulation may require special perforating patterns to permit zone isolation,
perhaps adapt ability to high injection rate.
 Sand control problems alone may dictate the type of completion method and
maximum production rates.
 Work-over frequency, probably high where several reservoirs must be drained
through one wellbore, often dictate a completion conductive to wire-line or
through-tubing type recompletion system.
 Artificial lift may mean single completions even where multiple zones exist.
Mechanical Considerations:
 The mechanical configuration or well hookup is often is the key to being able to
deplete the reservoir effectively, monitor down-hole performance, and modify the
well situation.
 Formation damage is related to the well hook-up, both minimizing damage
initially and relieving the effects of damage later.
Basic philosophy is to design to specific well conditions, field conditions, and area
conditions.
Mechanical Considerations:
1. Maximize profit considering the time value of money.

2. Keep the installation simple, both from equipment and procedural stand-points.
3. Overall reliability depends on reliability of individual components and the
number of components.
57
4. Anticipate all operating conditions, and associated pressure and temperature
force.
5. Safety must be designed into the well, automatic shut-in systems and well
pressure control methods must be considered.
58
Questions 3
17- List in few points the mechanical considerations
Ans:
A1/Mechanical Considerations:
1.Maximize profit.
2. Keep the installation simple.
3. Safety must be designed into the well.
18- List the reservoir consideration. (Five only)
Ans:
1- Producing rate.
2- Multiple reservoirs penetrated (by wellbore
pose). 3- Reservoir drive mechanism.
4- Secondary recovery.
5- Stimulation of the reservoir.
6- Sand control problems.
7- Work-over frequency.
8- Artificial lift.
19- List the reservoirs energies (drive mechanisms)
Ans:
1. Water drive.
2. Payment of free gas expansion (gas dame).
3. Gas in solution drive.
4. Extend oil and rock The pressure.
5. Gravity drive.
20- Fill the blanks
1- factors influencing well completion design are reservoir and mechanical
considerations.
2- The most important factor in mechanical considerations is safety
21- Choose the correct answer
-the is completion ideal The 1 ‫ـــــــــــــــــــــ‬
completion. a) lowest cost, b) Highest cost
59
2 -Secondary recovery needs may require a completion method conductive to

‫ ـــــــــــــــــــ‬production. or
a) Drilling b) selective Injection
22- Put (True) in front of correct sentence and (False) in front of incorrect
sentence. 1-The ideal completion is the highest cost completion. Ans. false;
lowest.
2- Keep the installation simple is one of the reservoir consideration type.
Ans. False; type of mechanical consideration.
3- The reservoir considerations involve the location of various fluid in the formations
penetrated by the wellbore
Ans. True
4- IN Gravity drive, oil flows to the bottom of the reservoir by gravity.
Ans. True.
23- What are factors influencing well completion design?
Ans:
1- Reservoir considerations.
2-Mechanical considerations.
3-Well type.
24- what are the types of Water drive mechanisms?
Ans:
1-Edgewater drive.
60
4- PERFORATION
Perforating:
Is probably the most important of all completion functions in cased holes. Adequate
communication between the wellbore and all desired zones, as well as isolation between
zones, is essential to evaluate and to optimize production and recovery from each zone.
The objective of perforating a well is to establish communication between the wellbore
and the formation by making holes through the casing, cement and into formation in such
a manner so as not to inhibit the inflow capacity of the reservoir.
The selection of a perforating technique can be a critical factor in successful testing of a
well. It is therefore important to plan early so that the most suitable equipment will be
available when required. To optimize perforating efficiency, it is not solely down to the
perforating technique but relies extensively on the planning and execution of the well
completion which includes selection of the perforated interval, fluid selection, gun
selection, applied pressure differential or underbalance, well clean-up, and perforating
orientation.
Although technology is available to insure good perforating in most wells, unsatisfactory
perforating tends to be the rule in many areas. The three most prevalent causes for poor
perforating probably are:
1. A lack of understanding of the requirements for optimum perforating.
2. Inadequate control of gun clearance, particularly with through tubing guns.
3. The rather widespread practice of awarding perforating jobs on the basis of price,
rather than job quality.
Types of Perforators
 Bullet Perforators.
 Jet Perforators.
61
 Hydraulic Perforators.
 Mechanical Cutters – Knives and Milling Tools
Bullet Perforators
The diameter of the bullet perforators carriage is 3 ¼ in. or more, it used to perforate
the inner reproduction and the rocks that resist the pressure less than 6000 pound/square
node, but this method cannot be used in perforate the Christmas tree or production pipe
because the diameter of the bullet perforators carriage is large but it is used in perforate
the wells under drilling fluid pressure or the present of blow out preventer, therefore it is
best to use method in low pressure wells.
Bullet guns 3 ¼ in. OD or larger are applicable in formations with compressive strength
less than about 6000 psi. It may provide deeper penetration than many jet guns in
formations with less than about 2000 psi compressive strength.
Muzzle velocity of bullet guns is about 3300 ft/sec. The bullet losses velocity and energy
when the gun clearance exceeds 0.5 in., the clearance at which most comparative tests
have been made Deburring of bullet holes is not dependent on decentralization if the
bullet carries a deburring device. This device is more effective in deburring than using
zero either selectivity or simultaneously.
62
Jet Perforating
This method is unique in having small measurement jet perforators container which made
the use of it in the perforate of production pipe and chrisms trees, there is two sizes
of jet perforators 8/21 node and 11/16 node.
An electrically fired detonator starts a chain reaction which successively detonates the
prim cord, the high velocity booster in the charge, and finally, the main explosive. High
pressure generated by the explosive causes the metal in the charge liner to flow,
separating the inner and outer layers of the liner. Continued pressure buildup on the liner
causes a needle like high speed jet of fine particles to spew from the cone at speed of
about 20000 ft/sec at its tip with a pressure at this point estimated to be 5 million psi. The
material used in explosion called (saiclonaet) it like T.N.T.
Water or dampness in the gun, primacard or charge may cause malfunction or low order
detonation. High temperature aging of explosive in primacord or charge may reduce
charge effectiveness or cause low order detonation.
Hydraulic Perforators
This method is used to make a fractured in the casing reproduction and the reproduction
formation behind it by using high pressure, high injection speed hydraulic flow. This
method is practically used in perforating the wells used in water injection. Action is
obtained by jetting sand laden fluid through an orifice against the casing. Penetration is
greatly reduced as wellbore pressure is increased from zero to 300 psi. Penetration can be
increased appreciably by the addition of nitrogen to fluid stream.
63
Perforating Fluid:
1. Salt water or oil.
2. Acetic acid.
3. Nitrogen gas.
64
Selection of Perforated Interval:
The perforated interval in the production formation is chosen according to the
following factors:
 Electrical, sound, radiation tentacle where this tentacle shows the limits of the oil
formation.
 The formation test results while well drilling.
 The core separated from the well.
 Geological information.
When choosing the formation interval must consider the following:

 The distance of the lower end of the perforated interval from water and oil
tangency level to avoid the problem of product water with oil because of the
water coning phenomenon.
 The distance of the upper end of the perforated interval from gas and oil tangency
to avoid the problem of product gas with oil because of the gas coning
phenomenon.
 Choosing formations with high permeability and porosity and avoiding
perforating shale zone.
 Avoiding perforating casing connection.
 Choosing formations where it should be completed with less possible tries of
setting down the bullet carriage.
 It is preferred to do the perforation process inside the well in the middle of a fluid
that does not do any harm to the formation.
Factors Affecting Gun Perforating Results

1. Perforation Plugging.
2. Cleanout of Plugged Perforations.
65
3. Effect of Pressure Differential.
4. Effect of Clean Fluids.
5. Effect of Compressive Strength.
6. Perforation Density.
7. Cost-Perforating price.
8. Pressure and Temperature Limitations.
9. Well Control.
10. Casing and Cement Damage.
11. Need for Control of Gun Clearance.
12. Depth Measurements.
13. Oriented Perforating.
14. Penetration vs. Hole Size.
66
Packers:
A piece of equipment of the well bottom devices contains a tightening device, an
installation device and an internal passageway for liquids. It is used to prevent the flow of
fluids through the circular distance between the production pipes and the well wall by
tightly closing the distance between them and usually installed on the production pipe
column above the producing Layla.
Uses of packers
In addition to providing a seal between the tubing and casing, other aspects of a packer
are as follows:
 Prevent downhole movement of the tubing string, generating considerable axial
tension or compression loads on the tubing string.
67
 Support some of the weight of the tubing where there is significant compressive
load on the tubing string
 Allows the optimum size of well flow conduit (the tubing string) to meet the
designed production or injection flowrates
 Protect the production casing (inner casing string) from corrosion from produced
fluids and high pressures
 Can provide a means of separating multiple producing zones
 Provided the tubing string and packer maintain integrity, well control is focussed
on the tubing flow, allowing the downhole safety valve to shut-off flow front the
reservoir.
 Hold well-servicing fluid (kill fluids, packer fluids) in the casing annulus
 Facilitate artificial lift, such as continuous gas lifting through the A-annulus.
Packer components
Packers have four key features:
. Slip
. Cone
. Packing-element system
. Body or mandrel
The slip is a wedge-shaped device with wickers (or teeth) on its face, which penetrate and
grip the casing wall when the packer is set. The cone is beveled to match the back of
the slip and forms a ramp that drives the slip outward and into the casing wall when
setting force is applied to the packer. Once the slips have anchored into the casing wall,
additional applied setting force energizes the packing-element system and creates a seal
between the packer body and the inside diameter of the casing.
68
Packer classification
Production packers can be classified into two groups:
 Retrievable.
 Permanent.
Packer selection
Before selecting either tool, it is important to consider the performance and features of
each design, as well as the application in which it will be used. Perhaps in some
instances, the permanent packer is the only option, as may be the case in some HP/HT
applications. However, in those instances in which either will suffice, the operator must
decide which features offer the best return over the life of the well.
When selecting a packer for a cased-hole completion, the differential pressure and
temperature requirements of the application must be considered. The well depth,
deployment and setting method desired, and final tubing landing conditions are also
factors that come into play. The various operational modes (flowing, shut-in, injection,
and stimulation) that are anticipated over the life of the well are critical and must be
considered carefully in the design phase. The changes in the operational modes that
69
influence changes in temperature, differential pressure, and axial loads all have a direct
impact on the packer. Understanding the uses and constraints of the different types of
packers will help clarify the factors to consider when making a selection.
Skin Effect
Concept of Skin
Skin has no physical dimension.
It is analogous to the film coefficient in heat transfer.
Skin can be zero (no effect), positive or negative.
 Positive Skin
o A restriction to flow.
o A distortion of the flow lines from the perfectly normal to the well direction.
May result from:
a. Partial completion (perforation height less than formation thickness)
b. Inadequate number of perforations
c. Phase changes
d. Turbulence (high-velocity flow)
e. Damage to the natural reservoir permeability
 Negative Skin
 Flow enhancement May result from:
o Matrix stimulation (near-wellbore permeability exceeds the natural value)
o Hydraulic fracturing
o Highly inclined wellbore
70
Effective Well pore Radius
Effective Wellbore Radius is a value
which produces the same output as the one
which is obtained using the skin factor of
zero. The departures can be represented from
zero skin behaviors with the help of skin
effects or by alternatively changing the value
of the Effective Wellbore Radius. It is smaller
than the actual radius of the wellbore for a
positive skin effect and is larger than the
actual radius of the wellbore for negative a skin effect.
r’w = effective wellbore radius, ft

rw = wellbore radius, ft
S = skin factor
 Positive skin has the effect of reducing wellbore radius.
 Negative skin has the effect of increasing wellbore radius.
Pressure drop (psia) due to skin is:
∆𝑝𝑠 141.2 𝑞𝑜𝜇𝑜𝛽𝑜

= 2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑆
71
qo = oil flow rate, STB/D
μo = oil viscosity, cp
Bo = oil FVF, bbls/STB
k = reservoir permeability, mD
h = reservoir thickness, ft
S = skin factor
Skin Factor
𝑆 = 𝑠𝑑 + 𝑠𝑐 + 𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑝 + ∑ 𝑠𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑢𝑑𝑜
S = total skin effect of a well
Sd = skin due to damage
Sc = skin due to partial penetration completion
Sθ = skin due to deviation
Sp = skin due to perforation
Spseudo = skin due to rate-dependent effects & phase dependent effects
 Rate-dependent skin can be obtained from a well test.
 Phase-dependent skin effects are associated with phase changes because of the
near wellbore pressure gradient.
No damage – no skin (ks = k)
Ideal drawdown:
141.2 𝑞𝑜𝜇𝑜𝛽𝑜 𝑟𝑠
𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝wf,i𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 [ ]
2𝜋𝑘ℎ 𝑟
w
Damage (ks < k)
Real drawdown:
141.2 𝑞𝑜𝜇𝑜𝛽𝑜 𝑟𝑠
𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝wf,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 [ ]
2𝜋𝑘𝑠 ℎ 𝑟w
72
Pressure drop due to skin (𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝wf,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙) − (𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝wf,i𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙)
Therefore:
k
S=( r
ks − 1 ln ( s)
) rw
Example: Assume that a well has a radius rw equal to 0.25 ft, and the damage beyond the
well is 5 ft. What would be the skin effect if the permeability impairment results in k/ks
equal to 6 and 12, respectively.
Flow Efficiency
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎w𝑑𝑜w𝑛
𝐹= 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎w𝑑𝑜w𝑛
𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝wf,i𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑠
𝐹= =
𝑝𝑠 − 𝑝wf,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑘
 F < 1: Damaged well (skin is positive)

 F = 1: No change (skin is zero)
 F > 1: Stimulated well (skin is negative)
non-Darcy Skin
Skin due to turbulence is additional pressure drop
caused by high gas velocity near the wellbore and
applies only to gas wells.
73
Where, γ is the gas gravity,
ks is the near-wellbore permeability in md,
h and hperf are the net and perforated thicknesses in ft and µ
is the gas viscosity in cp.
Example: Calculate the non-Darcy coefficient for well with wellbore radius of 0.25 ft.
Assume that ks is the same as the reservoir permeability (0.1 md) and hperf is half of the
reservoir thickness. Use a viscosity of 0.01 cp, gas gravity of 0.6, and reservoir thickness
of 80 ft. What will happen if the near wellbore permeability reduced by damage to one-
fifth?
74
Skin Due To Completion (Partial Penetration)
Skin due to partial penetration is always greater than 0
and typically ranges from 0 to 30.
• Partial penetration with vertical permeability (kv)
equal to zero is the limiting case. Skin factor can be
estimated using Hawkins’ formula.( All models
assumed kx = ky)
a) Muskat’s Model
h = Reservoir height
hw = Perforation height
zw = The elevation of the perforation midpoint from the base of the reservoir This
model did not consider the permeability anisotropy
b) Odeh Model
75
zw = The elevation of the perforation midpoint from the base of the reservoir
y = The distance from top of reservoir to top of perforation
c) Papatzacos Model
76
zw = The elevation of the perforation midpoint from the base of the reservoir
y = The distance from top of reservoir to top of perforation
Skin Due To
Deviation
When the angle
of inclination
through the
formation is significant (>
10°), a reduction in
pressure drop can occur
due to the angle of
inclination. • This pressure drop is defined as skin due to inclination • The skin is
negative and the larger the angle of slant, the larger the negative contribution to the total
skin
effect.
77
𝜃′ 2.06
𝜃′ 1.865 ℎ
𝑆 =( )
w
− [( ) . 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 𝑑 )]
� 41 56 100
𝑘ℎ
Where 𝜃′ = tan−1 ( √ tan 𝜃 ℎ 𝑘ℎ
), =( )√
ℎ
w 𝑘𝑣 w 𝑑 𝑘𝑣
𝑟w
Sθ = skin due to deviation

θ = angle between the well & the vertical
kh = horizontal permeability , kv= vertical permeability
skin due to perforation

78
7
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
Main geometry parameters defining the effectiveness of flow in a completion with
perforated flow, which includes four relevant parameters such as shot density, angle of
phasing, penetration of perforation in the formation and the diameter of perforation.
The well productiveness is also based on the smashed area, if the perforation reaches past
the smashed area and to what extent the smashed area and charge fragments are cleared
from the tunnel. It was Karakas and Tariq in 1988 who established a process for the
calculation of skin effect caused by perforations, which is a coupled effect including the
plane-flow effect Sh, the vertical confluence effect Sv, and the borehole effect Swb,
therefore:
The pseudo skin factor Sh, is expressed as follows:
Where is the effective radius of borehole and depends on the angle of phasing :
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Where, represents the length of
the perforation and is a variable dependent on phasing
and can be gained from Table
The vertical pseudo skin factor, SV, can be derived following the determination of
specific
dimensionless variables:
Where h is the spacing between perforations and varies conversely with the shot
density, in
addition and represent the horizontal and vertical permeabilities.
81
Where represents the diameter of the perforation,
The vertical pseudo skin effect is afterwards can be expressed as follows:
Where a and b can be derived from:
82
After all, the borehole skin effect, swb, can be approached by;
The values of c1 and c2 can be gained from Table
Questions 4
83
25- What’s the types of Perforators?
Ans:
Bullet Perforators.
Jet Perforators.
Hydraulic Perforators.
26- What the types of Perforating Fluid?
Ans:
1.Salt water or oil.
2.Acetic acid.
3.Nitrogen gas.
27- Put (True) in front of correct sentence and (False) in front of
incorrect sentence.
1- Jet perforators is the most common method used in
perforators (True)
2-Choosing formations with low permeability and porosity to
perforating(false) Why?(high permeability and porosity)
3-Geological information is one of the methods used to
Selection of Perforated Interval (True)
4-The material used in explosion called T.N.T it like (saiclonaet)
(false) Why?( the material used is Saiclonaet)
28- Whats most prevalent causes for poor perforating probably?
Ans:
1. A lack of understanding of the requirements for optimum perforating.
2. Inadequate control of gun clearance, particularly with through tubing guns.
3. The rather widespread practice of awarding perforating jobs on the basis of
price, rather than job quality.
29- Fill the blanks
1. The diameter of the bullet perforators carriage is 3 ¼ in.
2. Muzzle velocity of bullet guns is about 3300 ft/sec.
3. The material used in explosion of jet method called saiclonaet.
4. Penetration can be increased in hydraulic method appreciably by the addition
of nitrogen to fluid stream.
84
5. Penetration is greatly reduced as wellbore pressure is increased from zero to
300 psi
30- Production packers can be classified into two groups:
Ans:
1. Retrievable
2. Permanent
31- Packers have four key features:
Ans:
1. Slip
2. Cone
3. Packing-element system
4. Body or mandrel
32- What are the packers?
Ans:
Pace of equipment of the well bottom devices contains a
tightenin g devices, an installation device and internal
passageway for liquids.
5- TUBING STRINGS, LINERS

Well completion: Is a set of processes that make the well ready for production.
Function of well completion:
1-provide a passageway for fluid from the reservoir to the well
2-provide a passageway for fluid from the well to the surface
3-Enable stimulation
Factors influencing well completion design:
1-well purpose
2- resevoir consideration
85
a- nature of reservoir rock
b- Number of the production zone
Types of well completion:
1- Open hole completion
In this type of completion the production done direct without need for casing,
open hole completion used only if the formation hard (the caving could not occur)
The features of open completion:
a- provide high production value
b- economic way for production
c-the ability to change this type of completion to another type of completion if we
need that
86
2- Liner completion
This type of completion is divided into two types:
a- perforated liner completion
In this type of completion , Install the casing above the producing layer , then drill the
producing layer,
Then put liner within productive layer and its cementing , after that
perforate this liner suitable for production.
Basic the principle of the liner obstruct moved towards the well .
Featuring by:
1-Ability to control the production of water or gas
2-Sensors cannot be operated frequently.
3- Ability of drilling the well.
4- Ability of stimulation the production layer.
5- damage of formation a few or not exist
6- extra cost exist for perforated.
b- screen and liner completion
In this type of completion , Install the casing above the producing
layer , then drill the producing layer,
Then the liner and screen put through productive area.

Basic the principle of the screen and liner used to sand control.
Featuring by:
1- No extra cost exist for perforated.
2-damage of formation a few or not exist.
3-cannot ability of stimulation the production layer.
4- Sensors can be operated frequently.
5- difficulty to control the production of water or gas.
87
6-cannot ability of drill the well easily.
3- perforated casing completion:
In this type of completion the casing is cementing In the product section then
perforating.
The cased completion can be divided to
1- Single zone completion
a- production through only the casing

This way is using when the well have very high ability for production.
b- production throught the casing and production tube:
in this type the production done through the annulus and
production tube , in this case the average of production less
than the production through only the casing
C- The production only through the production tube:
In this type we will use both production tube and packers that
will lead to less production ability.
88
D-production by use pumping well:
Here we use production tube with pump seating nipple
E-production by gas- lift well:
Very important type of completion, in this type the gas will
inject in the annulus then the gas
lift mandrels, then the production
tube, the gas will help to rise the oil
to the surface by reducing the
Weight of oil and the hydrostatic
pressure of oil
89
Or we can produce through the annulus and injection in the production tube
4- Dual zone completion:
Why we use this type of completion?
Because it Provide higher average of production and less period of time.
Types of this completion way
A-production by use one pucker and one production tube: Here
the production in the lower section done by the production
tube while the production in the upper section done through
the annulus.
b-production by tow packer and one production tube:
c- Production by tow packer and tow tube:

Very costly operation.
90
Questions 5
33- Define well completion?
Ans:
Well completion: Is a set of processes that make the well ready for production.
34- What is the Function of well completion?
Ans:
1-provide a passageway for fluid from the reservoir to the well
2-provide a passageway for fluid from the well to the surface 3-
Enable stimulation
35- What Factors influencing well completion design?
Ans:
1- well purpose
2- resevoir consideration
a- nature of
reservoir rock
b- Number of the
production
zone
36- Explain Open hole completion?
Ans:
In this type of completion, the production done direct without need for casing,
open hole completion used only if the formation hard (the caving could not
occur) The features of open completion: a- provide high production value b-
economic way for production
c-the ability to change this type of completion to another type of completion if we
need that
37- Explain production by gas- lift well ?
Ans:
Very important type of completion, in this type the gas will inject in the annulus then
the gas lift mandrels, then the production tube, the gas will help to rise the oil to the
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surface by reducing the Weight(density) of oil and the hydrostatic pressure of oil.
38- Draw a figure explain production by gas lift ?
Ans:
39- Why the open hole completion considers one of best

production Method? Ans:
Because of the flowing feature a- provide high production value b- economic way
for production c-the ability to change this type of completion to another
40- what type of liner completion ?
Ans:
1-perforated of liner completion
2-screen and liner completion
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6- SURFACE COMPLETION
surface control equipment
surface control equipment includes :
1) surface safety tubing valves .
2) Bottom hole chokes and regulators .
3) Check valves .
1) surface safety tubing valves :
Pipeline safety valves are used to close the well at a certain depth if the surface
control equipment fails. These valves come in several forms depending on the
mechanism of their work, which is divided into:
a) Ball valve :- Is a circular motion valve with a cavity in the direction of the flow at
the opening, and in a direction perpendicular to the direction of flow at closing.
b) Flapper Valve :- Is a check valve that contains a spring-loaded plate or flapper that
allows the unidirectional fluid or gas flow and provides high performance sealing
capabilities . It seals the opening when the fluid tries to flow back .
93
2) Bottom hole chokes and regulators :- Bottom-hole regulators and chokes are used
to reduce the pressure of the wellhead flow and thereby prevent fluid wear in the
control equipment and surface flow lines. They can be downloaded and installed
and then restored by a wired line. The main purpose of their use is to restrict the
flow of the metals in the production tube to prevent the ablation in the lines and
surface control devices as a result of the hydrate (compounds containing water).
They also provide a means to keep surface pressure within controllable limits in
high pressure wells, while also helping to prolong the flow of the well naturally by
maintaining a certain value to compress the flow of the bottom of the well.
94
a) Bottom hole chokes :- There are different models of bottom hole chokes. There are
models that work with a spring shock effect and are designed for high pressures or
heavy well fluids called (ground bean seat) . Other models are designed for lower
pressures and are called ( positive bean orifice).
It is preferred to use these devices in wells that produce a fixed rate and free of sand.
b) Bottom hole regulators :- In general, these organizations consist of a valve and a

seat that acts as a tensile force on the spring. The tension in the spring depends
95
on the pressure differentials to be carried through the
regulator. This device differs from the bottom hole
chock in that it maintains the level of pressure
difference regardless of the flow rate.
*Data required to properly calculate bottom-hole choke and

regulator sizes include:
1) tubing size
2) setting depth of valve
3) surface shut-in pressure,
4) desired rate of production
5) flowing pressure and temperature at valve depth
6) specific gravity of produced fluids
7) desired pressure drop across the choke or regulator.
3) Check valves :- These valves are used in injection
wells where these valves control the flow direction, preventing backflow in the
injection wells. These devices can be considered valves that control the direction
installed in the production pipe in the injection wells, the main function to prevent
the occurrence of a runoff in case of failure of surface equipment. These valves
(steam, seat, and ball).
96
Questions 6
41- What do we mean by subsurface safety tubing valve?

Ans:.
subsurface safety tubing valve are used to close the well at a certain depth if the
surface control equipment fails.
42- What is the benefits of using Bottom hole chokes and regulators?
Ans:
1) reduce the pressure of the wellhead flow and thereby prevent
fluid freezing in the control equipment and surface flow lines. 2)
restrict the flow of the fluids in the production tube.
43- What is the Data required to properly calculate bottom-hole choke and
regulator sizes? Ans:
1) tubing size.
2) setting depth of valve.
3) surface shut-in pressure.
4) desired rate of production.

5) flowing pressure and temperature at valve depth .
6) specific gravity of produced fluids.
7) desired pressure drop across the choke or regulator.
97
44- Fill the blanks:
1)Subsurface safety tubing valves come in several forms depending on the
mechanism of their work ,and they are ball valve and flapper valve..
2)The benefits of using check valves in the injection wells are to control the flow
direction, preventing backflow in the injection wells.
45- What is the difference between chokes and regulators?
Ans:
Chokes\ It is preferred to use these devices in wells that produce a fixed rate and free
of sand.
Regulators\ This device differs from the bottom hole chokes that it maintains the
level of pressure difference regardless of the flow rate.
46- Why the fluids freeze at the surface pipelines and control equipment?
Ans:
This fluid freezing could be attributed to Joule-Thompson effect which is a
characteristic of the real gas which states(A change of temperature of gas(or liquid)
occur when the rel eased from a pressure applied to it).
47- What is the difference between ball valve and flapper valve?
Ans:
Ball valve :- Is a circular motion valve .
Flapper Valve :- Is a check valve that contains a spring-loaded plate or
flapper .
48- One of the data required to measure the volume of bottom hole chokes and
regulators is to calculate the tubing volume, explain that.
Ans:
Because the bottom hole chokes and regulators should fit to the tubing size( when
these valves and regulators designed it should be suitable and appropriate to the size
of tubing).
98
7- PRODUCTION CONTROL EQUIPMENT'S AND COMPLETION

FLUIDS
Completion fluids
completion fluids :It is special fluids (liquid or gas pervasive with mud drilling) it
used to control on pressure and preventing exit or flow of fluids of the reservoir layer
through processes of completion wells (perforation, download protection pipe and install
packers)
These points should be considered in selecting a completion fluid:
1- Fluid density
Fluid completion density must be bigger than recurred density to control the
pressure of the reservoir layer and the difference in pressure must be appropriate, that to
reduce the damage happened to the reservoir layer.
We most note that the pressure of the fluid completion must not too much bigger than the
pressure layer that in this case it will happened the so-called losses of the completion
cycle.
We can calculate the hydrostatic pressure by fluid completion at any depth from the
following relationship
H = 0.052 * h *ρ
h : depth (ft)
ρ : density (ppg)
2- Quantity of the solids materials
Perfection fluid Completion must be mostly from solid materials to prevent the closing
of holes in the lining and lanes porosity in the same following section.
3- Characters of filtrate
The filtrate must have characters that it will reduce the damage of layers
99
that resulting from the bulge and clumps of clay.
4- Fluid loss
The properties of fluid completions is to not to allow it to lose lot of quantities from it
to the producing layer, and to do that we add sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 ).
5- Viscosity-Related Characteristics--Viscosity-related characteristics, such as yield
point, plastic viscosity, and gel strength, may have to be tailored to provide fluid lifting
capacity required to bring sand or cuttings to the surface at reasonable circulating rates.
6- Corrosion Products-The fluid should be chemically stable so that reaction of free
oxygen with tubular steels is minimized, and that iron in solution is sequestered and not
permitted to precipitate in the formation.
7- Economics--The most economical fluid commensurate with the well 's susceptibility to
damage should be selected.
Types of completion fluids
1- OIL FLUIDS
a- Crude Oil: Availability makes crude oil a logical choice where its density is sufficient.
Density considerations may make it particularly desirable in low pressure formation. A
low-viscosity crude has limited carrying capacity and no gel strength and thus should
drop out non-hydrocarbon solids in surface pits.
Loss of oil to the formation is usually not harmful from the standpoint of clay disturbance
or from saturation effects , as might be the case with salt water in a low pressure
formation. It has no fluid loss control; thus, any entrained fine solids could be carried into
the pore system.
Crude oil should always be checked for the presence of asphaltenes or paraffin's that
could plug the formation.
b- Diesel Oil: This may be ideal where an especially clean fluid is required for operations
such as sand consolidation. It may even be advantageous to work under pressure at the
100
surface where the density of diesel oil is not sufficient to overcome formation pressure.
Depending on hauling and handling practices, diesel oil should also be checked for
solids. Emulsion and wettability problems should be nonexistent if the diesel is obtained
at the refinery before certain motor fuel additives are included.
2- CLEAR WATER FLUIDS
a- Formation Salt Water-When available, formation salt water is a common work over
fluid since the cost is low. If it is clean, formation salt water is ideal from the
standpoint of minimizing formation damage due to swelling or dispersion of clays in
sandstone formations.
b- Prepared Salt Water-Fresh water is often desirable as a basic fluid due to the
difficulty of obtaining clean sea or formation water. Desired type and amount of salt
is then added. Where clean brine is available at low cost, it may be preferable to
purchase brine rather than mix it on location.
c- Seawater or Bay Water-Due to availability , it is often used in coastal areas. Again,
it frequently contains clays and other fines that cause plugging.
Untreated bay water caused serious plugging of Cypress sandstone cores. Depending on
the salinity of bay water, it may be necessary to add NaCl or KCl to prevent clay
disturbance.
The right completion fluids for Perforations.
Perforating fluids are not necessarily a distinct type of fluid, but are distinguished here to
emphasize the importance of perforating in a no-solids fluid.
1- Salt Water or Oil: When clean, these do not cause mud plugging of perforations,
but if the pressure differential is into the formation, fine particles of charge debris
will be carried into the perforation.
2- Acetic Acid: This is an excellent perforating fluid under most conditions . In the
absence of H2S , acetic acid can be inhibited against any type of steel corrosion
101
for long periods at high temperatures. Normally a ten percent solution is used.
Acetic acid plus H2S is very difficult to inhibit against embrittlement. Acetic acid
will put iron sulfide and mineral carbonate in solution. These may result in added
corrosion problems.
3- Nitrogen: This has advantages as a perforating fluid in low pressure formations, or
where rig time or swabbing costs are very high, or where special test programs
make it imperative that formation contamination be avoided.
4- Gas Wells: These can be completed economically in "clean fluid" by perforating
one or two holes, bringing the well in and cleaning to remove as much well bore
fluid as possible, then perforating the remaining zones as desired.
X-mass Tree
The Christmas tree is a piece of equipment that provides flow control on a producing oil
or gas well. Christmas trees are a vertical assembly of valves with gauges and chokes that
allow for adjustments in flow control as well as injections to stimulate production.
Christmas trees are so-called because the collection of components can resemble a
Christmas tree if you have the right amount of imagination. The valves that comprise
some of the decorations on the Christmas tree are opened when the oil or gas well is
ready to produce and the processing and storage facilities are ready to receive. The
other decorations are devices that facilitate pressure relief, monitoring and chemical
injection.
Functions of the Christmas tree is as follows:
1. It provides a means to control the flow of production fluids from the well which
serves as the primary purpose of this equipment.
2. It diverts the fluid flow through the wing valve to the flow lines ensuring safety of
the facilities.
3. Provides a means for measurement tools and instruments an access to the well.
102
4. Provides a means to inject chemicals or oil distillates to prevent or solve production
problems such as blockages
5. Helps in controlling the gas or water injection into the well in order to maintain
economic production volumes.
6. Tree acts as an attachment and conduit means of the control system to the down
hole safety valve.
Christmas tree includes the following components:
1- The two lower valves are called the master valves (upper and lower, respectively)
because they lie in the flow path, which well fluids must take to get to the surface.The
lower master valve will normally be manually operated, while the upper master valve is
often hydraulically actuated.
2- Hydraulic tree wing valves are usually built to be fail-safe closed, meaning they
require active hydraulic pressure to stay open.
3- The right-hand valve is often called the flow wing valve or production wing valve,
because it is in the flow path the hydrocarbons take to production facilities.
4- The left-hand valve is often called the kill wing valve. It is primarily used for
injection of fluids such as corrosion inhibitors or methanol to prevent hydrate formation.
5- The valve at the top is called the swab valve and lies in the path used for well
interventions like wireline and coiled tubing.
6- The choke is the device, either stationary or adjustable, used to:
 Control the gas flow, also known as volume, or

 Create downstream pressure, also known as back pressure
Notes
103
 The variable flow choke valve used to control the flow rate throw flow hole with
scale called Bean, and this valve made from high quality steel to bearing the high
flow rate of the flowing stream, and for the small oil well, we use positive choke
that use to reduce the production of oil well.
 The size of valves in Christmas tree must fit the size of casing and tubing of well
completion
104
Questions 7
49- /List in few points points should be considered in
selecting a completion fluid Ans:
1- Fluid density
2- Quantity of the solids materials
3- Characters of filtrate
4- Fluid loss
5- Viscosity-Related Characteristics
6- Corrosion Products
7- Economics
50- List The right completion fluids for Perforations

1- Salt Water or Oil
2- Acetic Acid
3- Nitrogen
4- Gas Wells
51- What are the types of wellheads ?
1- Blow out preventer (BOP) 2- X-mass tree
52- Fill the blanks

- The valve at the top Christmas tree is called the swab valve and lies in the
path used for well interventions like wireline and coiled tubing.
- Crude Oil used in reservoir with low pressure formation
- Fluid loss is the properties of fluid completions is to not to allow it to lose lot of
quantities from it to the producing layer, and to do that we add sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3 ).
4 - The Christmas tree is a piece of equipment that provides flow control on a
producing oil or gas well.
105
53- Put (True) in front of correct sentence and (False) in front of incorrect
sentence. Ans:
- Nitrogen has advantages as a perforating fluid in high pressure formations
Ans: false; low.
- Fluid completion density must be bigger than recurred density to control the
pressure of the reservoir layer. Ans. true.
- Hydraulic tree wing valves are usually built to be fail-safe closed, meaning they
require active hydraulic pressure to stay open
Ans. True
- Salt Water or Oil this is an excellent perforating fluid under most conditions.
Ans. Flase; Acetic Acid
54- What are the main Christmas tree components:
Ans:
1- The two lower valves are called the master valves (upper and lower,
respectively) 2- Hydraulic tree wing valves
3- The right-hand valve is often called the flow wing valve or production wing valve
4- The left-hand valve is often called the kill wing valve
5- The valve at the top is called the swab valve 6- The choke
55- why we should consider Viscosity-related characteristics in completion fluid?
Ans:
to provide fluid lifting capacity required to bring sand or cuttings to the surface at
reasonable circulating rates.
56- What is the benefit of knowing the density of fluid completion? And what
is the formula used to calculate the density? Ans:
The density must be known to control on the formation pressure and we most
note that the pressure of the fluid completion must not too much bigger than the
pressure layer that in this case it will happened the so-called losses of the
completion cycle.
We can calculate the hydrostatic pressure by fluid completion at any depth
from the following relationship H = 0.052 * h *ρ h : depth (ft) ρ: density
(ppg)
57- why we should consider Viscosity-related characteristics in completion fluid?
Ans/ to provide fluid lifting capacity required to bring sand or cuttings to the
surface at reasonable circulating rates.
106
8- WELLHEAD AND SUBSURFACE COMPONENTS

INSTALLING
After the drilling of the well, the wellhead equipment must be installed to complete
the oil extraction process. There are two types of equipment to complete the oil extraction
process
1- Surface equipment: Includes well head and Christmas tree
2- Subsurface equipment: from steel materials that gradually descend to the bottom
of the well and to the end of the depth of the well in the oil-producing layers and
reservoirs and attached to the wellhead equipment.
107
1- Surface equipment
 Wellhead: represents the equipment or the main valves set under the main valve
of the well and includes the head of the casing pipes and the head of the production
pipes
 Head of casing pipes: The casing head is installed during drilling operations and
the linings are lowered and marked
 Head of production pipes: During the completion process, the upper part of the
output pipe carrier and its connections shall be fixed.
Often production is done by the production pipes to avoid damage to the casing tubes
and to replace them, the production pipe head is installed to catch the production pipes
by the suspension tool.
The head of the production pipe contains a valve in the annular vacuum between the
production pipe and the casing pipe connected by the gauge to the control of the pressure.
 Christmas tree: A set of valves and connections on the top of the well use to
Control the internal pressures of the well in the case of flow and shutdown. Control the
flow of fluid entering and leaving the well and to divert the fluid flow in the desired
direction, selected in the light of the well designs and linings used.
The Christmas tree comes in different designs depending on the type of the well
(injection, oil production, gas production) and well conditions (pressure of well).
108
We will study the typical design of the Christmas tree
1- Master-valves
Located above tubing hanger which is closed in the event of complete closure of the well
or in the need for maintenance at the top of the Christmas tree and can be found more
than a main valve, and to replace this valve must fill the production pipes.
2- Wing-valves
On the sides of the tree there is wing valve, one connected to choke through which the
fluid is produced, the other used to kill the well in case of need.
3- Swabbing-valve :
The upper valve or the swabbing valve that opens if the equipment is dropped into the
well (wireline processes) or when the pressure is measured in the meter above it that
measures the head pressure (THP) will remain.
109
2- Subsurface equipment
 Include the following:
First: Safety valves for the production tube under the surface, the safety valves of the
production pipe are used to seal the well at a certain depth in case of failure of the surface
control equipment.
Second: Bottom-hole chokes and valves (downhole tools)

The main function of these valves retains the wellhead flow pressure and thus prevents
freeze the fluid in control equipment and the surface flow lines.
The main purpose of use
1- To restrict fluid flow in the production tube.

2- Preventing freezing in pipes and surface controls.
3- Provide a means to keep the surface pressure within controlled limits in high-
pressure wells.
4- Help to prolong the flow of the well naturally by maintaining the value of certain
pressure to run bottom of the well.
Third: Safety valves under the surface of the injection wells

Are used to control the direction of flow in preventing the back flux of injection wells.
It installed in the production tube in the injection wells and its function is to prevent reverse
flow in case of failure of the surface equipment.
110
Questions 8
58- What are pipe Fitting.
Ans:
Pipe fitting are piping component that helps in change the direction of the flow
,changes the size of the pipe
59- What are type of pipe fitting
Ans:
• Elbows. _180°bend
• Tees
• Swag
• Nipple.
• Reducer
Caps
• Unions.
• Stubends
• Coupling
60- fill the blancks.
1- The valve can be active (“manually)” or automatically be temperature sensitive called

"au
to
choke".
2- The corrosion of pipe can caused due to (climatic conditions and the quality of the
metal )
3- The only problem in piping system is (concern of the oil leak from this pipes )
4- one of the most important steps to reduce corrosion is to use ("smart pigging)
111
61- What’s the choke valve.
Ans:
A choke valve is a type of valve designed to create a choke flow in automobile
62- why valves are used?
Ans:
1_full flow of full throttle
2_flow regulating.
3_one way flow

63- What are type of valve
Ans:
• gate valve
• plug valve
• diaghragm valve.
• ball valve
• globe valve
• butterfly valve
• check valve
64- What the gate valve:
Ans:
(Gate valve) this type is designed to be fully open or full closed making a regular
openin g without any pressure losses and smooth flow
112
9- PIPING SYSTEM
There are several ways to transport the crude oil and its products by tanks ,
marine carriers or transport using pipeline .
Pipeline system :- pipes are made of steel and welded with each along the path .
Pipelines the best way because it’s more safety and less cost , as can be extended above
the ground , under ground or under water .
This pipes pass through river’s seas and even forests , but the only problem is concern
of the oil leak from this pipes .
The pipes with different diameters , some of this pipe a larg diameter about 1000-1400
mm and some of which be with small diameter about 300 mm .
113
It made from metals such as iron and aluminum some of which are made of clay and
concrete products and some of which are made of plastic .
Oil and its products are transporting inside the pipe through pumping into this
pipes , where there are number of pumping stations that are distributed along the path to
ensure from flow of oil and decrease the loss of pressure by friction .
There are valves distributed along path on certain spaces ranging from 10-30 km to
insulate parts of pipelines for procedure maintenance , repair or emergency situations .
The speed of flow of oil products across the pipe about 3-6 mil per hour because the
crude oil is more viscous than gasoline and diesel needs to increase the pressure to reach
the same speed .
While natural gas speed around 15 mph which is transfer in fast and fixed pattern
.
From the problems that faced oil industries are the corrosion of pipe due to climatic
conditions and the quality of the metal . we can’t stop the corrosion but we can minimize
it by the design of good tubes and make sure that the flow is free of moisture and reduce
the amount of gas that a companied oil especially Co2 .
One of the most important steps to reduce corrosion is to use ‘‘Smart pigging’’ is the
most appropriate way to clean the internal surface of
pipes and jet rid of unwanted junk , this method is one of the main way to identify
corrosion areas its work is done by pushing the pigging tool .
114
It work when the liquid push it , where it is placed in the direction of the product
in the pipe .
During it’s movement , it’s send ultrasonic waves . It will monitors the internal design
of pipe in graphic from that will show places of bug in the pipe .
115
Questions 9
65- There are two types of equipment to
complete the Oil extraction process ……….
And ………. .
Ans:
Surface equipment and undersurface equipment
66- What types of surface equipment and define them?
Ans:
.1. Wellhead: represents the equipment or the main valves set under the
main valve of the well and include Head of the casing pipes and Head
of the production pipes
2. Christmas tree: A set of valves and connections on top of the well, it

uses to control the internal pressures of the well in the case of flow and
silence.
67- what is the purpose of using the Christmas tree?
Ans:
It is used to control the internal pressures of the well .
68- Choose the correct answer:-
1. The head of casing pipe is from ….

.(Christmas tree ,Wellhead, Subsurface equipment ).
2. The master valves are from….

(Wellhead ,Christmas tree ,Subsurface equipment )
116
69- Put (True) in front of correct sentence and (False) in front of
incorrect sentence.
1. The one of the wing valves are used to kill the well.
Ans: True
2. The master valves located in subsurface equipment.

Ans: False; located in surface equipment above tubing hanger.
70- Just mention the subsurface
valves Ans:
1. Safety valves.
2. Bottom –hole chocks.

3. Safety valves under the surface of the injection.
71- What is the purpose of using the safety valves?
Ans:
It used to seal the well at a certain depth in case of failure of the surface
control equipment.
72- When installation of Christmas tree is done?
Ans:
After finishing of drilling processes, where well will be ready for

production.
117
10- SURFACE PRODUCTION FACILITIES

There are three major components of surface production equipment:
 Wellhead.
 Separators and heater treaters.
 Tank batteries and meter facilities.
Production engineers often design all equipment on the lease. After the oil and gas
leaves the lease, pipeline or facilities engineers take over.
Wellhead
The wellhead is the equipment at the surface that provides support for the tubulars inside
the well, a pressure seal between the tubulars, and a means of controlling production
from the well. Typically, the wellhead consists of a casing head for each casing string, a
tubing head, and a Christmas tree. For each string of pipe in the well, casing, or tubing,
some means of support and pressure sealing must be provided. This is the function of the
casing and tubing heads. The Christmas tree provides the necessary valving and chokes to
control the production from a well capable of flowing. For a well that is being pumped,
the Christmas tree is replaced by wellhead equipment that accommodates the pumping
operation.
The flow rate from either an oil well or a gas well can be easily estimated from the
wellhead pressure if the wellhead pressure is at least twice the flowline pressure. For an
oil well, the Gilbert equation is commonly used:
where
 q = gross liquid flow rate (bblbarrels/day)
118
 Ptf = flowing tubing head pressure (psia)
 R = gas to liquid ratio (MSCF/bblbarrels)
 S = choke size (1/64 in.)
For a gas well, the following equation is used:
where
 q = gas flow rate (MSCF/day)

 Ptf = flowing tubing head pressure (psia)
 d = choke size (in.)
 G = gas specific gravity
 T = wellhead temperature (°R)
119
Separators and heater treaters, -See Appendix A-
A separator is a vessel used to separate liquid from gas. In some cases, the liquid
may be additionally separated into individual oil and water streams.
There are three types of separators: vertical , horizontal , and spherical . Horizontal
separators are found in both the single tube and double tube design. Advantages of the
vertical separator include
 Good for predominantly liquid streams
 Can handle producing stream surges without carryover
 Occupies little space (small footprint)
 Easily cleaned of sand and mud
Advantages of the horizontal separator are
 Good for predominantly gas streams

 Easy to fabricate, ship, and install
 Low profile
And for the spherical separator, the advantages are
 Good for high pressure gas wells

Compact, small size
120
12
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
Heater treaters
A heater treater is simply a separator that is designed to separate primarily oil from water.
Heating of the mixture normally speeds up and improves the separation process. Several
physical processes are commonly used in the separation process:
 Gravity settling
 Centrifugal force
 Impingement
 Electrostatic precipitation
 Filtration
 Heat
The design of a particular separator depends on the nature of the flow stream to be
separated. For a gas well, the separator usually separates a small amount of liquid from
122
the gas. In an oil well, the separation may involve a small amount of gas for the amount
of liquid.
123
Questions 10
73- What are the major components of surface production equipment ?
Ans:
• Wellhead
• separators and heater treaters
• Tank batteries and meter facilities
74- What is wellhead equipment?
Ans:
Wellhead consists of:
• a casing head for each casing swing
• a tubing head
• a christmas tree
75- what is the advantages of the spherical separator?
Ans:
1-Good for high pressure gas wells 2-
Compact ,small size
76- Fill the blanks
Ans:
1-there are three types of separators (vertical ),(horizontal a
(spherical)
2- (Heater treater )is simply a separation that is designed to separate primarily oil
from water
3-For a gas well ,the separator usually separates a small amount of( liquid) from a
(gas)
4-Usually,at least two oil tanks are used one for (shipping )and one for
(filling)
124
77- Put (true)or (false)
Ans:
1- The design of a particular separator depends on the pressure .
Ans (false ) . depends on the nature of the flow stream to be separated
.
2- christmas tree provides the necessary valving and chokes to control the
production.
Ans (True )
3- In an oil well ,the separation may involve a small amount of liquid for the
amount of gas .
Ans (false )In an oil well ,the separation may involve a small amount of gas for the
amount of liquid.
4-horizontal separator is low profile . Ans(true)
78- What is advantage of christmas tree?
Ans:
The Christmas tree provides the necessary valving and chokes to control the
production from a well capable of flowing. For a well that is being pumped, the
Christmas tree is replaced by wellhead equipment that accommodates the pumping
operation.
79- What is different between separation of gas well and oil well ?
Ans:
For a gas well ,the separator usually separates a small amount of liquid from a gas
. In an oil well ,the separation may involve a small amount of gas for the amount of
liquid.
125
80- What is physical processes commonly used in the separation process?
Ans:
. Ggravity setting
. Centrifugal force
. Impingement
. Electrostatic precipitation
. Filtration
. Heat
126
11- TANK BATTERIES AND METERING
Tanks must be provided to hold both oil and water for shipping or disposal. Usually, at
least two oil tanks are used, one for shipping and one for filling. The volume of oil being
shipped is sometimes determined by simply measuring the height of the fluid in the tank,
or “strapping” the tank. Many of the more modern production facilities have lease
automatic custody transfer (LACT) units installed. These stations continuously measure
the flow into the shipping point and periodically sample the product being shipped so that
oil gravity, temperature, pressure, and water content are known. The metering in this case
is done with a positive displacement meter.
127
Questions 11
81- What the benefit the insulation process ?
Ans:
1. Isolation of light gases from oil .
2. Keep heavy ingredients in oil .
82- What the horizontal isolators ?
Ans:
- The horizontal isolators are typically used for liquids where (oil and water) is so
large that it wants to weigh more than 20% .
83- what is the advantages of the spherical separator?
Ans:
1- Good for high pressure gas wells .
2- Compact ,small size.
84- fill the flowing blank?
1-The factor affect the choice of buffer capacity ………………and…………….

2............................Installed where a tank contains pressure and set to relieve
excess pressure if it rises to the safe operating limit.
Ans:
1-Number of isolation stages and GoR.
2- Relief Valve.
85- Put (True) in front correct sentence and (False ) infront of incorrect sentence.
1-One of the factors that affecting on isolators is temperature.
Ans/ True
2-One of the problems in isolation stations is Oil pockets .
Ans:
False (Gas pockets).
86- What is the benefit of Roof Access Ladder in stock tank?
Ans:
- Roof Access Ladder - is used for safe access to the tank roof.
87- What is the TYPICAL STORAGE TANK ?
128
Ans:
1. The ' Pontoon ' roof.
2. The ' Double-Deck ' roof .
88- Choose the correct answer?
-……………….. These are used to transfer some or all of the tank contents to a
process or to other storage tanks, ships, vehicles.
(Transfer Pumps , Foam Injection, Roof Access Ladder).
-………………….In emergency, foam can be sprayed into the tank and over the
surface of the liquid.
129
12- SEPARATORS ,STOCK TANKS
Separators:
The flow from the well is liquid and gas and under high pressure . A section of the gas is
free While the other part is dissolved in the liquid. The pressure and velocity of the crude
oil flow must be reduced to obtain a stable separation .This is done by inserting the oil in
to the gas-oil Separator Plant GOSP and reduce pressure to atmospheric
The benefit of the insulation process :
1. Isolation of light gases from oil such as C1-C2.
2. Increase the efficiency of the extraction of intermediate vehicles from crude
oil.
3. Keep heavy ingredients in oil(liquid phase).
-What are isolation stations ?
Natural gas insulation stations are the first episodes of the production of crude oil. Along
series of stages from the moment it leaves the well until the exit of oil and natural gas
through the ports of export or other products refineries or LPG Plants.
-Separators Types :
A .Classification of Insulators by Shape : Vertical Separators ,Horizontal and Spherical
Separators.
-Horizontal isolators : The horizontal isolators are typically used for liquids where (oil
and water) is so large that it wants to weigh more than 20% .
-The advantages of horizontal isolators :
1. It is absorbed for large amounts of fluid.
2. Speed is slower than in the vertical isolators, which gives enough time to stay
liquid .
3. Greater foam processing capability.
130
- spherical Separators :
1. Cheaper than vertical and horizontal types.
2. easy to install and easy to clean and discharge .
3. be more concrete and compact than other species and require a small space where one
can be placed on top of the other in the isolation stations.
4. Used when the production is smooth and homogeneous.
-Vertical Separators :
1. Relative ease of handling flowing fluid flows .
2. Easy removal of solids from the bottom of the buffer.
3. Control the fluid level .
-They are operational problems in isolation stations :
1. carry over
2. Gas pockets
3. Foaming
4. paraffin
-What factors affect the choice of buffer capacity :
1. Size (diameter-height) of the buffer.
2. Design and arrangement of internal parts of the buffer.
3. Number of isolation stages.
4. Operational pressure and operating temperature.
5. Chemical and physical properties of fluid out of oil (specific weigh – viscosity
– balance of phases ….ect).
6. Ratio of gas to oil GoR.
7. The tendency of oil to make foam .
-What factors affect isolation ?

1. Oil and Natural Gas Flow Rate (Minimum Flow rate-Peak Flow rate
-Average Flow rate).
131
2 .Operational pressure Operating .
3. temperature and operating temperature.
4.The physical properties of Fluids‘
-Physical Properties such as Density and Compression.
5.Designe efficiency of insulation(eg100%removal of particles larger than10Micron).
-The presence of impurities such as paraffin paraffin ,sand sand..etc.
5. The tendency of crude oil to foam composition.
-Fluid tendency to corrosion events .
Storage tanks
There are many different types of equipment used for the storage of liquids and gases.
The many and varied types of storage systems are too many for all to be covered in this
lesson. However, sufficient examples have been included in order to convey the
principles of storing liquids and gases and the major problems involved. The method of
storage chosen depends on the following:
The Quantity of Fluid being stored. The Nature of the fluid - is it Toxic, Flammable,
Corrosive. The Physical State of the Fluid - Gas or Liquid, the Temperature and
Pressure
Storing liquids small

quantities of liquids are
often stored in
'DRUMS' and 'Bulk'
quantities in 'TANKS'
or 'RECEIVERS'
132
1. Carboys A carboy is a large, fat, glass, bottle-type container with a flat base for
stability. They are used mainly for storing corrosive chemicals.
2. drums(orbarrels) Drums (barrels) , are used to store larger volumes of liquid. They are
cylindrical in shape and can be made from a variety of materials depending on the liquid
(or solid) to be stored..
3. Storage tanks large volumes of harmless liquids involving little or no pressure are
usually stored in simple, mild steel, rectangular or cylindrical tanks fitted with a flat or
conical roof - known as a 'Fixed Roof Tank'. Flammable or toxic liquids can also be
stored in similar vessels but generally are located well away from residential and process
areas due to the safety hazards involved. When a number of tanks are installed, they are
usually referred to as 'Tank Farms' and each tank may contain many thousands of tons (or
tones) of liquid. The larger the tank, the lower the capital cost per ton (tone), of liquid
stored.
Figure: 2. shows such a tank and the possible combination of features built in. (Note) that
not all tanks will have all of the features shown - some types of fittings depend upon
the type of liquids the tanks contain). The diagram shows all the main features that
MAY be found on a storage tank. For example, some tanks may be open and will not
need a relief valve. Some will be
1. Roof Access Ladder - is used for safe access to the tank roof.
2. Access Manholes -Usually fitted at ground level or on the roof for access to the inside
of the tank for cleaning, maintenance and repair.
3. Water Drain – For use where water separation occurs in the tank and is to be drained
off. Also useful during internal cleaning operations.
133
4. Transfer Pumps - These are used to transfer some or all of the tank contents to a
process or to other storage tanks, ships, vehicles. Etc.
5. Relief Valves - Installed where a tank contains pressure and set to relieve excess
pressure if it rises to the safe operating limit.
6. Foam Injection -In emergency, foam can be sprayed into the tank and over the surface
of the liquid. Hazards arising from toxic or flammable vapors can be minimized.
7.a two-way safety valve- This will operate at a rising, pre-set pressure to vent excess
gas from the tank to atmosphere or flare system to prevent rupture of the tank. At a
falling pre-set pressure, the valve will operate to admit air, gas or inert gas (called
'Blanket Gas'), into the tank to prevent collapse of the tank if the pressure falls to a
vacuum. (Gas or inert gas would be used where ingress of air is undesirable).
134
The picture on the following page shows a 'Tank Farm' having Fixed and Floating roof
tanks.
Typicalstoragetank
1. The ' Pontoon ' roof
2. The ' Double-Deck ' roof
1. The ' Pontoon ' Roof:
Floating roof storage tanks This type of tank roof minimizes the vapor space between it
and the liquid surface. into, vapor losses are also minimized.
2. The 'Double-Deck' Roof: This is a development which employs two separate decks of
steel plate over the entire tank area., , has much lower evaporation losses than any other
type of floating roof. Because of the very small vapor volume.
Storage of high pressure gases
Gases are usually stored under high pressure, often in liquid form. Liquefied
gases take up very much less volume than in the gaseous state. The decrease in volume
also decreases the size of the storage vessel. Different gases need different pressures in
order to condense them at atmospheric pressure. It is often necessary to use refrigeration
together with pressure to change a gas to liquid. In addition to liquefaction decreasing the
gaseous volume, liquids are also easier to transfer from place to place.
135
Questions 12
89- What are Types of gathering systems :
Ans:
1- Radiation gathering systems
2- The main line gathering systems.

90- Q2: numerate the Low pressure flow lines :
Ans:
1- steel pipe line
2- fiberglass pipe line
3-plastic pipe line
4-asbestos pipe line
91- fill the blanks with proper answer ?
The fluid produced from one or more wells be collected into a
collection system common pipe and transported to the isolation stations
The water hammering does not lead to the hole of the pipe from the inside
just, but the movement which cause it can break even the strongest steel after
a period of time
Low pressure flow line Especially those used in artificial lift systems, produced
at low pressure of less than 125 lb / square knots
Plastic & fiberglass pipes can not be used when pumping high
temperature liquids (more than 150-180 F)
92- what is the benfit of asbestos?

Ans:
- The asbestos allows the cement to expand and shrink slightly without cracking the
pipe.
93- what are pipes used more than others? Also why ?
Ans:
- Steel pipes are used more than others because they are made of the strongest
materials and available in multiple sizes and simple installation,
136
94- check true or false for each point ?
Ans:
1- The steel pipe is easy to locate by “metal detectors” , so the engineering work
is done near it without damaging it.
- true
2- fiberglass pipes are less easy to connect than steel pipes and high cost
- False
2- The choice of type of pipe depends on the several of points and
standard, including the economic cost and maintenance of pipes and
maintenance -true
95- what are the most common of high pressure pipe lines?
Ans:
1- Steel pipes
2- Fiberglass pipes
96- what is the maximum pressure of fiberglass of high pressure lines ?
Ans:
Fiber glass pipes have recently developed and are used at pressures of more than
1000 pounds per square knots
137
13- SURFACE GATHERING SYSTEM

Introduction
Hydrocarbons should be isolated from each other and from water before being
manufactured into oil products ,
The equipment used in the treatment is expensive so it must be installed in a way that involves
a combination of pipes.
The fluid produced from one or more wells be collected into a collection system
(common pipe ) and transported to the isolation stations
Types of gathering systems :
1- Radiation gathering systems
The flow lines in this system lead to the center of the processing equipment .
2- The main line gathering systems
(It is axial or trunk - line G.S) line, using this type of system in the regions with larger
areas
The main connection pipes in this type are small compared with the first type .
Behavior of fluid flow :
When fluid flows in successive lump of liquid and gas, this will cause damage to the
gathering system and happened what called "water hammering "
When liquid hits a sharp turn ‘ twist’ in the pipe .
Therefore The gathering system should be designed to be free of sharp turns (twist )
‘’the turns must be gradual’’
Flow lines:
Low pressure flow lines :
There are a number of wells. Especially those used in artificial lift systems, produced at
low pressure of less than 125 lb / square knots.
138
Where the maximum pressure of the flow lines is equal to or less than 125 lb / square
knots so that these lines can be considered as low pressure pipes.
1- Steel pipe line :
It is one of the most well-known types of flow lines and is similar to the production
pipe
The pipe must be cut and sharpened so that the flow line is aligned and the head of
the well or main connection .
The steel pipe is easy to locate by metal detectors, so the engineering work is done
near it without damaging it.
Fiberglass pipe line
Fiber glass is a fiber-reinforced material that is strongly bonded to steel and at the
same time non-corrosive. It is lightweight and can be cut easily for any length.
It was adopted as an alternative to steel pipes in many applications and its use
increased significantly with the same measurements of steel.
2- Plastic pipe
It was developed as a flexible tube to be used as a flow line. This tube comes
wrapped on large rollers and several hundred feet
The use of this pipe is usually determined by a pressure of 125 lb per square node
and is therefore used in low pressure applications.
3- Asbestos pipe line:
This pipe is composed of cement and asbestos fibers and is used in cases where
corrosion is highly effective
The asbestos allows the cement to expand and shrink slightly without cracking the pipe
139
4- Maintain of flow lines:
The pipe should be placed on a still so that it is not in direct contact with the ground
While plastic or fiberglass pipes are placed on the floor directly because they are so
flexible that if placed on a still, their art will bend
It is not allowed to walk on the pipeline because it leads to damage
The pipe must be raised by slings to ensure that it stays upright straight
When installed, sharp curvature should not occur because it causes ’water hammering ’.
The ends of the pipes should be attached when they are connected to each other.
5- Comparing of materials of flow lines :
The choice of type of pipe depends on the several of points and standard, including the
economic cost and maintenance of pipes and maintenance.
Steel pipes are used more than others because they are made of the strongest materials
and available in multiple sizes and to provide accessories installation, but the cost of
purchase and erection and maintenance of steel pipes high, steel can be damaged by the
fluids that are taking place inside.
Plastic and fiberglass can be used because they are low-cost and easy , but can not be
detected as steel
Plastic and fiberglass pipe can not be used when pumping high temperature liquids (more
than 150-180 F) with high pressure because these materials soften at high temperature .
In general, the costs of maintaining fiber and plastic pipes are low
High –pressure flow line:
1- Steel pipe :
140
Steel is usually used for high-pressure flow lines. The pipe wall depends on internal
pressure and pipe diameter. Thick-walled pipes are required to withstand the forces of
high pressure fluid
2- fiberglass pipe :
Fiber glass pipes have recently developed and are used at pressures of more than 1000 pounds
per square knots
These pipes are easier to connect than steel pipes and cost less
But the heat and pressure determinants of the first are less than the second.
Hydrocarbons
141
Questions 13
97-
Write an equation of separator capacity for oil and gas.
Ans:
Ans/
1- for oil separator :
2- for gas separator :

98- Numarate types of separator due to their phase.
Ans:
1- Gas- oil
2- Gas – oil – water
99- Numarate types of separator due to their shape.
Ans:
1-Vertical separator
2- Horizontal
separator 3-Spherical
separator
100- Fill the blanks
1- ‫ـ ـ ـ ـــ ـــ ـ ـ‬is the process of separating crude oil from gas and water . (Separation ) 2-
Sphereical separator has features _ and . (easy to install
, small size )
3- Separation process has two types and _ . (flash separator ,
stage separator )
101- Choose from the brackets
1-The most commonly used in offshore ( Vertical,
Horizontal) Ans/ ( Vertical )
2- The mist extractor used in primary separation stage ( Screened type,
Fan type) Ans/ ( Fan type)
142
102- what are the function the following parts:
1- Fluid inlet / Ans ( To entry hole of fluid)
2- Primary separation section / Ans (Separates primarily oil phase from gas phase)
103- Put true in front true sentanse and false in front false sentanse
• the veritcal separator used with the fluids of high G.O.R . (False)
• The vertical separator used with the fluids which have low or medium
G.O.R. (True)
• spherical separators is cheap compared with the other types (True)
104- Give the reason for using Gauge Glass in the separator ?
Ans:
Ans/ To ensure the liquid level incase of the gauge failure.
143
14- TUBING AND FLOWLINE BEHAVIOR
What is the difference between tube and pipe?
Tube
o The term tube implies some degree of rigidity and flexible.
o Always goes in straight lines.
o The tube is made from stainless steel.
o tubes are often more expensive to produce than pipes.
o Used for:
o Water transferal.
o Liquid & gas transportation.
o Machine components.
Pipe
o Pipes are usually rigid and have no flexibility.
o Piping is usually larger than a tube.
o The pipe can be made from various materials including ceramic, glass, plastic and
concrete.
o can go through crosses, reducers... it does not need to be one piece from end to
end.
o Used for:
o Compressed air systems.
o Liquid & gas transportation.
o Fluid delivery systems- High-pressure storage units.
Tubing
Most oil wells produce reservoir fluids through tubing strings. This is mainly because
tubing strings provide good sealing performance and allow the use of gas
144
expansion to lift oil. Gas wells produce gas through tubing strings to reduce liquid loading
problems.
This lesson presents properties of the American Petroleum Institute (API) tubing
and special considerations in designing tubing strings.
Tubing design should consider tubing failure due to tension, collapse, and burst
loads under various well operating conditions. Forces affecting tubing strings include
the following:
a. Axial tension due to weight of tubing and compression due to buoyancy.
b. External pressure (completion fluids, oil, gas, formation water).
c. Internal pressure (oil, gas, formation water).
d. Bending forces in deviated portion of well.
e. Forces due to lateral rock pressure.
f. Other forces due to thermal gradient or dynamics.
The factors to be considered in tubing design include the following:

o Tubing size, weight, and grade
o Well conditions
o Pressure effect
o Temperature effect
o Completion method
a. Cased hole
b. Open hole
o Multitubing
o Packer type (restraining, non-restraining)
Flowline
145
In the oil and gas industry, flowlines are pipe lines that connect a single wellhead to a
manifold or process equipment. In a larger well field, multiple flowlines may connect
individual wells to a manifold. Then a gathering line may transfer the flow from the
manifold to a pre-process stage or to a transportation facility or vessel.
In an actively producing oilfield, flowlines connect to a single wellhead. Their purpose

is to move the raw product from the wellhead to the gathering lines. They carry a
mixture of oil, gas, water and sand and are normally no more than 12” diameter in size.
Gathering lines are similar to flowlines but collect the flow from multiple flowlines.
Most flowlines are very short in length but others may be run for kilometers in onshore
applications.
146
Pipeline
Gathering pipelines
What are they used for? - Gathering pipelines are used to deliver the oil or gas product
from the source to processing plants or storage tanks.
Typical products carried by gathering pipelines include; natural gas, crude oil, natural gas
liquids.
What size are gathering pipelines? - Compared to other pipelines, lengths in this category
are relatively short – approximately 200 metres long. They are typically much smaller
than transmission pipelines, usually under 18”.
Are gathering pipelines regulated?

- In the United States, gathering pipelines are subject to regulation in moderate to heavily
populated areas, but less so in ‘rural’ areas. As new populated areas are developed, they
often overlap into these areas, creating potential safety issues. Therefore, in 2006 the
PHMSA (Pipeline & Hazardous Materials Safety Administration) redefined the
regulations to cover gas gathering pipelines in ‘rural’
147
areas within ¼ mile of a ‘USA’ (unusually sensitive area). The definition of a USA is an
area that includes a drinking water source or ecological resource area that is unusually
sensitive to environmental damage from a hazardous liquid pipeline release.
Transmission pipelines
What are they used for? - Transmission pipelines are used to transport crude oil, NGLs,
natural gas and refined products for long distances across states, countries and continents.
They are used to move the product from the production regions to distribution centers.
What causes transmission lines to fail? - Typical reasons for the failure of transmission
lines include pipe seam failures, corrosion, material failure and defective welding.
What size are transmission pipelines? - These large pipes are up to 42” diameter, with
most being more than 10” diameter.
Distribution pipelines
What are they used for? - Distribution pipelines are a system made up of ‘mains’ and
‘service’ lines, used by distribution companies. Together they deliver natural gas to the
neighborhoods of homes and businesses.
Mains pipelines - Distribution pipelines classed as between high-pressure transmission
lines and low-pressure service lines.
Service pipelines - Service pipelines connect to a meter and deliver natural gas to
individual customers.
What size are distribution gas pipelines? - ‘Mains’ distribution pipelines are small to
medium sized (from 2” to 24” diameter). ‘Service’ pipelines use narrow pipes (usually
less than 2” diameter).
Feeder pipelines
148
Feeder pipelines are used to move the product from processing facilities and storage
tanks to the long-distance transmission pipelines. The product may be crude oil, natural
gas or natural gas liquids.
Flow Rate Through Pipe or Tube
The control factors in the calculation are fluids (oil, gas, or condensate fluids),
flowline size, flow pattern, and application region. Artificial lift is also considered during
line sizing to improve the operational range of the system.
Maximum production rates throughout the field life are determined as a function of gas-
lift rate.
Sensitivities to the important variables such as GOR, water cut, viscosity, and separator
pressure should be examined.
How to calculate the flow rate of fluids?
Laminar
If the flow in the pipe is laminar, you can use the Poiseuille Equation to calculate the
flow rate:
Q = π D4 ΔP / 128 μ Δx
Turbulent
For turbulent flow, we can use Bernoulli's Equation with a friction term. Assuming the
pipe is horizontal:
ΔP / ρ + V2 / 2 = − ƒ
149
15
I
PRODUCTION
PETROLEUM
Questions 14
105- What is the ‘’Tubing’’?
Ans:
String allows lifting oil and gas from wells during production
processes.
106- What forces affect on Tubing failure?
Ans:
Tension& Compression.
External& Internal Pressures.
Bending Forces.
107- Define the Flowlines.
Ans:
flowlines are pipe lines that connect a single wellhead to
process equipment.
108- How to calculate the flow rate of
fluids? Ans:
Laminar (Using the Poiseuille Equation).
Turbulent (Using Bernoulli's Equation).
109- What are the types of
Pipeline? Ans:
Gathering Pipeline.
Transmission Pipeline.
Distribution Pipeline.
Feeder pipeline.
110- What is the difference between Tube and Pipe?
Ans:
151
111- Chose the correct answer.
Tube can be made from (Stainless steel, Concrete,
Ceramic).
A force affects on tubing design (Gravity, Tension,
Capillary Pressure).
Bernoulli’s Equation calculates the (Laminar, Transverse,
Turbulent) fluid flow.
112- Put (True) or (False) in front of each correct
sentence. - Maximum production rates are determined
as a function of gas-lift rate. (True)
Gathering lines are similar to flowlines but collect the flow from
multiple flowlines. (True)
Tubes and Pipes have the same uses. (False)
152
15- SAND PRODUCTION PROBLEMS
Introduction:
There are many problems facing the production of oil from the fields that leading to a
decrease in the quantities extracted from
Oil wells.
The most important of these problems are:
1- the production of sand.
2-the production of water.
3- the production of sand and water two together .
Sand production is one of the oldest problems facing the oil industry. There
are several reasons that lead to the production of sand, including:
• The stresses that are exposed to the reservoir layers, which lead to the disintegration of
sand grains
• Incorrect perforation of packaging tubes
• High drag or shelf strength in the water phase produced with oil
• High viscosity in the oil phase
• Production of oil at high rates in order to obtain maximum economic benefit,
especially when using industrial production pump
The problems caused by sand production include:
153
Ways of solution
There are two ways chemicals or mechanical
1-mechanical method
2-chemicals method or (Resin Injection)
Mechanical method
Slotted Liners and Prepacked Screens:
Slot-ted pipes, screens and prepacked screens offer the lowest-cost downhole filtering.
Slotted liners have the largest holes , wire-wrapped screens prepacked with resin-coated
sand offer the finest filtering. Each type can be run as part of the completion string and
are particularly suited for high-angle wells, which cannot be easily completed other wise.
Resin-Coated Gravel Without Screens:
Resin-coated gravel may be used as a downhole filter without installing a screen. The
gravel is circulated into position as a slurry, either inside casing or open hole and then
154
squeezed to form a plug across the production zone. By the resin, strengthening the pack.
Gravel Packing:
Gravel packing has been used by the oil industry since the 1930s. today, it is the most
widely employed sand control measure, accounting for about three-quarters of
treatments. 12 a slurry of accurately sized gravel in a carrier fluid is pumped into the
annular space between a centralized screen and either perforated casing or open hole. The
gravel also enters perforations if a cased-hole gravel pack is being performed. As
pumping continues, carrier fluid leaks off into the formation or through the screen and
back to surface. The gravel pack creates a granular filter with very high permeability-
about 120 dar-cies –but prevents formation sand entering the well.
155
Chemicals method (Resin Injection)
Resin injection:
To cement the sand grains in situ, a resin is injection into the formation, generally
through perforations, and then flushed with a catalyst. Most commercially available
systems employ phenolic, furan or epoxy resin. They bind rock particles together creating
a stable matrix of perme-able, concentration can hinder the effec-tiveness of the
consolidation process, so a clay stabilizer is often used as a preflush. Residual water may
also interfere with the development of consolidation strength and may necessitate use of
increased quantities of resin. 10 the quantity of resin injected is a compromise between
enhancing permeability. For example , if an 8-darcy unconsolidated sand is resin treated
to give a compressive strength of up to 3300 psi , permeability may be reduced by 25%
and productivity cut by up to 10%.
156
Questions 15
113- 1-What are the problems facing the production
of oil from the fields?
Ans:
1- the production of sand.
2-the production of
water.
3- the production of sand and water two together .
114- Give two reasons that lead to the production of sand?

Ans:
1- High viscosity in the oil phase
2- Incorrect perforation
115- What are problems caused by sand production? (give two problems)
Ans:
1- Borehole instability.
2- Environmental effects.
116- What are Ways of solution of sand production ?
Ans:
1- mechanical method
2- chemicals method
117- Fill the blanks:
1- Sand production is one of the problems .
(oldest)
2- Ways of solution of sand production are and
Ans//
1- mechanical method
2- chemicals method
157
118- What is Chemicals method of sand production soluation?
Ans:
(Resin Injection)
119- Choose the correct answer:
1- one of the problems facing the
production of oil from the fields
(the production of sand،،the production of shale)
Ans:
the production of sand
120- put (True) in front of correct sentence and (False) in front of incorrect
sentence: 1-Chemicals method of sand production solution is (Resin
Injection) .
True......
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PETROLEUM PRODUCTION I

Dr. Abdullah K. Okab

 WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN

Petroleum and Natural Gas

The role of the Production Engineer is to monitor individual wells or groups of

To monitor wells, production engineers may install permanent downhole sensing

If a problem is identified with the well, it is then up to the production engineer to

4. the well direction N-S-E-W or 0 - 360°)

The objectives of the directional survey are to:

 determine the exact bottom-hole location;

Vertical Cross-section Description

Pipe Flow Calculations

Fracture pressure: is the

The pore pressure and the

PB – Minimum internal yield pressure (psi)

Ans: PB = 4,385 psi

Tubing Shorten by Tubing Lengthen by

If tubing is anchored, the force generated by temperature change is calculated by the

As = Cross sectional area of tubular (inch2)

Average Temperature = (Surface Temperature + Bottom Hole Temperature) ÷2 (F)

ΛLTemp= CT*L*ΛT Where;

CT = Thermal expansion coefficient (1/F)

Thermal changes can happen during the

Figure / Temperature Gradient During Life of The Well

Example: This example will demonstrate how to

Packer setting depth is 10,000 ft.

At the initial condition

Bottom hole temperature (F) = 150 F

Average Temperature at Initial Condition = (60 + 150) ÷2 = 105 F

Average Temperature at Final Condition = (90 + 150) ÷2 = 120 F

ΔLTEMP = 12.42 inch

What the purposes of the production casing?

The Fig. (Completion Equipment)

 Production Tubing : Production, control and download of measuring devices .

The Fig. Open hole completion

The fig. Well completion

Multiple zone completion:

Alternate selective completions:

3- RESERVOIR AND MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

1. Maximize profit considering the time value of money.

2 -Secondary recovery needs may require a completion method conductive to

When choosing the formation interval must consider the following:

Factors Affecting Gun Perforating Results

r’w = effective wellbore radius, ft

Pressure drop (psia) due to skin is:

∆𝑝𝑠 141.2 𝑞𝑜𝜇𝑜𝛽𝑜

 F < 1: Damaged well (skin is positive)

Sθ = skin due to deviation

skin due to perforation

The pseudo skin factor Sh, is expressed as follows:

Where represents the diameter of the perforation,

Where a and b can be derived from:

5- TUBING STRINGS, LINERS

Then the liner and screen put through productive area.

a- production through only the casing

4- Dual zone completion:

c- Production by tow packer and tow tube:

39- Why the open hole completion considers one of best

b) Bottom hole regulators :- In general, these organizations consist of a valve and a

*Data required to properly calculate bottom-hole choke and

41- What do we mean by subsurface safety tubing valve?

3) surface shut-in pressure.

4) desired rate of production.

ΛLTemp= CTLΛT Where;