Introduction To Wireless Systems-CH 2

INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Radio frequencies
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Title Page
1. Radio spectrum & radio waves 3
2. Frequencies used in wireless communications 7
3. Licensed & unlicensed radio frequencies 14
4. Mechanisms of radio frequencies licensing 20
5. Radio channels & bandwidth 26
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Key words:
Radio spectrum, licensed frequency, unlicensed frequency, Spectrum, Band, ITU, CCITT,
IMT
Abstract:
In this chapter, we will talk about the radio spectrum in general, next we'll concentrate on
band divisions used in wireless communications and the licensing mechanisms for
obtaining licenses from authorized agencies to use certain bands of frequencies, and also
the available unlicensed frequency bands used in wireless communications.
Objectives:
 Introducing radio spectrum in general.
 Clarifying mechanism for obtaining licensed frequencies.
 Unlicensed frequency bands used in wireless communications.
 Introducing radio frequency bands used in wireless communications.
Index:
1. Radio spectrum & radio waves.
2. Frequencies used in wireless communications.
3. Licensed & unlicensed radio frequencies.
4. Mechanisms of radio frequencies licensing.
5. Radio channels & bandwidth.
6. Questions of chapter 2.
7. Answers.
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1. Radio spectrum & radio waves:

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic waves, which are consisted of two elements
electrical field & magnetic fields. These radio waves propagate through free space,
between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna. Radio frequency spectrum
contains frequencies between (30 Hz and 3 THz (3000 GHz)), which means that we have
wavelengths between (10000 km and 0.1 mm) in vacuum. Therefore, we have different
forms of electromagnetic radiation according to the frequencies used.
And these forms include:
1. Radio waves.
2. Infrared radiation (heat).
3. Visible light.
4. Ultra violet light.
5. X-rays and gamma rays.
All these different frequencies of electromagnetic radiation form the electromagnetic
spectrum as shown in fig 1 below.
Fig 1
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Moreover, all these Main of different frequency bands are as follows:

1. Voice frequencies (VF (300 ... 3000 Hz)).
2. Very low frequencies (VLF (3 ... 30 kHz)).
3. Low frequencies (LF (30 ... 300 kHz)).
4. Medium frequencies (MF (300 ... 3000 kHz)).
5. High frequencies (HF (3 ... 30 MHz)).
6. Very high frequencies (VHF (30 ... 300 MHz)).
7. Ultra high frequencies (UHF (300 ... 3000 MHz)).
8. Super high frequencies SHF (3 ... 30 GHz)).
9. Extremely high frequencies (EHF (30 ... 300 GHz)).
Fig 2
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Electromagnetic radiation can travel through free space and can travel through various
solids and fluids to varying degrees depending on the frequency and the kind of solid or
fluid as follow:
 Radio frequency waves can travel through some solids, but not through metal.
 Metal can be transparent to X-rays and gamma rays.
 The higher the frequency waves the more ability to penetrate solids than those with
lower frequencies.
 Radio waves according to their frequencies may be able to penetrate the material
of a building. Because construction of the modern buildings may prevent radio
transmissions from reaching the inside of office block.
 Radio waves are able to penetrate cladding of buildings but the steel frame permits
to radio waves of some wavelengths to penetrate as shown in fig 3. This effect was
named "Faraday Cage" after Michael Faraday who was the first to demonstrate and
explain it.
 If the construction of the frame or “cage” is such that the spaces between the steel
girders equal or smaller than the wavelength of a radio signal then the signal is
drastically attenuated.
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Fig 3
Most modern buildings are constructed using a steel frame to provide the main structural
integrity. The external cladding is fixed to the frame to enclose the space and provide a
pleasing appearance to the building. Internal subdivisions for offices are constructed using
steel or wooden frames to support partition walls. Radio frequencies for use in buildings
must be carefully selected to ensure that the best compromise be made between the
Faraday Cage effect and the material penetration capability of radio waves. The Faraday
Cage effect is used in electronic devices to provide screening of unwanted radio frequency
signals without the need to use solid metal enclosures.
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2. Frequencies used in wireless communications:

Radio Frequency Spectrum is a key distinguishing factor comparing alternative mobile
radio systems. Radio spectrum for wireless communication systems ranges from 30 Hz
(termed Extremely Low Frequency [ELF]) to above 100 GHz (termed Extremely High
Frequency [EHF]). Moreover, it is divided into sub-bands as shown in fig 4 and fig 5.
Each one containing frequency or wavelength decade with names defined bellow.
Band Name Frequency Range Example Communication Use

Extremely Low Frequency 3-30 Hz Submarine Communications
Super Low Frequency 30-300 Hz Submarine Communications
Ultra Low Frequency 300-3,000 Hz Underground Communications
Very Low Frequency 3-30 kHz Navigation
Low Frequency 30-300 kHz AM Broadcasting
Medium Frequency 300-3,000 kHz AM Broadcasting
High Frequency 3-30 MHz Shortwave broadcast; amateur radio
Very High Frequency 30-300 MHz Private mobile radio; FM and television
broadcasting
Ultra High Frequency 300-3,000 MHz television broadcasting, cellular radio, and
wireless LANs
Super High Frequency 3-30 GHz Wireless LANs; point-to-point and point-to-
multipoint microwave
Extremely High Frequency 30-300 GHz point-to-point microwave
Fig 4
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Fig 5
The names of these previous sub-bands are defined in what we call "radio Regulations"
published by ITU-R (International Telecommunication Union – Radio Communication
Sector). There are also some other frequency bands in common use. The microwave
band is very important for radio communications. It contains the frequencies between 1
GHz to 30 GHz; sometimes it is extended to lower and higher frequencies. Fig 4 shows
how characteristics of the different bands of the radio spectrum vary. The lower the
frequency, the better the range of transmission (for example, in the extreme case, a single
ELF transmitter is able to cover the entire planet), but the bandwidths available are limited
(for example, the same ELF systems typically provided a global system with total system
capacity below 50 bps). Conversely, EHF systems can provide incredible capacity, but
they incur significant attenuation by atmospheric effects, which include Extreme humidity,
rain or molecular absorption, in addition to significant losses in non-Line-of-Sight (LoS)
deployments.
In between these extremes (ELF,EHF), there is “sweet spot” for the radio spectrum for
conventional mobile systems, with the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band ranging from 300
MHz to 3 GHz and providing the best compromise between usable bandwidths and
propagation characteristics required for wide area coverage. Consequently, UHF band is a
resource with many competing users. In United States, a letter code is used to define
microwave frequency bands just like (X-band, Kq-band) which are often be used in radar
and satellite communications.
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Main characteristics of different used frequency bands:

Below is an explanation of various types of frequency bands used in wireless
communications as shown in fig 6, and their relations with the layers of the Atmosphere
that are illustrated in fig 7.
VF (300 ... 3000 Hz) and VLF (3 ... 30 kHz):
 Propagation of this band takes place between the ground and the ionosphere;
these radio waves penetrate deep into the ground.
 The VF/VLF channel is rather stable Because of the large wavelength.
 The construction of an effective antenna is difficult, and antenna dimensions are
enormous. (At least a quarter wave antenna is required to give some efficiency).
 Only very low data rates are possible through this band.
 These frequencies are used for submarine communications and mine/tunnel
communications, other applications are fixed services over very long distances.
LF (30 ... 300 kHz):
 On frequencies above 100 kHz, separate ground and space waves can be
observed.
 The ground wave follows the Earth curvature, but is more rapidly attenuated than
the sky wave.
 Interference between these waves generate signal fading.
 Because of the ionospheric variations, the LF channel is to some extent unstable.
 Only low data rates are possible.
 Applications are e.g. long-distance ship communications, audio broadcasting, radio
beacons, and radio navigation systems.
 Large antennas are needed (λ/4 = 250 - 2500 m).
MF (300 ... 3000 kHz):
 The ground wave allows some hundreds km ranges.
 During daytime, the sky wave is attenuated in the ionosphere, but during nighttime,
it enables several thousand km ranges.
 Especially the ground wave channel is rather stable.
 Relatively efficient and even directive antennas are possible, and directive antenna
groups can be built.
 Applications are e.g. audio broadcasting and maritime radio beacons.
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HF (3 ... 30 MHz):
 The ground wave gives only rather short ranges and the sky wave is the main
propagation mechanism in the HF band.
 Ionospheric reflections give very long ranges especially during night.
 Efficient antennas with reasonable dimensions can be built (λ/4 = 2.5 - 25 m).
 Because of multipath propagation, only a few Kbit/s data rates are possible.
 Applications are long-distance audio broadcasting, fixed point to point radio links,
land, aeronautical, and maritime mobile services, amateur services, long range
military radio communications, and PR radio services.
VHF (30 ... 300 MHz):
 The ground wave attenuates rapidly and the sky wave enables only ranges slightly
exceeding radio horizon.
 Reflections and diffraction enable low-elevation radio links in cities.
 Sporadic ionospheric E-layers cause sometimes extremely long paths.
 Tropospheric scatter links far beyond the radio horizon are possible.
 Large data rates are possible.
 Applications are e.g. audio and video broadcasting and radio paging, and
aeronautical radio beacons.
 Cosmic noise is a limiting factor.
 Small size directive antennas (Yagi-type) are possible.
UHF (300 ... 3000 MHz):
 The sky wave enables high data rates on line-of-sight paths (<60 ... 80 km), in
addition, tropospheric scatter makes Trans horizon communications possible (100
... 1000 km).
 In scatter links the attenuation is high, the bandwidth limited (<10 MHz), and the
fading is strong.
 High gain antennas (G>30 dB) with a few meters diameter are possible.
 Applications are e.g. video broadcasting, cellular radio systems, cordless telephone
systems, satellite services, and terrestrial fixed services.
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SHF (3 ... 30 GHz):

 The sky wave will not propagate behind the radio horizon practically.
 Horizontal layering in the calm troposphere will cause severe multipath propagation
during a small portion of time in the otherwise stable and high capacity channel.
 Above 10 GHz, rain attenuation becomes the limiting factor.
 Very directive antennas (G>40 dB) with only a few meters diameter can be used.
 Applications are e.g. fixed terrestrial radio relay systems and satellite
communications, satellite broadcasting services, and mobile communications.
EHF (30 ... 300 GHz):
 Rain will limit achievable ranges, which are clearly within the radio horizon.
 On certain frequencies (60, 180 GHz) absorption attenuation by atmospheric gases
strongly limits the range.
 Already half-meter antennas give high gains.
 There are few applications mainly fixed terrestrial radio relay systems on the lower
frequencies (38, 58 GHz).
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Fig 6
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Fig 7
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3. Licensed & unlicensed radio frequencies:

After wireless transmission had become a reality, there were many worldwide interest
groups wanted to make use of, or control, this new type of communication like:
 News organizations that wanted to use wireless to cover the latest news more
quickly.
 Media organizations also needed public radio transmissions, for rescue services
and emergency calls.
 Military forces also interested in making use of wireless for field communications.
 Governments were convinced about allowing public access to radio, so they wanted
to make Legislation to control which services would be permitted to use wireless
communications.
In many countries, the job of allocating and coordinating scarce frequency bands to the
service providers that requesting them was given to:
"National PTT Organization or a communications ministry"
In US FCC (Federal Communications Commission)
Communications ministries divided the frequency bands up into the following:
 Broadcast bands.
 Amateur bands.
 Utility bands.
 Military bands.
Every organization wishes to use a frequency in these bands could apply to the ministry of
communication, in order to be granted a license to use a specific frequency or a range of
frequencies.
Broadcast stations were allocated fixed frequencies. Organizations such as amateur radio
operators were allowed to use frequencies in a group of bands known as the “Amateur
Bands”.
In order to minimize interference between transmitters, a set of regulations were introduced

for the following parameters:
 Signal strength.
 Modulation technique.
 Signal bandwidth.
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After advances in wireless technology the use of frequency bands above 900 MHz, were
allowed and a number of bands were reserved for unlicensed use with new technologies:
 In 1985, the FCC in the US allocated the Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM)
bands for LANs using spread-spectrum techniques without requiring a license.
 Transmitted power must be less than "1 Watt" and the frequencies are in the
ranges: (902-928) MHz, (2400-2483.5) MHz and (5725-5850) MHz.
 The FCC has also allocated an unlicensed narrow band for mobile users in the
range of (1910-1930) MHz.
 Now, only the 2.4 GHz band can be used for wireless LANs in some countries
outside the US, although progress is being made in freeing up this area of the
spectrum in most countries.
There is an internationally agreed rule, which frequencies should be used for a certain
radio service, and the frequency usage needs to be also monitored.
For this purpose, international and national bodies have been established. The
international bodies are global or regional. The national radio frequency regulators are
closely cooperating with the international organizations. On the international level there
are several organizations working on radio regulation and standardization. On the global
level, one of the organizations under the United Nations is called: International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) that always issues regularly radio regulation articles,
which contain international rules for frequency usage as in fig 8.
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Fig 8
Nowadays the work of ITU is organized in three Sectors:

a) Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T).
b) Radio Communication Sector (ITU-R).
c) Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D).
ITU-R:
 Working on radio communication matters
 There is the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI), as regional
organizations.
 There are the Federal Communications Commission, (FCC) USA and the Finnish
Communications Regulatory Authority, (FICORA) as national organizations.
ITU-T:
 (Formerly the CCITT).
 Helped to homogenize many of the licensing regulations (which were developed by
national bodies and varied from country to country), by issuing directives, which
were implemented in most countries.
Regulation is also changing but not so quickly than technology. In present, frequencies
above 300 GHz are not regulated while Frequencies below 300 GHz fall into two
regulation categories (licensed/ unlicensed) frequencies.
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Licensed frequencies:
 To coordinate users and avoid potential interference, users throughout the world,
should apply for a license from their government agencies for the use of most
frequencies.
 While a licensed service has the advantage of protection from interference, cost
and administrative difficulties for obtaining a license for each transmitter are often
problems.
Unlicensed frequencies:
 Government agencies have set up some unlicensed frequencies, so transmitters in
these bands do not need individual licenses. Instead, they must abide by certain
rules, which are verified through type certification.
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The table shown below in fig 9 lists some of the most important unlicensed frequency
bands and their properties. It also shows a general property that holds true for licensed
and unlicensed frequencies, that the higher the frequency, the more bandwidth available
for the service.
Selected Unlicensed Frequency Bands

Frequency Bandwidth Geographic Availability Power Level
900 MHz 26 MHz North America Up to 1W
|2.4 GHz 84 MHz United States Up to 1W
b.4 GHz 84 MHz Europe Up to 100 mW
b.4 GHz 26 MHz Japan Up to 10 mW
Available in U.S. and Europe
|5.2 GHz 200 MHz 50 or 250 mW
for HIPERLAN only
I5.8 GHz 125 MHz North America Up to 1W

|24 GHz 259 MHz North America Up to 25 mW
North America now and
I60 GHz 5 GHz 500 mW
hopefully Europe and Japan
Theoretically soon
>300 GHz Worldwide Limited by eye safety rules
infinite but for
practical use
< 50 MHZ Fig 9
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What decide the frequencies to be used in any required application are:

1. Desired propagation.
2. Technology cost.
3. Regulatory issues which in turn requires a set of technologies and certain working
frequency range.
All these go from the basic device technology, through packaging and system integration,
reaching to protocols and networking standards, and finally applications.
The regulation and licensing in wireless communications are important to make sure of the
most effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum. In the past, individual countries have
made their own regulations on how radio systems could be used without much
consideration for their neighbors. After the big advances in communications and
technology, it has become very important to establish a global standard for the use of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which in turn has led to make communication equipment to be
marketed and used worldwide without the need for country-unique devices and systems.
Global markets will enable manufacturers to reduce costs and develop new wireless
communications products more easily and quickly. The process of moving to common
standards will be very slow due to the considerable investment in existing technology, and
we may never arrive at a total global solution very quickly.
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4. Mechanisms of radio frequencies licensing:

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and sub-organizations of the United
Nations usually issue worldwide telecommunications standards:
 ITU-T (formerly the CCITT (Comity Consultative International of Telegraphs and
Telephones) for aspects of international telecommunications networks.
 CCIR (Comity Consultative International of Radio Communications) for aspects of
radio communications.
 IFRB (International Frequency Registration Board), which is responsible for advising
and recording the worldwide usage of radio spectrum. In particular, it organizes the
WARC (World Administration Radio Conference).
 ISO (International Standards Organization) are gaining in importance, by creating
telecommunication standards.
 IEC (International Electro technical Commission) which Its CISPR (Comity
International Special Perturbations Radio) deals with radio interference created by
or affecting all kinds of electrical systems.
Each country has a control of the frequencies used within its own territory, because mobile
communication services in different countries have evolved differently in the past. There
are presently few common available services worldwide. This will gradually change in the
future due to international standardization.
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US Regulations and Environment:

FCC (Federal Communications Commission) regulates US communications. ANSI
(American National Standards Institute), EIA/TIA (Electrical/Telecommunication Industry
Association), creates standards.
IEEE EIA/TIA has created a standard for a digital cellular telephony system called IS-54
(different from GSM). Qualcomm proposes another standard based on CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access). In addition, there are various packet radio systems like (ARDIS,
MOBITEX, CDPD, and CDI) are in operation or being introduced.
In the US, and later in other countries, certain bands in the radio spectrum were made
available for unlicensed use:
1. ISM:
(Industrial, Scientific and Medical) bands as shown in fig 7 and in the US fig 8 shows
frequencies allocated for indoor radio applications:
 902 - 928 MHz.
 2400 - 2483.5 MHz.
 5.725 - 5.875 GHz.
The 2400 MHz band is now available worldwide. Use of these bands is conditioned on
the employment of direct-sequence or frequency hopping spread spectrum modulation in
order to avoid interference from other equipment such as cordless telephones, remote
controls and security systems as well as microwave ovens. Spread spectrum techniques
must be used in these bands but provided transmitter power is very low (less than 1 watt)
equipment does not need to be licensed in most countries. Note that there is some
variation between countries on the boundaries of these bands.
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ISM Frequency Bands and Permitted Power Levels
Country Frequency Range Power

US and Latin America 2400-2483.5 MHz 1 W ERP
Canada 2400-2483.5 MHz 1 W ERP
ETSI countries except France 2400-2483.5 MHz 100 mW EIRP
France 2445-2483.5 MHz 100 mW EIRP
Australia 2400-2450 MHz 500 mW
Japan 2471-2497 MHz 10 mW/MHz EIRP
Fig 10
Indoor Radio Frequency Band Characteristics
915 MHz 2.4 GHz 5.8 GHz
Frequency 902-928 2.4-2.48 5.73-5.85 GHz

MHz GHz
Wavelength 32.8 cm 12.5 cm 5.2 cm
Width of Band 26 MHz 80 MHz 120 MHz
Usage ISM-SS ISM-SS ISM-SS
Range Greatest 95% 80%
Status Crowded Low Use V Low Use

Interference High Low Low
Fig 11
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2. User PCS band:

1910 - 1930 MHz In recently proposed bands for “Emerging Technologies”, the FCC has
proposed that this 20MHz band be set aside for unlicensed operation of wireless LANs,
cordless telephones and wireless PBXs.
 In 1992, the FCC issued:
 Notice of Proposed Rule Making (NPRM) and tentative decision that outlined
allocations and rules for PCS-type systems using both licensed and unlicensed
spectrum.
 Allocations and rules for LEOS (low-earth orbit satellite).
 National SMR (shared mobile radio).
 IVDS (interactive video and data services) systems.
3. WINForum:
An industry group chartered to promote coordinated unlicensed use of the User-PCS
band. IBM is a founding member along with other computer and PBX manufacturers.
4. Telocator:
Industry group representing companies interested in licensed and unlicensed use of
frequencies in the 2 GHz region for PCS-type systems. Currently these frequencies are
allocated to point-to-point microwave systems.
European Regulations and Environment:
The new environment has led to the rapid standardization and deployment for the first
pan-European digital cellular telephone system "GSM", and new cordless telephones for
use in homes, offices, and for Tele-point services, are all based on the digital CT-2
Interim ETSI standard (The European Telecommunication Standards Institute). ETSI as fig
9 demonstrates that it could become very helping as a de-facto world standard, also
completed standards and frequency allocations for third-generation cordless systems as
DECT, DCS-1800 and PCN/PCS system using GSM architecture that are already
implemented in Europe with similar systems planned in the US. After establishing of a
variety of European research programs like (RACE, COST, and ESPRIT) in the field of
radio communications, progress has been made in the RACE projects UMTS (Universal
Mobile Telecommunication System). The MBS (Mobile Broadband Services) with
standards was targeted for 1998. The 2.4 GHz band became available for wireless LANs,
while the 900 MHz ISM band is not available because of its use for GSM and analog
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cellular in Europe. This has implications for manufacturers who sell products in the global
marketplace.
The ISO and IEC have CEN (Comity European of Normalization), CENELEC (Comity
Europeans of Normalization Electro technique) as European counterparts.
Fig 12
Japanese Regulations and Environment:

The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MPT) plays a central role in regulations
for telecommunications and making the procedures for that fig 10. The Research and
Development Center (RCR) develops standards.
MKK (Radio Equipment Inspection and Certification Institute) gives Wireless systems
Technical Standards Conformity Certification (type approval). As in Europe and the US,
analog cellular telephony services are running out of capacity in some areas, mobile
phones have to be rented from cellular carriers. As of April 1994, the MPT permits
vendors to sell these units directly to customers. Frequencies were allocated in the 800
MHz and 1.5 GHz bands for the new cellular system. The RCR has nearly completed the
Japan Digital Cellular (JDC) standard, which is similar to IS-54.
Cordless telephones are called Personal Handy Phones (PHPs) in Japan. Technical
specifications for a second-generation system were defined in 1992. The RCR has been
working on a standard for which spectrum in the 1.9 GHz band has been allocated. In
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December 1992, the MPT promoted the RF law to permit operation of medium speed
wireless LANs in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, and operation of high speed LANs in the 19
GHz band. The MKK approval process for wireless LANs has also begun.
The number of channels available for 2.4 GHz wireless LAN in Japan will be less than the
number available in other countries and this may require more careful planning when
different LANs are in close proximity.
Fig 13
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5. Radio channels & bandwidth:

Most wireless applications reside in the radio spectrum between 30 MHz and 30 GHz.
These frequencies are natural for wireless communications since they are not affected by
the earth's curvature, so they only require moderately sized antennas, and can penetrate
the ionosphere. The required antenna size for good reception in inversely proportional to
the square of signal frequency, so moving to higher frequency allows for antennas that are
more compact. The power of received signal with none directional antennas is
proportional to the inversed frequency squared, and for that it is harder to cover large
distances with higher frequency signals.
As mentioned before, the spectrum is either licensed bands (regulatory bodies assign to
specific operators), or unlicensed bands (can be used by any system subject to certain
operational requirements). The next table in fig 11 shows the licensed radio channels and
their bandwidths that allocated to major wireless communications systems in U.S, and
there are similar allocations in Europe and Asia.
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AM Radio 535-1605 KHz

FM Radio 88-108 MHz
Broadcast TV channel 2-6 54-88 MHz
Broadcast TV channel 7-13 174-216 MHz
Broadcast TV UHF 470-806 MHz
3G Broadcast wireless 746-764 MHz, 776-794 MHz
3G Broadcast wireless 1.7-1.85 MHz, 2.5-2.69 MHz
1G and 2G cellular phone 806-902 MHz
Personal communications service 2G cell phone 1.85-1.99 GHz
Wireless communications service 2.305-2.32 GHz, 2.345-2.36 GHz
Satellite digital radio 2.32-2.325 GHz
Multichannel multipoint distribution service
2.15-2.68 GHz
MMDS
Digital broadcast satellite (satellite TV) 12.2-12.7 GHz
Local multipoint distribution service LMDS 27.5-29.5 GHz, 31-31.3 GHz
Fixed wireless service 38.6-40 GHz
Fig 14
The governing body within a given country allocates unlicensed spectrum. Often countries
try to match their frequency allocation for unlicensed use so that technology developed for
that spectrum is compatible worldwide.
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The following table in fig 12 shows the unlicensed spectrum allocations in the U.S.
ISM Band I (Cordless phones, 1G WLANs) 902-928 MHz

ISM Band II (Bluetooth, 802.11b WLANs) 2.4-2.4835 GHz
ISM Band III (Wireless PBX) 5.725-5.85 GHz
NII Band I (Indoor systems, 802.11a WLANs) 5.15-5.25 GHz
NII Band II (short outdoor and campus applications) 5.25-5.35 GHz
NII Band III (long outdoor and point-to-point links) 5.725-5.825 GHz
Fig 15
ISM Band I has licensed users transmitting at high power that interfere with the unlicensed
users. Therefore, the requirements for unlicensed use of this band is highly restrictive and
performance is somewhat poor. The U-NII bands have a total of 300 MHz of spectrum in
three separate 100 MHz bands, with slightly different restrictions on each band. Many
unlicensed systems operate in these bands. Globally, and In order to rationalize spectrum
usage, the Radio Communications Sector of the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU-R) has identified key bands that can preferably be used for International Mobile
Telecommunications (IMT) operation.
These IMT bands cover operation for the following:
 IMT-2000 systems:
 Covering legacy “3G” technologies, including Wide Band Code Division Multiple
Access (WCDMA), cdma2000 1xrtt technologies, and most recently WiMAX.
 IMT-enhanced systems:
 Covering those systems offering improved mobile broadband services, including
High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) and Evolution-Data Only (EV-DO)
technologies.
 IMT-advanced systems:
 Covering those systems offering very high-rate mobile broadband operation,
including rates in excess of 1 Gbps to low-mobility users.
The spectrum for use by the IMT-2000 technologies was first identified by the ITU at the
World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) in 1992 and further augmented at the
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World Radio communication Conferences (WRC) in 2000 and 2007. Even when spectrum
has been identified for use by IMT systems, it might not be available for use of mobile
radio systems. However, the identification of spectrum by ITU-R, as illustrated in the
following table below fig 13, provides equipment manufacturers with guidance on the
range of frequency bands that are used in deploying IMT services, hopefully leading to
economies of scale and consequential decrease in the overall cost of production of spe-
cialized IMT equipment.
Frequency Range Regional Rules

450-470 MHz All regions
Nine countries in Region 3 (Asia and Australasia):
610-790 MHz
Bangladesh, China, Rep. of Korea, India, Japan, New
698-790 MHz Region
Zealand,2 Papua
(Americas)
New Guinea, Philippines, and Singapore
790-960 MHz All regions
1,710-2,025 MHz All regions
No global allocation, but over 80 administrations in Region 1
3,400-3,600 MHz
(Europe and Africa), plus nine in Region 3, including India,
China, Japan, and Rep. of Korea
Fig 16
Even with the 885 MHz of spectrum allocated to IMT across all regions, as indicated
above, the ITU has performed an analysis of the growing requirements for spectrum to
address IMT deployments. ITU-R report M.2078 contains the results of that analysis;
both for “legacy” systems in terms of pre-IMT systems, IMT-2000 systems, and IMT-
enhanced systems that are already being deployed, as well as the spectrum that will be
required for future IMT-advanced deployments. These results indicate that although the
combined allocations of WARC-1992, WRC-2000, and WRC-2007 are sufficient for
legacy deployments, the new IMT advanced systems are expected to require up to 420
MHz of additional spectrum to be allocated by year 2015 and up to 840 MHz of additional
spectrum to be allocated by year 2020.
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ITU-R Report M.2078 uses the service categorization defined in ITU-R Report M.2072,
“World mobile telecommunication market forecast,” which includes seven service cate-
gories, as shown in the following table fig 14, including services at speeds of up to 100
Mbps for super high multimedia services!
ITU Mobile Service Categorization

Peak Bit Rate Service Category
< 16 kbps Speech
< 128 kbps Multimedia messaging; low multimedia, low rate data
< 384 kbps Medium multimedia
< 2 Mbps High multimedia
< 10 Mbps Very high multimedia
< 30 Mbps Ultra high multimedia
< 100 Mbps Super high multimedia
Fig 17
-30-
Questions of Chapter 2:
Q1:
What does radio spectrum consist of?
a) X-rays.
b) Light.
c) MF.
d) LF.
e) UHF.
Q2:
What is the frequency band of voice signal?
a) (300- 3000) Hz.
b) (3- 30)KHz.
c) (30- 300)KHz.
Q3:
What is the abbreviation for (Very High Frequency)?
a) HF.
b) VHF.
c) MF.
Q4:
What is the media that electromagnetic radiation can travel through?
a) Free Space only.
b) Solid only.
c) Free space solid fluids, depending on frequency and the kind of media.
-31-
Q5:
Choose true or false form the following.
1. Metal is transparent to X-rays but not for radio frequency waves.
a. True b. False
2. Radio signal is attenuated if space between the steel grids is equal or smaller that
signal wavelength.
a. True b. False
3. Faraday cage effect is used to prevent needed frequency signals.
a. True b. False
4. VHF band is used in cellular radio.
a. True b. False
5. Super high frequency is used in point to point and to multipoint communications.
a. True b. False
6. The low the frequency the better the range of transmission.
a. True b. False
7. VLF stands for very high frequency.
a. True b. False
8. MF stands for medium frequency.
a. True b. False
9. VHF stands for microwave signals.
a. True b. False
10. SHF stands for super low frequency.
a. True b. False
Q6:
What causes the attenuation?
a) Atmospheric effects.
b) Level of power transmission.
-32-
Q7:
What do atmospheric effects include?
a) Humidity.
b) Rain.
c) Winds.
Q8:
What are the abbreviations that really represent frequency band? (Choose all that apply)
a) VHH.
b) VLF.
c) VHF.
d) LF.
e) UHX.
f) UHF.
Q9:
How many bands the PTT or Communication ministries had divided radio frequencies
into?
a) 2 bands.
b) 3 bands.
c) 4 bands.
Q10:
Why did PTT and Communication ministries set regulations for radio frequencies?
a) Minimizing interference among transmitters.
b) Setting priorities among transmitters.
c) Defining the price for each frequency band.
d) To insure the most effective use for electromagnetic spectrum.
-33-
Q11:
How are regulations for radio spectrum applied?
a) On signal strength.
b) On modulation technique.
c) On Signal bandwidth.
d) On type of antennas.
e) For digital transmission only.
Q12:
What does ITU stand for?
a) International Telecommunication Union.
b) European Telecommunication Standards Institute.
c) The Federal Communications Commission.
Q13:
What are the sectors of ITU? (Choose all that apply)
a) Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T).
b) Radio Communication Sector (ITU-R).
c) Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D).
d) ETSI.
e) FICORA.
Q14:
What are the regulation categories, which include frequencies below 300 GHz?
a) Licensed frequencies.
b) Unlicensed frequencies.
c) VHF band.
d) EHF band.
-34-
Q15:
What does licensing frequency stand for?
a) User coordination and interference avoidance.
b) Very high power transmission.
c) Using special antennas.
Q16:
How did global market effect on wireless communications manufacturers?
a) Enhanced country – unique devices and systems.
b) Reduced cost and made development of new wireless communications products
more easily and quickly.
Q17:
Why will the process of moving to common standards be very slow?
a) There is still considerable investment in existing technology and we may never
arrive at a total global solution.
b) There is very big number of wireless devices manufacturers they don't agree with
international standards.
Q18:
What are the committees responsible of issuing worldwide telecommunication standards?
(Choose all that apply)
a) ITU.
b) CCIR.
c) IFRB.
d) ISO.
e) IEC.
f) FCC.
-35-
Q19:
Who is responsible for regulation in the USA?
a) FCC.
b) ETSI.
c) MPT.
Q20:
What are the standards of wireless communications created in US?
a) IS-54.
b) ARDIS.
c) CDPD.
d) CDI.
Q21:
What is the available frequency band for unlicensed users in USA?
a) ISM.
b) User PCs (1910 – 1930) MHz.
Q22:
Who is responsible for regulation in Europe?
a) FCC.
b) ETSI.
c) MPT.
Q23:
Who is responsible for regulation in Japan?
a) FCC.
b) ETSI.
c) MPT.
-36-
Q24:
What will happen for the size of antenna when moving to higher frequency?
a) Compact.
b) Increase.
Q25:
Why do countries try to match their frequency allocation for unlicensed frequency used?
a) To achieve worldwide compatibility for devices developed for that spectrum.
b) To make us of all unlicensed frequency band.
Q26:
What are the key bands that can be used for International Mobile Telecommunications
(IMT) operation? (Choose all that apply)
a) IMT-2000 systems.
b) IMT- enhanced systems.
c) IMT- advanced systems.
-37-
Question Answer
Q1 A,b,c,d,e
Q2 f
Q3 b
Q4 c
1 a
2 a
3 b
4 b
5 a
Q5
6 a
7 b
8 a
9 b
10 b
Q6 a
Q7 a,b
Q8 b,c,d,f
Q9 c
Q10 a,c,d
Q11 a,b,c
Q12 a
Q13 a,b,c
Q14 a,b,c,d
Q15 a
Q16 a
Q17 a
Q18 a,b,c,d,e
Q19 a
Q20 a,b,c,d
Q21 a
-38-
Q22 b
Q23 c
Q24 a
Q25 a
Q26 a,b,c
-39-

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INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Radio frequencies

1. Radio spectrum & radio waves:

Moreover, all these Main of different frequency bands are as follows:

2. Frequencies used in wireless communications:

Band Name Frequency Range Example Communication Use

Main characteristics of different used frequency bands:

SHF (3 ... 30 GHz):

3. Licensed & unlicensed radio frequencies:

In order to minimize interference between transmitters, a set of regulations were introduced

Nowadays the work of ITU is organized in three Sectors:

Selected Unlicensed Frequency Bands

I5.8 GHz 125 MHz North America Up to 1W

What decide the frequencies to be used in any required application are:

4. Mechanisms of radio frequencies licensing:

US Regulations and Environment:

ISM Frequency Bands and Permitted Power Levels

Country Frequency Range Power

Indoor Radio Frequency Band Characteristics

915 MHz 2.4 GHz 5.8 GHz

Frequency 902-928 2.4-2.48 5.73-5.85 GHz

Width of Band 26 MHz 80 MHz 120 MHz

Usage ISM-SS ISM-SS ISM-SS

Range Greatest 95% 80%

Status Crowded Low Use V Low Use

2. User PCS band:

Japanese Regulations and Environment:

5. Radio channels & bandwidth:

AM Radio 535-1605 KHz

ISM Band I (Cordless phones, 1G WLANs) 902-928 MHz

Frequency Range Regional Rules

ITU Mobile Service Categorization

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