PROGRESS IN PHOTOVOLTAICS: RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS

Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2008; 16:629–643

Published online 7 August 2008 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/pip.845

Broader Perspectives

Interaction Between Photovoltaic

Distributed Generation and
Electricity Networks
E. Caamaño-Martı́n1*,y, H. Laukamp2, M. Jantsch2, T. Erge2, J. Thornycroft3, H. De Moor4, S. Cobben5,
D. Suna6 and B. Gaiddon7
1
Instituto de Energı́a Solar, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, ETSI Telecomunicación, Ciudad Universistaria s/n, Madrid 28040, Spain
2
Fraunhofer Institute für Solare Energiesysteme, Heidenhofstr. 2, Freiburg 79110, Germany
3
Halcrow Group Ltd., Burderop Park, Swindon, Wiltshire SN4 0QD, UK
4
Energy Research Center of The Netherlands, Westerduinweg 3, Petten 1755 ZG, The Netherlands
5
N.V. Continuon Netbeheer BV, Utrechtseweg 68, Arnhem 6921 RL, The Netherlands
6
Vienna University of Technology—Energy Economics Group, Gusshausstr. 25-29/373-2, Vienna 1040, Austria
7
Hespul, 114 Boulevard du 11 novembre 1918, Villeurbane 69100, France

Electricity power systems worldwide have traditionally been designed to a vertically connected scheme
characterised by centralised generation. Over the last few decades, several factors have dictated a gradual
shift from the central-control approach to a more distributed layout where distributed generation (DG)
technologies are effectively integrated and not just connected (appended) to the networks; amongst others
liberalisation of electricity markets, security and quality of supply and environmental issues. Photovoltaic
powered distributed generation (PV-DG), although still having a much lesser impact than other DG
technologies, is increasingly being embedded into electricity distribution networks worldwide within the
framework of successful regulatory state and marketing programmes. PV-DG has added values (benefits) for
the electricity systems that extend from peak power and load reduction (when deployed close to electricity
consumption points) to participation in grid-supporting or grid-forming modes of operation. The question
arises as to what the present situation of PV technology is for its optimal integration in distribution networks,
whether there are still technical barriers to overcome as well as new opportunities for PV in future renewably
supplied electricity systems. This paper presents the current state of knowledge concerning these topics from a
European perspective with regard to different grid structures. It also discusses existing standards, new
opportunities to provide grid services and research and development needs identified to fully exploit the
added-value—and still developing—benefits of PV-DG. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

key words: photovoltaic systems; grid connection; inverters; electricity distribution networks

Received 15 January 2008; Revised 21 April 2008

INTRODUCTION
Electricity power systems worldwide have tradition-
ally been designed to a vertically connected scheme
* Correspondence to: E. Caamaño-Martı́n, Instituto de Energı́a Solar, characterised by centralised generation, distributed
ETSI Telecomunicación, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, Madrid 28040,
Spain. consumption and limited interconnection capabilities
y
E-mail: estefan@ies-def.upm.es between the different grid control areas. Over the last

Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

630
few decades, several factors have arisen which have
dictated a gradual shift from the central-control approach
to a more distributed control layout where DG techno-
logies —small generators typically ranging from 1 kW
to 10 MW connected at a lower level throughout a
power system to provide electric power needed by
electricity consumers—are effectively integrated and
not just connected (appended) to the networks.
Amongst others are:1,2
– Liberalisation of electricity markets and new tech-
nology developments, from which the economic risk
for constructing big power plants has become much
higher than for small ones.
– Security and quality of supply, greatly influenced in
most countries by a strong dependence on fossil
fuels for electricity generation and the ageing infra-
structures of transmission and distribution networks.
– Environmental issues related to the use of fossil
fuels and their influence on climate change.
Over the last decade, a growing amount of technical
information has been produced on the impact of DG
technologies on electricity networks and vice versa.
For PV-DG, the impact on electricity networks is
currently relatively much smaller than that of other DG
technologies (e.g. wind technology). However, certain
characteristics make PV-DG worthwhile to be con-
sidered in planning and operation of present and future
electricity networks, namely: (a) that it is currently the
most important DG technology using inverters to
convert primary DC current into AC;3 and (b) its
increasing rate of penetration in distribution networks
worldwide, within the framework of successful
regulatory state and marketing programmes.4,5
As has been widely recognised,6,7 the integration of
PV-DG in electricity distribution networks can bring
several benefits to electricity systems, amongst others:
– Of immediate benefit: reduction of transportation
and distribution losses, improvements in quality
and continuity of service in peak-hours and
reduction of environmental impacts.
– In the medium-long term: deferral of future invest-
ments to increase the networks capacity, and
reduction of the additional generation needed to
meet the peak-hours demand.
These benefits can be maximised if PV-DG is
deployed at or close to electricity consumption points,
e.g. in urban areas, where Photovoltaic (PV) modules
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
E. CAAMAÑO-MARTÍN ET AL.
can also become part of buildings as well as serve as an
educational tool to increase public awareness on the
need to rely on clean electricity sources for a sus-
tainable development path. The question arises as to
what the present state-of-the-art of PV-DG is in relation
to its optimal integration in electricity distribution
networks, and whether there are still technical barriers
to overcome as well as new opportunities for PV
technology in future electricity systems.
The PV-UP-SCALE project
With the aim of enhancing the large-scale imple-
mentation of PV in the urban environment, several
European institutions and companies have collabo-
rated in the ‘PV-UP-SCALE’ project (Photovoltaics in
Urban Policies—Strategic and Comprehensive Approach
for Long-term Expansion), supported by the European
Commission through its Intelligent Energy Europe
programme. Based on shared experiences from the
participating countries (Austria, France, Germany, The
Netherlands, Spain and United Kingdom) and else-
where, the project addresses the most relevant drivers
that stimulate the decision makers to apply PV
technology, as well as bottlenecks that hinder them,
both technical and non-technical.
From a technical point of view, grid interconnection
issues are crucial for the large scale integration of PV-
DG. Within the PV-UP-SCALE project, an extensive
review of scientific and technical literature has been
carried out focusing on the state-of-the-art of grid-
connected PV systems as a key opportunity to learn
from accumulated experiences, with special emphasis
on identifying bottlenecks and solutions applied in
different countries that lead to a better integration of
PV-DG in electricity networks. To this aim, the main
impacts between PV-DG and distribution networks
have been analysed, with power quality and safety
being central topics. Based on these results, a publicly
available report has been produced,8 which includes
detailed information of reported events and, whenever
relevant, information of other DG technologies.
In this paper the most relevant findings from the
research described above are presented: first of all the
main effects of PV-DG on distribution networks
are described, followed by the impacts on PV systems
of network events. The subsequent section discusses
the technical barriers that still exist, as well as new
opportunities and new product developments that arise
in the context of future intelligent and renewable
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PV-DG AND ELECTRICITY NETWORKS INTERACTION 631

supplied electricity networks. Finally, the main Studies carried out within the framework of the
conclusions are summarised. International Energy Agency PV Power Systems
Programme9,14 have shown the possibility that when
a large number of PV systems are connected to
IMPACTS OF PV DISTRIBUTED voltage-regulated distribution lines, the voltage at the
GENERATION ON DISTRIBUTION customers’ terminals might increase because of reverse
NETWORKS power flow situations, with the increase depending
upon the relative sizes of the load and PV generation.
The impacts described here include effects that have From experimental evidence, few references have been
traditionally been considered a potential concern by found to voltage rise problems caused by PV-DG,15,16
the electricity industry, covering voltage, current and with all reported incidents occurring in rural networks.
power effects arising from the individual or multiple In one country however (Japan), commercial inverters
operation of PV grid-connected systems.3,9,10 Also, are provided with a voltage regulation function that
added value capabilities of PV systems are presented, prevents over-voltages by reducing the PV generator
which can provide additional benefits to distribution output.17 Other solutions proposed to limit voltage rise
networks. are:
– To turn the inverters into voltage regulators as soon
Voltage rise and voltage fluctuations as the upper voltage limit is reached (as mentioned
in the Section Added value capabilities of modern
In a traditionally designed electricity distribution
inverters). In this case, the combination of the
system, the power is assumed to be fed at the highest
operation mode of DG generators (power factor
voltage level and consumed at the lower voltage levels.
or voltage control) and active control of voltage
With the growing penetration of DG technologies the
regulation techniques has been successfully demon-
power flow has become more complicated, and
strated in terms of increased DG generation that can
undesirable over-voltage situations in low voltage
be connected, especially to weak distribution net-
(LV) distribution systems might occur under particular
works.18–21
circumstances (e.g. low load demand coincident with
– To adjust the MV/LV transformers for the expected
considerable DG generation).
periods of load demand, e.g. twice a year.
Although voltage level variations are relatively
– To include PV-DG in distribution networks planning
frequent events in distribution networks (being partly
by limiting the amount of generation allowed to each
caused by load variations), to avoid variations
customer, in the same way it is done for distribution
exceeding acceptable limits different regulation
transformers sizing.
techniques are used depending on the networks’
characteristics: automatic step-up transformers and
voltage regulators at medium voltage (MV) levels, Other analyses22,23 have shown the advantage of
manual tap changers in MV/LV transformers, etc. This load management as an effective strategy for mitigat-
regulation is important, since distribution system ing voltage rise and facilitating the penetration of DG
operators must fulfil certain obligations regarding technologies powered by renewable energies, and
the power quality supplied to consumers. For example, specifically of PV.24,25 Not only can small increase in
for public European LV networks voltage variations the loads open up new capacity for a considerable
within
10% of the nominal values are normally amount of PV, where peak-power prices exceed the
considered acceptable,11 with stricter limits for over- costs of PV generation, but also this technology is
voltages typically applied in many countries.12 considered likely to offer benefits such as a reduction
Relative voltage increase from the feed-in of a DG of the peak power demand from the network if high
is sometimes limited in national standards to 2–5% of generation coincides with peak demand situations
the nominal voltage at the point of common (such as in areas with significant use of air
coupling.13 In addition, in some countries (Austria, conditioning). Experiences in Denmark and Germany
Spain and The Netherlands) limits on PV-DG power to have shown the potential for customers to act as active
be connected are also defined in relation to network/ stakeholders who change their consumption behaviour
transformer capacity: between 33–75% for LV net- at the same time as they become power producers,
works and 50% at MV levels.10 especially if economic incentives exist.14,26

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632
On the other hand, since the output of PV-DG
fluctuates with changes of solar radiation, a concern
exists that under specific conditions (PV arrangement
concentrated in a limited area) the PV output might
cause voltage fluctuations in distribution lines signifi-
cantly exceeding those from existing loads. However,
simulations of typical distribution networks of
residential areas with PV-DG connected uniformly
revealed only slow output fluctuations, with the total
fluctuation being within acceptable levels (the aver-
aged effect of individual fluctuations).14 Experimental
measurements carried out in Japan and The Nether-
lands have confirmed the relatively slow rate of output
changes of PV-DG.27,28 More recent evaluations based
on satellite-radiation data and frequency analysis are
being carried out at present to gain more knowledge
about this smoothing effect.29
Current harmonics
The grid voltage in public distribution networks is not a
pure sine wave, and disturbances that modify the shape
of the grid voltage are some of the main steady-state
power quality phenomena.3 Voltage disturbances are
usually defined in terms of the spectral components,
with harmonics being sinusoidal voltages having
frequencies that are integer multiples of the nominal
frequency (termed the fundamental component, typi-
cally 50 or 60 Hz).30 Interharmonic voltages are those
whose frequencies are non-integer multiples of the
fundamental, either as discrete frequencies or as a
wide band spectrum.31 The main sources of voltage
harmonics are nonlinear loads present in the networks,
and the harmonic currents drawn by these loads. Also,
linear loads consisting of resistors, capacitors and/or
inductors may become a source of harmonic currents
when they operate under distorted voltage conditions.
Harmonics (voltage and current) have a wide range of
impacts on the network components and the customer
side of the system, including loads (especially motors),
generators, transformers, electronic equipment, pro-
tection and communication systems.3,9,32
Inverters for PV-DG are not covered for harmonics
by PV specific standards, and generic standards for
electrical equipment are applied. At present, an
international standard exists only for equipment
operating in LV networks with rated currents up to
16 A per phase (with inverters falling under ‘class A’
equipment). This limits the magnitude of individual
current harmonics,33 although different requirements
exist in some countries.34,35 For electrical equipment
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
E. CAAMAÑO-MARTÍN ET AL.
(i.e. inverters) with higher currents operating in LV
networks, no international consensus has been reached
yet for an international standard, but only for a
technical recommendation.36 The same applies for MV
and HV equipment.37
When many PV inverters operate in the same LV
distribution grid segment, although the devices may
individually comply with existing standards, their
combined harmonic current emissions may lead to
voltage harmonics exceeding accepted limits. This
may happen because of changes of the impedance and
resonance frequencies of the network, e.g. due to the
inverters capacitance.28,38 This non-sinusoidal shape
of the grid voltage increases the harmonic currents
produced by inverters where the current control
electronics is not able to cope adequately.39–41
Experimental research on harmonic current distortion
arising from PV-DG shows the influence of the
network characteristics:9,42,43
– In strong networks PV-DG does not seem to con-
tribute significantly to current harmonics, the most
significant source being existing electrical loads.
– Emission of some low-order even current harmonics
appears to be influenced by the inverters’ control and
the network strength, whereas in weak grids it tends
to increase with the number of inverters connected,
in strong networks it appears to be constant. Higher
frequency harmonics tend to be attenuated quickly
(cancellation of harmonic current effects).
DC from inverters
The requirement for isolation transformers for PV
grid-connected systems varies amongst countries.
Whereas they are compulsory in some countries for
safety reasons (e.g. in Spain44), in others the
requirement depends on the technical characteristics
of the devices (DC currents monitoring scheme) or
specific requirements set by the distribution network
operator.13 The impacts of DC currents on network
equipment mainly concern distribution transformers,
residual current devices (RCD), current transformers,
energy meters, metallic structures and cables.3,9,45 Of
these, the most significant effects are to be found on
RCDs (trips) and distribution transformers (harmonic
distortion, losses, heating and noise increases).
Although many commercial inverters employ
transformers that intrinsically suppress any DC
component, transformerless inverters have gained an
increasing importance due to technical and economical
advantages such as higher efficiency and lower weight,
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PV-DG AND ELECTRICITY NETWORKS INTERACTION 633

volume and cost. Modern pulse-width-modulation particular interaction between the PV system and the
(PWM) techniques enable the suppression of undesir- electricity network, and their siting on buildings.
able DC components at the inverters’ output. However, Another aspect to be considered are the capacitances
when a positive–negative imbalance exists on the that develop on the DC and AC parts of a PV system,
network voltage waveform (equivalent to even order related to PV modules and supporting structure
harmonics) the resulting distortion might affect the capacitances to earth as well as EMC filters at the
operation of PWM-controlled inverters, especially inverter’s input and output (which usually contain
when their synchronization with the grid is based on capacitors connected to the ground wire). When AC
the zero crossings of the voltage waveform. In this voltage components act on these capacitances, as it
respect, results of a large European R&D project on might be the case with transformerless inverters,
DG technologies show that:3 leakage currents can flow in the ground (protective)
wire, which normally should be free of current.
– With current knowledge of PWM techniques inver-
Simulations carried out for PV systems with transfor-
ters can eliminate DC-components without compro-
merless inverters have provided some theoretical
mising dynamic behaviour and efficiency.
evidence of these effects.49 Experimental measure-
– State-of-the-art single-phase current-source inver-
ments carried out in Germany with different inverter
ters (low-frequency transformer, high-frequency
design concepts over several months led to the
transformer and transformerless types) operating
following conclusions:3,49
in realistic European voltage conditions46 do not
produce significant DC current components, even in – Contact pressures on the PV generator and, above
the presence of even order harmonics in the grid all, the inverter topology have the greatest influence
voltage. on leakage currents. No apparent correlation was
found between the leakage current amount and
meteorological conditions such as solar irradiation,
No evidence has been found of DC-related
humidity, atmospheric pressure or wind. Glass-foil
disturbances in the networks caused by PV systems,
PV modules showed 50% higher leakage current
even when relatively concentrated in geographical
42,47 compared to glass–glass PV modules when touched
areas.
on the reverse side (no differences when touched on
the front side).
Ground faults and leakage currents – The potential problem area of ground wire currents
should be kept in mind when PV systems with many
Due to the electrical currents in PV grid-connected
inverters are planned, since the currents can add up
systems and their particular location (exposed to
to values that can exceed the limit values given by
outdoor meteorological conditions), insulation failures
the standards (therefore triggering protections like
between current-carrying conductors and ground,
RCDs), or they can represent a potential danger if
known as ground faults, cannot be totally excluded
the ground wire is broken.
during the systems lifetime. Even if good design
practices are adopted —system and equipment
Contribution to short-circuit capacity
grounding— ground faults can develop within a PV
array, in connection boxes, switches or inverters, due to It is generally considered that PV grid-connected
components/materials damage or ageing. Leakage systems do not contribute significantly to short-circuit
currents in early PV systems were often sufficient to faults occurring on the distribution network side.42
cause false indications of ground faults and contributed This is so because: (a) the short-circuit current of a PV
to many hours of system down time.9 Fortunately, the array is self-limited (typically 10–20% more than the
combination of specific standards and better designs rated maximum power current); (b) inverters are
and components has given rise to reliable PV systems normally equipped with under-voltage relays; and (c)
in terms of safety, which is backed up by the absence of current controlled inverters mainly used in PV-DG are
reported ground-fault failures. However, with the over-current limited in the case of disturbances coming
increasing penetration of building-integrated PV from the grid. In distribution networks protection
systems, ground-fault detection and PV array disabling against short-circuit faults is provided by over current
(protection by automatic disconnection of the relays and/or fuses coordinated with the protection
supply48) are still issues to look into, given the devices of the distribution feeders. A concern exists

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634
that under high penetration of PV-DG and certain
conditions (e.g. faults occurring at the end of long
distribution lines with high resistances or line overload
situations), some PV systems might be unable to detect
the fault and supply a significant fraction of the fault
current, thus hampering fault detection.9,50,51 How-
ever, theoretical and experimental analyses carried out
in the United States, United Kingdom and Japan have
shown that there is ample precedent for considering
modern current-controlled inverter-based DG technol-
ogies as insignificant short-circuit current contribu-
tors.50,42,52 The fault impact should, however, be re-
evaluated in the case that the inverters’ controls were
changed to accomplish other functions such as voltage
support, or when operating in weak networks. In any
case, proper coordination of the different protections
(network, PV-DG, customers’ site) at different fault
levels is a critical issue to guarantee short-circuit
protection.
Unintentional islanding
The topic of ‘unintentional islanding’, where a part of
the network can be unintentionally maintained live by
local generation when the primary network is
disconnected, has received attention from the PV
and electricity industries over a number of years.9,53,54
Furthermore, the rapid deployment of DG in recent
years has substantially increased the concerns associ-
ated with this phenomenon, especially among network
operators. As has been reported,55 for PV-DG to cause
an unintended island there has to be a match between
generation and local load at the same time as a loss-of-
mains situation occurs; furthermore, the inverter
protection must fail to detect the loss-of-mains.
Finally, for a network operator to be at risk he must
touch the energised live conductor.
Theoretical analyses of the functional safety of PV
grid-connected systems based on international risk
standard methodology56 and realistic data of loss-of-
mains probability in European networks have shown
that under worst-case PV penetration scenarios (six
times the network minimum load), the additional risk
presented by unintentional islanding does not materi-
ally increase the risk that already exists, as long as it is
managed properly (which means, amongst others, that
appropriate anti-islanding schemes are included in the
inverters).55 A similar conclusion has been obtained
from the analysis of measurements carried out in a
typical Dutch residential network.57
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
E. CAAMAÑO-MARTÍN ET AL.
The influence of the PV penetration level and
probability of balanced generation-load conditions has
been more recently analysed, based on measurements
of a large distributed PV generator (100 kWp)
connected to a network representative of a suburban
network in central Europe.54 It was found that if the
ratio between the PV generation and actual load is
below 05 the probability of long-lasting balanced
conditions (5 or more seconds) was at an insignificant
level approaching zero, with the maximum probability
occurring at penetration levels between 1 and 2. Also,
with the inverters operating at unity or lagging power
factor, it was found that balanced conditions did not
occur in the simulation. However, if inverters were
designed to provide reactive power for network
support, the probability would increase. The additional
loss-of-mains detection function already specified by
many countries in addition to voltage and frequency
monitoring was thus found appropriate. The report
concluded that with the current knowledge, the risks
associated with unintentional islanding can be kept at
acceptably low levels by inverter design, so that
islanding should not be considered a barrier or limiting
factor for the further development of PV-DG, even
under increased PV density scenarios.
Most countries have adopted their own
standards or recommendations for anti-islanding
measures.35,54,57,58 In some cases also a revision of
standards has been made to allow for new islanding
detection techniques and to improve the performance
of the protection in real grid conditions.59–61 Also, tele-
control for external disconnect is being increasingly
discussed, especially for the MV grid level.10,62,63
These requirements are now being harmonised as far as
possible in international standards.64,65 However, there
is still discrepancy not only concerning interconnec-
tion practices and protection systems, but also
regarding the probability of occurrence and persistence
of DG-supported islands.
Power and capacity values
The ‘power value’ of an electricity generation plant is
defined as the economic value of the power produced,
given the plant location (distance to the loads) and its
balance of production (match/mismatch conditions
with the load trend).7 The power value of PV-DG
includes the reduction of electricity generation and
transportation costs and, in some cases, the peak
production in given periods (peak hours), although
most of these aspects are not properly recognised in
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PV-DG AND ELECTRICITY NETWORKS INTERACTION
current electricity markets. Traditionally, due to the
inherently uncontrollable characteristics of the solar
resource, network operators have hesitated to rely on
PV as a firm peaking capacity technology. In this
respect, a critical test is to look at PVoutput availability
during instances of major grid stress and supply
shortfall events caused by high, localised demand and
the inability of the grid operators to deliver local power
through heavily loaded power lines and substations.
Particularly important are the summer-peak ‘heat
wave’ driven events which represent the highest
possible stress on the grid.66 Simulations of the
availability of PV output during major ‘rolling’
blackout or near-blackout events in the United States
in the summers of 1999, 2000 and 2003 show that in all
cases, PV output at the time of the outage would have
been within 60–80% of its maximum.67,68
Another concept of interest is the ‘effective load-
carrying capacity’ (ELCC), a direct probabilistic
measure reflecting the ability of a power generator
to effectively contribute to meet existing loads.69 The
ELCC for a PV system therefore represents its ability
to provide power to the network when it is needed, i.e.
its capacity value.70 Analysis of load data of the late
80s and early 90s from all over the United States (over
200 load years) has shown that for a 2% penetration of
PV-DG into the networks, the ELCC would peak at 60–
70% in the best regions (those showing the highest
generation–load match).67 In a more recent study
carried out with USA-wide load data (2002–2003) and
simulated PV-DG generation based on hourly irra-
diances from high-resolution satellite observations, the
national average ELCC for south-oriented and
optimal-tilted PV systems was between 35 and 55%
for different PV penetration scenarios (2–20%), with
the best locations showing higher values (10%
increase).71The capacity value of PV-DG can be
greatly improved when complemented by:
– The availability of backup energy to compensate for
any deficit of PV to meet loads above a given
threshold. Analysis of several years of load data
from the city of New York shows that for a 5%
penetration of PV-DG it would take less than one
system-hour worth of storage for fixed PV systems
to guarantee that all loads above 95% of the peak
were met.67 As a comparison, it would take six times
the amount of stored backup energy to meet the
same loads in the absence of PV. Nowadays, com-
mercial solutions exist for PV systems to operate as
backup generators in the case of blackouts,72 and
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
635
technical qualification processes to allow their oper-
ation in parallel with distribution networks are
underway in countries like Germany.
– Demand Side Management, e.g. mitigation of air
conditioning use by means of a Solar Load Con-
troller; a PV-smart thermostat that logically modifies
user-set temperatures depending on the load and
irradiation conditions.73,74 Designed primarily to
maximise user-sited PV demand reduction, its use
could be particularly useful to control local building
loads in response to a wider effective capacity
context (e.g. a substation or a regional load and a
dispersed set of PV-DG). Results of the New York
study mentioned above assuming a 10% penetration
of PV-DG indicate that it would have taken only
45 degree hours of user discomfort on the worst
day to meet all loads above 90% of the city’s peak
(to be compared with 19 degree-hours to meet the
same load reduction without PV). Another example
of Demand Side Management combined with PV-
DG has been shown in a German urban settlement
with a few dispersed PV grid-connected systems
(total, 32 kWp).75 During one month, local custo-
mers were requested to use certain home appliances
(washing machines, dryers, dishwashers) around
noon at days of high solar irradiation: the exper-
iment showed a clear reduction in peak load
demands in morning and evening hours.
Added value capabilities of modern inverters
Besides the traditional active power feed required by
many codes and standards applicable to PV-DG,
modern inverters can perform new functions that bring
additional benefits to distribution networks such as:
– Active power quality improvement, when the inver-
ter operates as an active filter reducing grid voltage
harmonics.39–41,76–78
– Power factor regulation, reactive power control and
phase symmetry control. When an inverter is
equipped with energy storage (even relatively small,
such as a capacitor) and with an adequate control
system, in addition to delivering active power the
device can produce or absorb reactive power, thus
compensating for lack or excess of reactive power in
the grid and contributing to voltage control. Also,
when grid voltage levels become critically high,
reactive power control may be an option to continue
delivering active power while avoiding further
increase of line voltage.40,76–80 In addition, three-
phase inverters can also improve equalization of the
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636
grid voltages by deliberately feeding unbalanced
phase currents.40,77
– Grid stabilisation and operational islanding. As PV-
DG penetration increases, it will be desirable for
solar electricity to keep being available in case of
grid deterioration or failure, rather than the PV
systems simply shutting off. Inverters equipped with
energy storage (which needs to have a capacity in
proportion to the energy requirements such as a
storage battery) can be actively controlled in such
a way that they can contribute to: (a) grid voltage,
frequency and power quality stabilisation; (b) con-
trolled operational islanding (self-supporting power
system capable of reliably delivering power to loads
within acceptable voltage and frequency limits54);
and (c) continue operation of specific applications
such as water pumping (applied energy).
Up to now, islanding from DG technologies has been
mostly viewed as a safety threat to be avoided at all
cost (the so-called ‘unintentional islanding’). It has been
shown, however, that live islanding management of DG
(with PV being one of the technologies) is nowadays
technically feasible: ‘virtual islanding’ (i.e. balancing
of load and generation) has been experimentally
achieved in a German residential settlement.81
Market potentials definitely exist for these ancillary
services,82–86 especially in the industrial context, rural
areas and in countries with unreliable public grids
where frequent near-blackouts/blackouts would lead to
high system downtime of pure grid-connected PV
systems. However, to fully exploit these added values
of PV-DG, new regulatory approaches are necessary
for the economic assessment of these services (cost
models), as well as for optimal integration of DG techno-
logies into electricity distribution networks.16,87–92
IMPACTS OF DISTRIBUTION
NETWORKS ON PV DISTRIBUTED
GENERATION
In this section, immunity of PV grid-connected sys-
tems to relatively frequent network events is assessed.
Voltage dips and swells
Voltage dips (or sags) in electrical systems are defined
as sudden reductions of the voltage followed by a
voltage recovery after a short period of time.93 They
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
E. CAAMAÑO-MARTÍN ET AL.
are generally characterised by their magnitude and
duration (e.g. in European standard11 reduction is
between 10 and 99% of the nominal voltage, and
duration between 10 ms and 1 min).3 Basic causes of
these events are sudden and large increase in current
flow through the system impedances, which can have
two main origins: short-circuits and switching of large
loads (e.g. induction motor starting), the former
causing the severer effects. Voltage dips and short
interruptions are widely considered to be the most
serious power quality disturbances due to their effect
on sensitive processes (equipment failure), and they
are often accepted as an intrinsic feature of public
electricity supply systems.94 Voltage swells, on the
other hand, are temporary increases in the voltage
above a threshold (typically between 10 and 80% of the
nominal value, with durations from 10 ms to 1 min3).
They are usually related to electrical system fault
conditions (e.g. temporary voltage rise in unfaulted
phases during a single-phase-to-ground fault), but they
can also be caused by switching off large loads or
energising large capacitor banks. Voltage swells are
less common than voltage dips, especially for
grounded systems.
In addition to the internal effects that voltage dips
might have in DG, they might also cause network
disturbances through their effect on DG operation
(external effects).95 A special concern in this respect is
a sudden loss of generation, particularly in scenarios
with large DG penetration. For example, at trans-
mission levels, large wind parks may adversely affect
the stability of the network in the case of a sudden
disconnection due to a network disturbance.96 At
distribution levels DG installations are much smaller
but more widespread; therefore, a disturbance at the
transmission level might propagate over a wider part of
the territory and result in a loss of a substantial fraction
of DG production. This leads to the idea that as the
penetration of DG increases, the philosophy of
disconnecting ‘at first sign of trouble’ is no longer
appropriate.54 These concerns have recently resulted in
ride-through requirements for inverters in countries
like Germany,8 similar to those for wind turbines.
Simulations carried out within a large European
R&D project in a weak network scenario (an island
with strong seasonal load fluctuations and several DG
and storage technologies, PV amongst others) suggests
that, with inverters showing voltage disturbance ride-
through capabilities, operation of the power system can
be effected at lower costs (lower spinning reserve) and
without any safety risks.97 Experimental tests done on
Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2008; 16:629–643
DOI: 10.1002/pip
PV-DG AND ELECTRICITY NETWORKS INTERACTION
state-of-the-art single-phase inverters representative of
the European market revealed that most devices
appeared to be highly sensitive to voltage dips and
swells.98 It is important to emphasise that this
behaviour can have a negative effect on the inverters
performance, components lifetime (induced stress)
and, ultimately, the network.63 Implementation of the
mains monitoring and decoupling over-voltage protec-
tion are seen to be determinant in the inverters
sensitivity to voltage dips and swells, respectively.
Short-circuits in electrical installations
Short-circuits are events that may occur in electrical
installations with a relatively high probability.38 They
represent a severe stress situation for most electrical
equipment, particularly if the short-circuit is inter-
rupted by a branch fuse or circuit breaker. In that case,
equipment connected to the same branch first
experiences a deep voltage dip, followed immediately
by a transient over-voltage resulting from the inter-
ruption of the fault by the protective element. For
inverters used in DG systems3 this usually results in:
(a) large over-currents associated to the first voltage
dip, their impact depending on the inverter design and
current control strategy; and (b) stress on the output
circuit related to the fast voltage transient, which might
lead to inverter defects. The characteristics of transient
over-voltages depend on the network impedance, the
peak short-circuit current, the switch-off character-
istics of the protective element (fuses induce higher
over-voltages than thermal magnetic circuit breakers)
and capacities present in the network. The most
decisive factor with respect to these events is their
energy content, which is determined by the energy
stored in the inductive components of the grid: exten-
sive tests on fuses and circuit breakers under different
grid conditions have shown that transients can have
relatively high energy contents.38 Usually, inverters for
PV-DG are not tested against such transients.
Experimental tests carried out on European state-of-
the-art single-phase inverters exposed to voltage tran-
sients equivalent to those of quick fuses show that there
is scope for improvement in inverters’ protection
against short-circuits, particularly in the current con-
trol strategy and over-voltage protection.3 In general, it
was concluded that highly sophisticated protective
designs should not be necessary for DG components in
residential applications. However, in special cases and
especially under harsh operation environments, addi-
tional external protection might become necessary.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
637
Voltage harmonics and interharmonics
As discussed before, voltage disturbances are some of
the main steady-state power quality phenomena
present in public distribution networks. Whereas
voltage harmonics are mainly caused by nonlinear
loads present in the networks, interharmonics are
typically created whenever there is an amplitude
modulation of load current (e.g. transient changes in
operating conditions of loads) or where transformers
are subject to saturation.
Inverters are potentially sensitive to voltage har-
monics and interharmonics, particularly the current
control unit, power conversion stage and the grid inter-
face (trip of protections due to fluctuations of the grid
voltage and frequency). Tests done on European state-
of-the-art single-phase inverters operating at voltage
distortion levels typical of points of common coupl-
ing99 showed that devices with low current distortion
under normal conditions were only slightly influenced
by high levels of voltage distortion, although in some
cases specific harmonics induced over-currents that
caused unintended tripping of the inverters’ internal
over-current protection.3 Superposed interharmonics
at levels of the mains signalling used in many European
countries however created severe problems for many
inverters. These results show that the potential impact
and problems caused by superposed harmonic and
interharmonic voltages are usually not adequately
considered during the design process of inverters.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The accumulated experience with PV-DG shows that
PV technology has matured greatly over the last
decade. Nowadays, PV components (especially inver-
ters) with good efficiencies and reliability are com-
mercially available. However, standards and control
settings governing the operational control of PV-DG
are not uniform in the different countries, which
hinders fully profiting from the large power capacity
already installed (almost 35 GW in the European
Union by the end of 2006100). Also, relevance of some
findings has been found strongly dependent on the
network characteristics (typically low impedance,
underground cable networks for urban environments;
overhead lines with higher inductive impedance typi-
cally employed in less densely populated and rural
areas). For specific technical issues the most important
findings are discussed further below, including
Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2008; 16:629–643
DOI: 10.1002/pip
638
standardization and research & development needs
identified, which can positively contribute to the active of faults occurring at the end of lines with high
participation of PV technology in electricity distri-
bution networks:
– Voltage rise and voltage fluctuation. PV-DG causes
a voltage rise at the point of interconnection that
limits the level of power that is practical to connect, existing network protection.
but commercial solutions have already been devel- – Added value capabilities of modern inverters. Mod-
oped which prevent unacceptable over-voltages.
The few pieces of evidence reported in Europe
suggest that only inverters operating in weak net-
works or harsh environments need incorporate vol-
tage regulation functions in the future, which should
be covered by the corresponding standards. Voltage
fluctuations from changing PV operation conditions
(e.g. passing clouds) have essentially no impact on
the networks voltage because of the slow rate of
change and an averaging effect of PV systems output
over large geographical areas.
– Current harmonics and DC injection. Current har-
monics from inverters are not found to be a problem
if inverters comply with generic standards of the IEC
61 000 series. For larger inverters (above 16 A cur-
rent per phase) dedicated standards are not available
and should be developed in the near future, given the – Immunity of inverters to network events. Voltage
increasing use of large inverters in PV-DG. DC-
injection from PV systems has not been found to
have caused trouble for networks operation in the
short term.
– Unintentional islanding. The possible occurrence of
unintentional islanding in distribution networks with
PV-DG has been one of the major issues historically.
However, investigations have shown that with the
current technology and knowledge, unintentional
islanding should not be seen as a barrier or limiting
factor for the further development of DG. There is
still discrepancy concerning protection systems
required in the various European national grid codes
and standards, which slows the development of
consistent policies amongst network operators, or
consensus with their customers, developers and DG
operators, so further harmonisation is needed. For
small-scale PV-DG standardised integrated protec-
tion systems should be employed more widely,
which should be type tested to a common standard.
– Contribution to short-circuit capacity. In urban
areas employing underground cable networks, the
currents from PV systems are small compared to the
high short circuit current of the network; therefore,
no adverse effect on fault clearance is expected.
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
E. CAAMAÑO-MARTÍN ET AL.
Only under high penetration of PV-DG, in the case
impedance, currents from PV systems might hamper
fault detection and clearance. In the future, inverters
may be required to contribute to fault clearance by
delivering a short-term overload current (e.g. 300%
of rated current for ms), in coordination with the
ern inverters can nowadays perform additional func-
tions that—in coordination with the network
management—can improve the power quality of
the networks. Also, in combination with energy
storage more options are possible to contribute to
grid stabilisation, operational islanding and peak
shaving. In this respect, the combination of PV
grid-connected systems with Demand Side Manage-
ment opens new possibilities for electricity users to
become active consumers/generators who can pro-
vide benefits to distribution networks. However, to
fully exploit these options appropriate regulatory
frameworks need to be developed for the economic
assessment of these ancillary services. Also new
standards are needed that specify the minimum
technical requirements.
dips and swells have been shown to cause nuisance
tripping of protective functions in inverters. Con-
sidering the expanding installed PV capacity there is
a concern that this sensitivity will amplify grid
instability under overload conditions. It is expected
that with the growing penetration of PV-DG world-
wide, future inverter requirements will include some
‘fault-ride-through’ thresholds similar to those
applied to other DG technologies. For the impact
of short-circuits, experience shows that there are still
problems regarding the proper implementation of
this protection in commercial inverters, so that impro-
vements are recommended on the design (current
control) and selection of electronic components.
Regarding immunity to voltage harmonics and inter-
harmonics, state-of-the-art inverters appear relatively
insensitive to voltage harmonics, but sensitivity to
interharmonics is frequently high: in this respect,
adequate implementation of grid monitoring is a
critical issue to achieve a high level of robustness. It
is desirable that future standards for inverters
include immunity requirements to these network
events, which can negatively affect the operation
of PV systems in quantitative terms (useful output)
as well as qualitatively (power quality).
Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2008; 16:629–643
DOI: 10.1002/pip
PV-DG AND ELECTRICITY NETWORKS INTERACTION
– Research and development needs. Several develop-
ments for inverters are suggested: new voltage
control techniques for voltage control, robust con-
trol algorithms for current control (including short-
circuit current contribution) and robust standardised
islanding detection. Also important is further
research on issues related to multiple operation of
PV systems (including the effect on voltage rise
from the widespread interconnection of inverters on
different network types and current harmonics),
active integration of PV-DG in grid-forming and/or
grid-supporting modes of operation and Demand
Side Management combined with PV technology.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
As has been widely recognised, on our way towards
increasingly renewable and DG supplied electricity
systems our entire electricity infrastructures will have
to undergo important transformations. In the long run,
increasingly decentralised patterns of production and
consumption call for novel and decentralised appro-
aches to energy and power management in production,
transmission, storage and consumption of electricity.
PV-DG is nowadays the most important DG technol-
ogy using inverters and is increasingly being deployed
in electricity distribution grids worldwide. With the
aim of identifying existing technical barriers that
remain and solutions, as well as new opportunities that
arise in the context of future intelligent and renewable
supplied electricity networks, this paper has presented
an extensive revision of the state-of-the-art of the
mutual impacts between PV-DG and electricity net-
works, with a main focus on power quality and safety.
In general, it can be concluded that the technology
for grid connected PV systems has matured greatly
over the past few years, although there is still scope for
improvement, especially in relation to inverters
immunity to network effects. However, up to now
PV systems have largely been considered as individual
systems. It is important to broaden this view and also
regard the total capacity of DG on the European
networks. PV grid-connected systems can nowadays
offer solutions to improve grid supply quality and
provide grid services. In order to realise these
opportunities, future work needs to address technical
developments closely, with standards development, as
well as changes in regulatory frameworks, so that PV
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
639
technology becomes an active part of tomorrow’s
electricity networks.
Acknowledgements
This project was partially funded by European Com-
mission, Intelligent Energy Europe, contract number
EIE/05/171/SI2.420208.
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