CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Environmental quality in urban areas are getting worse by the minute. Green spaces are taken out to make way
for concrete structures. Without enough verdant areas, cities and towns will have a hard time alleviating the urban
heat island phenomenon and reducing air and noise pollution. A roof garden is essentially a garden on the rooftop of a
building, man-made green spaces on the topmost level of residential and commercial structures. Consisting of
different plants, these verdant areas help improve a building’s aesthetics. Roof vegetation is a concept that came out
of such a necessity. The green roof helps in reducing the energy demand caused by heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems in the building, thereby reducing energy and electricity consumption. Big commercial
spaces such as malls, sports complexes, and campuses fit their terraces with lush green vegetation to bring down the
heat and improve aesthetic appearance. The roof gardens in such large-scale commercial buildings are safe due to the
advanced protection techniques and high-quality materials used due to their high budget. However, these protection
techniques are not followed in the practice of simple roof gardens in common residential buildings. Moreover, people
practice residential roof gardens and prefer mostly plants for their own needs. The vegetation types range from purely
ornamental to edible crops. Vegetables such as tomatoes, peppers, chillies , okras, curry leaves, onion, and radishes
are commonly grown in residential concrete roof buildings. Generally, people grow sunflowers, roses, marigolds,
tulip bulbs, hyacinths, petunias and hibiscus in India. Bonsai plants have also gained popularity as terrace garden
plants. In Seattle, certain urban-agriculture programs encourage people to grow their food in their households using
their yards and rooftops.

Huge efforts are taken to create sustainable green environments in buildings to attain platinum and super-
platinum category of certification levels. Highlighted limitations of the vegetated roof, such as problems of growing
species of plants from different parts of the world in an arid and hot climate, lack of demonstration examples, and lack
of research on its effects in the long run. There have also been concerns regarding the sustainable values of building a
green roof. Even though vegetated roofs act as passive cooling elements for buildings and enhance the appearance of
a city, materials required to make green roofs (such as low density polyethene) often are produced by energy-
intensive methods and contributed to air pollution. It takes years to balance this pollution with the air-purifying
capabilities of green roofs, by which time most materials would have to be replaced. This study emphasises the long-
term effects of conventional rooftop vegetation in common residential buildings using treated public water supply for
irrigation and its impact on concrete durability. Surface water is the only source for almost all the water treatment
plants in India. The conventional water treatment process involves coagulation and disinfection by adding alum
(aluminium sulphate) and chlorine (disinfectant), respectively. These processes leave a significant concentration of
chlorides and sulphates in treated water. In addition to distress by plant roots, the use of treated water for irrigation of
conventional roof gardens affects the durability of concrete in terms of corrosion and sulphate attack. The amount of
alum and chlorine used for coagulation and disinfection processes in various water treatment plants across India. It is
evident from Table 2 that significant concentrations of aluminium sulphate and chlorine are added to treat water.
Moreover, the usage of aluminium sulphate in the treatment plant in-creases multiple times during monsoon.
Depending upon the level of turbidity of the water, more dosage of aluminium sulphate is also added in water
treatment plants. In most residential buildings, groundwater is also used for watering plants.
 The chlorine concentration in groundwater is more than 1000 mg/l in Gujarat, Rajasthan and a few other parts
of the country. Hence, using groundwater for irrigation of rooftop gardens also increases the problems associated with
deteriorating the quality of the concrete used. Population growth and climate change have made India increasingly
water-stressed. Therefore, most irrigation activities are presently being carried out with treated water. For example, in
educational institutions, the hostel wastewater was collected, treated and reused for gardening and other processes.
Treated water has a high concentration of chlorides and sulphates from disinfectants and coagulants (alum-Al2SO4
and ferrous sulphates) used in the treatment process. Water with non-carbonated hardness also contains sulphates after
the softening processes. As the soil cover for the rooftop garden is 200 mm thick, and the amount of irrigation needed
is from 5 to 6 cm, the quantity of water required is significantly high. Hence, concrete beneath the roof garden comes
in continuous contact with water rich in sulphates and chlorides by using municipal treated water as well as
groundwater for irrigation. Another important concern is the presence of sulphates in the soil itself, as the soil is a rich
source of sulphate. Moreover, normal residential buildings are constructed using an ordinary concrete mix with a
characteristic compressive strength of 20–30 MPa, which may be highly permeable because of the high water/cement
(w/c) ratio. If the concrete is made with a low w/c ratio, a dense cementitious paste phase will be produced, which in
turn encourages discontinuity in the capillary pore system. However, a high w/c ratio results in continuous capillary
pores through which aggressive agents penetrate into the cement matrix. The presence of sulphate and chloride in the
treated municipal water thus influences the durability of the concrete roof by seeping into the pores of the concrete.
Moreover, the growth of plant roots induces micro-cracks in concrete, aiding the permeation of detrimental agents
from the water and soil to the concrete matrix.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter deals with the earlier studies associated with the rooftop vegetation and their the effect of water
supply on roof concrete. Literature also includes studies related to the durability of concrete and implementation of
different types of rooftop Gardening.

V. Jittin et al., (2022) : Rooftop vegetation is a popular choice among architects and builders at present
because of its aesthetical appeal and environmental benefits. It has consistently been regarded as a sustainable and
eco-friendly approach to the construction of buildings. Recently, people have adopted rooftop vegetation in their
homes, and it has become popular. The effect of vegetation on the concrete roof and its influence on various salient
aspects, specifically the durability of concrete, is discussed in this paper. The influence of chlorides and sulphates
present in the municipal treated water used for watering plants and shrubs on the durability of concrete is also
presented. Moreover, the chloride threshold value of the reinforcement is between 0.1% and 1.5%. The total charges
passed through concrete are also reduced to less than 1000 Columbus with the addition of agricultural by-products.

Mohsen Hassan Abdalla et al., (2022) : Conceptual rainfall-runoff models (CRRMs) can be used as a design
tool for green roofs due to their simplicity and acceptable accuracy. This study showed how the uncertainty of CRRM
parameters could be reduced by changing the calibration practice, which can enhance the interpretation and
identifiability of CRRM parameters. A CRRM was developed and tested on a dataset of 14 extensive green roofs
located in four Norwegian cities with different climatic conditions. Two calibration schemes were compared: a
common scheme using runoff data as a basis for calibration (single-objective), and a scheme combining runoff and
soil moisture data for the calibration (multi-objective scheme). The results confirmed the ability of the CRRM to
simulate runoff from extensive green roofs across multiple climatic zones and different roof configurations (Kling
Gupta Efficiency > 0.75). The multi-objective calibration scheme was found to reduce the uncertainty of the CRRM
parameters, especially the storage parameters, enhancing the physical interpretation of parameter values. The study
attempted to give guidelines to estimate parameters of the CRRM which can be used by practitioners for new roof
configurations under different climatic conditions.

Jamei et al.,(2021):The combined trends of urban heat island (UHI) intensification and global warming led to
an increased tendency towards on the greening of cities as a tool for UHI mitigation. Our study examines the range of
research approaches and findings regarding the role of green roofs in mitigating urban heat and enhancing human
comfort. This review provides an overview of 89 studies conducted in three main climate types (hot–humid,
temperate, and dry), from 2000 till 2020. All of the reviewed studies confirm the cooling effect of green roofs and its
contribution to reduced heat island intensity regardless of the background climatic condition. However, dry climate
has the highest (3 °C) median cooling effect of green roofs among all the climates investigated. Hot–humid climate
presents the lowest cooling potential (median = 1 °C) of green roofs among all the climate types. Moreover, green
roofs contribute a median surface temperature reduction of 30 °C in hot–humid cities. This value is relatively low for
temperate climates (28 °C). Notably, no study has examined the impact of green roofs on surface temperature
reduction in dry climates. This review can benefit urban planners and various stakeholders.
 Shakouri et al., (2020) :Significant research is being conducted to identify alternative sources of
supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) worldwide. With the shortage of fly ash, due to the shut-down of
several coal-fired power plants worldwide, there is an exigent need to identify sustainable SCMs that can replace fly
ash in the concrete industry. This study explores the feasibility of using the ash of corn cob, which is the byproduct of
one of the largest agricultural crops in the U.S., in concrete. Untreated corn cob ash (CCA) was prepared and used to
replace the cement in concrete at replacement levels of 3% and 20% by mass of cement. The results of this study
show that the untreated CCA significantly accelerated cement hydration, likely due to its high potassium oxide
content. The results of reactivity testing suggest that the untreated CCA is less reactive than fly ash and that it is
closer to an inert material. The concrete made with untreated CCA had significantly lower compressive strengths,
lower bulk resistivity, lower formation factor, and higher electrical charge passed than normal concrete and what
would typically be expected from the concrete with 3% and 20% replacements of inert materials. The results of this
study suggest that untreated CCA is not a promising pozzolanic material, and may even be somewhat harmful to the
concrete. A better option for the disposal of the large volumes of such materials could be for low-strength
applications, such as fill or blocks. Alternatively, considering the significant variation in corn species and farming
regimens, further research and ash treatment could help fine-tune the properties of this product for
structural applications.

Hossain et al., (2019) :Buildings are one of the biggest consumers of fossil fuels, and thus, contribute largely
to greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, a large number of studies have been conducted and innovative ideas or green
solutions have been invented, adopted, and implemented across the globe. These solutions are often contextual and
heavily dependent on local environmental and socio-economic factors. Green roofs are such an example. Green roofs
(both intensive and extensive) for buildings have been successfully adopted in many countries around the world.
Bangladesh, a developing country that can benefit from green roofs, seems to remain in complete darkness regarding
its potential. The objective of this study is to identify the reasons why green roofs have not been widely implemented
in Bangladesh, especially in the capital Dhaka, even though, theoretically, the climatic conditions of this country
favor this technology. This study focuses on the perception of the construction industry to comprehend the possible
obstacles they are facing towards using green roofs in their designs. A questionnaire study was conducted among
architects, engineers, construction managers, contractors, and owners who are at different levels of experience in their
respective fields. The results indicate a gap in knowledge and misconceptions, which are major hindrances to the
implementation of green roofs.

Liu et al., (2019) :Green roofs are emerging as practical strategies to retain stormwater runoff and improve water
environment quality of urban cities. However, the impacts of green roofs on stormwater runoff quality remains a topic
of concern to urban planners and mangers. In this study, we designed the scale based runoff plots of extensive green
roofs with different substrate and vegetation types, and investigate whether the studied green roofs act as a sink or
source of nutrients and suspended solids in their runoff compared to a conventional roof. The influences of substrate
and vegetation on the water quality of green roof outflows were also assessed. The results showed that the average
TSS (total suspended solids), TN (total nitrogen), and TP (total phosphorus) concentrations of the green roof runoff
were all significantly higher than that of the conventional roof runoff. Except substrate S3 (the composition ratio of
rural soil :peat soil: perlite: vermiculite was 2.5:5:2:0.5) and S1 (the composition ratio of rural soil: peat soil was 1:1)
in TP, the substrate S2 (the composition ratio of rural soil: peat soil: pine needle: perlite was 1:1:1:1) displayed
significantly higher TN and TP concentrations than either of the runoff from the substrate S1 and S3. The TN and TP
concentrations of 5 cm substrate depth were significantly lower than that in the 15 cm substrate depth treatments.
Significant differences were observed in TN concentrations between vegetation Sedum Spectabile and Radix
Ophiopogonis. However, no significant differences were observed between any of the vegetation types with regard to
TP concentrations. Therefore, we suggest that green roofs need to be constructed of suitable substrate materials and
plants based on their function on runoff water quality in order to mitigate the pollution risk of green roof runoff on
urban water environment.

V. Kannan (2018) :In this study, the effects of ternary system on corrosion behaviour of self compacting
concrete containing self combusted rice husk ash (SCRHA) and metakaolin (MK) were studied. For that different mix
proportions were prepared by replacing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with SCRHA and MK. The OPC was
replaced from 0% to 30% by SCRHA or MK as a binary system, whereas from 0% to 40% by SCRHA and MK as
ternary system. In order to assess the properties of blended self compacting concrete (SCC), various tests were
conducted for fresh state properties (Slump flow test, V-funnel test and L-box test), Strength properties (Compressive
strength and splitting tensile strength) and durability properties (Rapid chloride penetration test and potential time
study for steel corrosion). From the test results, 15%SCRHA, 10%MK and 10%SCRHA + 10%MK blended SCC
showed good performance against all fresh, strength and durability properties. The test results also indicated that OPC
properties can be effectively modified by the ternary system of SCRHA and MK and enhance various SCC properties.

Ramezanianpour et al., (2017) :Chloride and sulfate ions damage the reinforced concrete in marine
environment due to the corrosion and formation of expansive products, respectively. Interaction of chloride-sulfate
ions on concrete deterioration is very complicated. Little research has been conducted in this respect. In this study, the
effect of chloride ions on sulfate attack and effect of sulfate ions on chloride attack were reviewed. According to the
results, contradictory reports were observed in studies. However, most of there searchers believed that chloride ions
mitigate the sulfate attack in combined chloride- sulfate solutions. On the other hand, regarding the influence of
sulfate ions on chloride attack, some of the researchers reported the mitigating effect, but others referred to the
accelerating effect. Tricalcium aluminate content, water to cement ratio (w/c), duration of submerging, corrosive ions
concentrations, cation type, type of pozzolan and its replacement are important parameters that could affect the
concrete performance against combined chloride-sulfate solution.

Joshaghani et al., (2016) :Utilization of various supplementary cementitious materials significantly influences
fresh and hardened properties of mortar. Sugarcane bagasse ash is a by-product from sugar industries and can be used
as supplementary cementitious material in concrete. In the present work an experimental research was carried out to
investigate the influence of residual sugarcane bagasse ashes in the mechanical properties of mortar and durability.
The aim of this study is to optimize the quality of sugarcane bagasse ash (BA) and to evaluate sulfate resistance of
mortars containing bagasse ash (BA). In this study, the optimum temperature and duration of burning were
determined. Then various experiments were carried out to get sulfate resistance of mortars containing 0, 10, 15, 20, 25
and 30% bagasse ash to examine durability. Tests included measuring concrete samples weight loss and compressive
strength loss for 6 months, and length change of mortar prisms in sulfate solution. Moreover, since exposure
conditions significantly affect the resistance of cements to sulfate attack, plain and blended cement mortar specimens
were stored in three different conditions of exposure to Na2So4 and MgSo4, separately and simultaneously. Results
show that mortar containing BA had higher compressive strength at various ages compared to control samples.

M. Arafa et al., (2015) :

 The purpose of the current study is to quantify the effect of ammonium nitrate attack on the mechanical and
physical properties of cement mortars. After 28 days of curing, the mortar specimens were immersed in ammonium
nitrate solutions with 5%, 20% and 50% concentrations. The specimens were then tested after 10, 20, 40 and 60 days.
The results showed that at 5% and 20% concentrations, the compressive strength loss of cement mortar after 60 days
of exposure was 23% and 43%, respectively.